GENERAL EMBRYOLOGY

ANA 213
 COURSE OUTLINE
• Introduction to embryology
• Gametogenesis
• Cyclic changes in female genital tract
• Fertilization
• Cleavage
• Blastocyst
• Gastrulation and formation of germ cells
• Segmentation of mesoderm
• Folding of embryo fetal membranes
• Umbilical cord and placentation
• Development of limbs and teratology
• Developmental anomalies and clinical syndromes
 Introduction to Embryology
• Human embryology is the science concerned with the origin and
development of a human being from a zygote to birth of an infant. This
field includes investigations of the molecular, cellular and structural
factors contributing to the formation of an organism.
• Cell division, cell migration, programmed cell death (apoptosis),
differentiation, growth and cell rearrangement transform the fertilized
oocyte (zygote) into a multicellular human being.
• Embyogenesis is the formation and development of an embryo. It is
characterized by the processes of cell division and cellular differentiation of
the embryo that occurs during the early stages of development (the first 8
weeks)
• Fetal period is the period from the point of embryo formation until birth. This
is a time when differentiation continues while the fetus grows and gains
weight.
• Teratology is the division of embryology and pathology that deals with
abnormal development (birth defects)
The Chromosome Theory of Inheritance
• Traits of a new individual are determined by specific genes on
chromosomes inherited from the father and the mother.
• Humans have approximately 23,000 genes on 46 chromosomes.
Genes on the same chromosomes tend to be inherited together and
so are known as linked genes.
• In somatic cells, chromosomes appear as 23 homologous pairs to
form the diploid number of 46
• There are 22 pairs of matching chromosomes, the autosomes, and
one pair of sex chromosomes.
Gametogenesis
• This is the biological process by which diploid or haploid precursor
cells undergo cell division and differentiation to form mature haploid
gamates. It is simply the production of sperm and eggs (oocytes). The
production and maturation of sperm is called spermatogenesis and
the production and maturation of eggs is called oogenesis.
• Primordial germ cells (PGC) is the primary undifferentiated stem cell
type that will differentiate towards gametes: spermatozoa or oocytes
• Development begins at fertilization.
• PGCs are formed in the epiblast during the second week, move through the
primitive streak during gastrulation, and migrate to the wall of the yolk sac.
• During the fourth week, these cells begin to migrate from the yolk sac
toward the developing gonads, where they arrive by the end of the fifth
week
• In preparation for fertilization, germ cells undergo gametogenesis and
cytodifferentiation to complete their maturation
• During gametogenesis, the chromosome number is reduced by half and this
reduction is by a process called meiosis
 Spermatogenesis
• This is the sequence of events by which spermatogonia (primordial germ
cells) are transformed into mature sperms; this maturation begins at
puberty and is regulated by testosterone signaling through androgen
receptors in the sertoli cells.
• Spermatogonia are dominant in the seminiferouse tubules of the testes
during the fetal and postnatal periods
• Spermatogonia are transformed into primary spermatocytes, each
undergoes the first meiotic division to form two haploid secondary
spermatocytes which are approximately half the size of primary
spermatocytes.
• The secondary spermatocytes undergo a second meiotic division to
form four haploid spermatids which are approximately half the size of
secondary spermatocytes.
• The spermatids are gradually transformed into four mature sperms
by a process known as spermiogenesis.
• The entire process takes approximately two months.
• When spermiogenesis is complete, the sperms enter the lumina of
the seminiferous tubules
• Sperms are transported passively from the seminiferous tubules to
the epididymis, where they are stored and become functional during
puberty.
• The epididymis is continuous with the ductus deferens which
transports the sperm to the urethra
• Mature sperms are free-swimming, actively motile cells consisting of
a head and a tail with a neck at its middle
• The major part of the head is covered by the acrosome containing
several enzymes. These enzymes facilitate dispersion of follicular cells
of the corona radiate and sperm penetration of the zona pellucida
during fertilization
Oogenesis (prenatal maturation of oocytes)
• This is the sequence of events by which oogonia (PGCs) are transformed
into mature oocytes. All oogonia develop into primary oocytes before birth;
no oogonia develop after birth. Oogenesis continues to menopause
• As oocytes form, connective tissue of cells surround them and form a single
layer of flattened, follicular cells. The primary oocyte enclosed by this layer
of cells constitutes a primordial follicle.
• As the primary oocyte enlarges during puberty, the ollicular epithelial cells
orms a primary ollicle
• The primary oocyte is then surrounded by material, zona pellucida
• Primary oocytes begin the first meiotic division before birth, but
completion of prophase does not occur until adolescence. The follicular
cells surrounding the primary oocytes secretes a substance, oocyte
maturation inhibitor, which keeps the meiotic process of the oocyte
arrested
Postnatal maturation of oocytes
• Beginning during puberty, usually one ovarian follicle matures each
month and ovulation (release of oocyte from the ovarian follicle)
occurs, except when hormonal contraceptives are used
• There are approximately 2 million primary oocytes in the ovaries o a
neonate, but most o them regress during childhood so that by
adolescence, no more than 40,000 primary oocytes remain. Of these,
only 400 become secondary oocytes and are expelled at ovulation
during the reproductive period. Very few of these oocytes, If any, are
fertilized.
Assignment
Describe the female reproductive system:
1. The uterus
2. The uterine tubes
3. The ovaries
Female Reproductive Cycle
• This commences at puberty (10 to 13 years of age), females undergo
reproductive cycles ( sexual cycles), involving activities of the hypothalamus
of the brain, pituitary gland, ovaries, uterus, uterine tubes, vagina and
mammary glands.
• A gonadotropin-releasing hormone is synthesized by neurosecretory cells in
the hypothalamus. This hormone is carried by a capillary network, the portal
hypophyseal circulation (hypophyseal portal system), to the anterior lobe of
the pituitary gland.
• This hormone stimulates the release of two hormones produced by this gland
that act on the ovaries:
• Follicle- stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulate the development of ovarian
follicles and estrogen by the follicular cells
• Luteinizing hormone (LH) triggers ovulation and stimulates the follicular cells
and corpus luteum to produce progesterone
Ovarian cycle
• FSH and LH produce cyclic changes in the ovaries (the ovarian cycle)
which encloses the development of follicles, ovulation and corpus
luteum formation. During each cycle. FSH promotes the growth of
several primordial follicles into 5 to 12 primary follicles; however,
only one primary follicle usually develops into a mature follicle and
ruptures through the surface of the ovary, expelling its oocyte.
Follicular development
• Development of an ovarian follicle is characterized by :
• Growth and differentiation of a primary oocyte
• Proliferation of follicular cella
• Formation of the zona pellucida
• Development of the theca folliculi

