CEAS Space Journal

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12567-021-00420-1

ORIGINAL PAPER

Development of metallic transition joints for space propulsion systems

applications
E. Carrolo1 · N. Fernandes1 · J. Trigueiro2 · F. Lourenço2 · R. Salles2 · D. Pereira3 · A. Norman4

Received: 21 July 2021 / Revised: 9 December 2021 / Accepted: 20 December 2021

© CEAS 2022

Abstract
Two technologies, rotary friction welding and magnetic pulse welding/forming, have been developed to produce joints in
various metal–metal and metal–non-metal combinations. For the rotary friction welding process, the techniques have been
successfully developed to allow high-quality reliable joints for both titanium–stainless steel and titanium–aluminium com-
binations. The titanium–stainless steel configuration has reached a high level of maturity such that since the final qualifica-
tion was achieved, about 200 flight units have been manufactured and sold in the last 11 years, with a steady demand over
time. This includes ten configurations and two different families concerning length, wall thickness and outer diameter. For
the titanium–aluminium transition joint, development and qualification activities were successfully performed in three dif-
�� �� ��
ferent geometries: 1∕4 , 3∕8 , and 1∕2 . The testing campaigns were designed to seek the performance limits of the units and
this allowed an improved understanding and higher confidence level of the final product. For the challenge of obtaining a
reliable join between metals and non-metals, the production of aluminium to carbon fibre tube joints was achieved with the
MPW technology. From the obtained results, the friction-based model for the joint was confirmed, and it was also possible
to conclude that the discharge energy plays a critical role in the joint strength. It was also observed that to maintain the same
joint strength, the discharge energy needs to be increased when the flyer wall thickness and joint diameter are also increased.
Furthermore, the gap to the aluminium mandrel, corresponding to the admissible deformation possible to impose within the
elastic regime of these tubes, should not only be considered to avoid damaging the CFRP tubes with the impact/deformation,
but can also be used as a control parameter for the joint resistance, since it is this elastic deformation that in part determines
the contact force between the two materials. This technology proved to be a viable approach to performing 40 mm diameter
tubular joints between aluminium and CFRP tubes. However, for a full characterization of the effect of the discharge energy
on the joint strength, it is necessary to produce more samples to establish a trend, as well as confirming its reproducibility.

Keywords Transition joint · Rotational friction welding · Magnetic pulse welding · Dissimilar materials

1 Introduction

In space propulsion systems, ducts and piping, as well as

flow control components, are often made of titanium alloys
* E. Carrolo due to their excellent specific mechanical properties and
edgar.carrolo@omnidea-rtg.de
material compatibility [1]. ASTM grade 5 (Ti6Al4V) is
1
Omnidea-RTG​, Handelshof 26, 28816 Stuhr, Germany generally the choice for milled products, and ASTM grade
2
Omnidea Lda, Polypark-Núcleo Empresarial da Arruda dos 9 (Ti3Al2.5V) is used for the extruded seamless tubes. How-
Vinhos, Bloco A, Piso 0 Escritório 1, Estrada da Quinta de ever, due to specific requirements, some magnetic valves
Matos nº 4, 2630‑179 Arruda dos Vinhos, Portugal as well as monopropellant thrusters are only available in
3
UNIDEMI, Department of Mechanical and Industrial stainless steel (SS) bodies, thus requiring SS tube interfaces.
Engineering, NOVA School of Science and Technology, The alloys are usually 316 L or 304 L, if a higher molybde-
NOVA University Lisbon, Campus da Caparica, num content is less desirable, for example in a hydrazine-fed
2829‑516 Caparica, Portugal
system.
4
European Space Agency, Keplerlaan 1, Noordwijk,
Netherlands