• The early development of ovarian follicles is induced by FSH, but the

final stages of maturation require LH as well. Growing follicles
produce estrogen, a hormone that regulates development and
function of reproductive organs.
Assignment
• Ovulation
• Menstrual cycle
Fertilization
• About 200 to 600million sperms are released but freshly ejaculated sperms
are unable to fertilize an oocyte until it undergoes a period of conditioning
or capacitation for about 7 hours in the uterus or uterine tube. During this
period, a glycoprotein coat and seminal proteins are removed from the
surface of the sperm acrosome. Capacitated sperm are more active.
• During IVF incubating the sperm is used to capacitate it.
• Acrosome of the capacitated sperm binds to a glycoprotein (ZP3) on the
zona pellucida and acrosome reaction takes place to cause openings and
penetration into the oocyte for fertilization.
• Capacitation and acrosome reaction are regulated by a tyrosine kinase, src
kinase
• Note: sperm count for 10% of the semen released during ejaculation.
The remainder are secretions from seminal, postrate and
bulbourethral glands. There are usually more than 100million sperms
per milliliter of semen in ejaculation of normal males. But 20 to
50million can still be considered.
• Abnormal is fewer than 10million. For fertility clearance 50% of these
sperm should be motile after 2hours and at least there should be
some motile after 24hours.
• Male infertility may result from:
• Low sperm count
• Poor sperm motility etc
Vasectomy (surgical removal of all or part of the ductus deferens)
Dispermy and triploidy
Phases of fertilization
• The fertilization process takes about 24hours and it occurs majorly at
the ampulla of the uterine tube.
• Phase 1: passage of a sperm through the corona radiate
• 2: penetration of the zona pellucida
• 3:fusion of cell membranes of the oocyte and sperm
• 4: completion of the second meiotic division of the oocyte and
formation of the female pronucleus
• 5: formation of the male pronucleus.
Cleavage of Zygote
• Fertilization initiates cleavage of zygote which consists of repeated
mitotic divisions of the zygote resulting in a rapid increase in the
number of cells (blastomeres). Cleavage occurs as the zygote passes
along the uterine tube towards the uterus. This occurs approximately
30hours after fertilization.
Blastocyst Formation
• Shortly after the morula enters the uterus (approximately 4 days after
fertilization), a fluid-filled space , the blastocystic cavity, appears
inside the morula. As the fluid inceases in the cavity, it seperates the
blastomeres into two parts:
• A thin outer layer, the trophoblast, which gives rise to the placenta
• A group of centrally located blastomeres, the embryoblast, which give
rise to the embryo.
During this stage of development, the embryo and its membranes is
called a blastocyst.
• The embryoblast projects into the blastocystic cavity and the trophoblast
forms the wall of the blastocyst.
• Two days after the blastocyst existence, the zona pellucida gradually
degenerates and disappears. This Shedding causes the blastocyst to
increase rapidly in size while the embryo receives nourishment from the
uterine glands.
• Approximately 6 days after fertilization , the blastocyst attaches to the
endometrial epithelium, usually adjacent to the embryonic pole. As soon as
It attaches to the endometrial epithelium, the trophoblast proliferates
rapidly and differentiates into two layers:
• An inner layer of cytotrophoblast
• An outer layer of syncytiotrophoblast
Concurently, a cuboidal layer of hypoblast forms on the deep surface of the
embryoblast.
By the end of the first week, the blastocyst is superficially implanted in the
endometrium
• Implantation of the blastocyst is completed during the second week.
It occurs during a period of 6 to 10 days after ovulation and
fertilization.