13
Vol.:(0123456789)
 E. Carrolo et al.

To join titanium tubes to SS tubes, a number of techniques In addition, a new parallel investigation was also started,
have been considered by the industry. These include screwed which was aimed at producing larger diameter (greater than
connections, gluing/bonding, and welding. Although it is 1") dissimilar joints. For these larger joint dimensions, the
possible to produce a screwed connection between titanium use of RFW becomes prohibitively expensive due to the
and SS (e.g. a flared tube connection), the technique has size of machine that is required to produce the welded joint.
some issues concerning leak tightness, especially with the Therefore, the decision was taken to develop the MPW tech-
typical standard for space being 1 ⋅ 10−6 scc/s [2]. Fusion nology due to its very high suitability for tubular geometries
welding of alloy combinations such as titanium (grade 5 and/ (which meant it was still quite viable for tank ports and pro-
or 9) to stainless steel (SS) grades such as 316 L and 304 L pulsion systems) as well as very good process repeatability
is practically very difficult to accomplish, and the resultant and absence of need for inert shielding gas. Although the
weld often contains brittle intermetallic phases with poor initial target was a large metal–metal joint, the magnetic
mechanical strength [3]. To avoid the formation of the brit- pulse technology was also extended to join metal to non-
tle intermetallic phases which form on solidification of the metal joints using a forming process which results in a form
fusion zone, other techniques have been developed based of mechanical crimping. The objective of this development
on solid-state joining. These include friction stir welding was to produce AA7075-T7351 to CFRP (M55J fibre and
(FSW), linear friction welding (LFW), rotary friction weld- Hexion 862 epoxy resin) tube joints, 40 mm in diameter,
ing (RFW) and magnetic pulse welding (MPW). without the use of adhesives.
Another manufacturing area in which dissimilar material In this paper, the development phase of the three tech-
joining may be required is in the development of composite nologies, Ti–SS tube-to-tube joints, Ti–Al tube-to-tube
overwrapped pressure vessels (COPV). During the COPV joints and Al–CFRP formed joints, are described in detail.
manufacturing of tanks, the structural function of the tank Further information is also provided on the qualification of
is assured by the composite overlay, leaving the inner tita- the Ti–SS and Ti–Al joints manufactured using RFW.
nium metal liner with the sole function of shaping the tank
and ensuring leak tightness. This allows the possibility of
replacing the titanium liner with other materials including 2 Rotary friction welding
aluminium, thus resulting in a significant weight reduction.
Common alloys include AA6061/82 [4] and AA2219 [5], RFW is a solid-state welding process used to couple cylin-
as they are readily weldable and have reasonable mechani- drical material rods, in which heat is produced by the relative
cal properties. Furthermore, any aluminium liner will burn motion of the two interfaces being joined. This method relies
up or “ablate” on uncontrolled atmospheric re-entry, which on the direct conversion of mechanical energy into thermal
will be in conformance with the ESA directive on Design for energy via surface friction to form a coupling without any
Demise [6]. However, it is likely that any aluminium liner additional sources of heat and without a recognizable heat-
will still need to be interfaced with the titanium pipework or affected zone (HAZ). Since the process is performed in
tubing. Given that the difference in melting point between the solid state, it involves no melting of the materials (no
titanium and aluminium is almost 1000 °C, the only practical fusion zone). Figure 1 shows schematically the steps of a
joining solution is again solid-state welding. typical rotational friction weld in which one material rod is
To address these issues, Omnidea started the development held fixed while the counterpart is being rotated. The work
of the solid-state joining technique RFW with its industrial pieces are then brought together under an axial force. The
partner, IWS. The initial programme focused on the develop- rotation speed, the pressure force, and the welding time are
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ment of a 1∕4 Ti–SS tube-to-tube joint, thus providing the the main parameters that influence heat generation and thus
market with a safe and easy interface technology between the weld quality. Finally, the rotation is either rapidly or
components and tubing. Following the successful flight of gradually stopped, and the axial force increased during the
Hispasat-36W-1, the RFW technology has now reached a forging phase. In this final phase, atomic diffusion occurs at
technology readiness level (TRL) of 9 for the Ti–SS tran- the interface, allowing a metallurgical bond to form between
sition joint. Since that first flight, Omnidea-RTG has now the two materials.
delivered a total of over 200 units (up to 300 if destructive From a qualitative perspective, the RFW process is well
testing units are included) until the first quarter of 2021, understood through empirical studies. The process is highly
distributed over 10 configurations. The RFW technology was repeatable if the following parameters are defined, imple-
then further extended to develop Al Ti tube-to-tube joints, mented, and for some controlled during the process:
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again with an initial dimension of 1∕4 . For this weld com-
bination, a TRL of 8 has been achieved and the number of • relative velocity (rotational speed);
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interface dimensions has been increased to include 3∕8 , and • applied pressure (welding force and forging force);
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1∕ , joints. • welding time and forging time;
2

13
Development of metallic transition joints for space propulsion systems applications

Fig. 1  Fundamental steps in the RFW process

• surface temperature (consequence of pressure and time); widely different melting points. However, there are some
• bulk material properties; common problems that need to be addressed when welding
• surface condition and presence of surface films, coatings dissimilar materials with RFW. These factors include joint
or oxide layers. interfaces, low melting phases, brittle phases, and differ-
ent thermal expansion coefficients (CTE). Some dissimilar
The rotational speed, the applied pressure, and the dura- metal combinations are more sensitive to surface prepara-
tion of the force are the three variables that are controlled tion, for a variety of reasons. In the case of stainless steels
and play an important role during the welding process, as to aluminium alloys, the oxide surface that forms on the
depicted in Fig. 2. The surface temperature is the critical aluminium can pick up contaminants such as water and
parameter for ensuring good welds and is dependent on the hydrocarbons, which, combined with stainless steels, can
processing conditions and the properties of the materials create extremely brittle surface layers. Also, surface-treated
being joined. The RFW technique is used in many dissimilar interfaces frequently cause problems as is the case of tita-
metal joints because there is no alternative fusion welding nium alloys that have been nitrided, due to its inherent low
technique that can be used, especially in combinations with friction coefficient.

Fig. 2  Generic plot of friction

speed, axial force, and upset
length vs time, relative to the
three phases of the RFW pro-
cess [15]

13
 E. Carrolo et al.

For fusion welding, other combinations of materials can 2.1 Titanium–stainless steel development
result in the formation of very low melting point phases at
the weld interface at liquid states. The appearance of such 2.1.1 Parameter development
phases during the welding process can have a negative effect
on the quality of the welded joint in terms of strength and In the original development phase, an iterative technique
ductility [7]. Thus, great care must be exercised during was used to develop the weld parameters. The parameters
parameter development to prevent the formation of liquid (rotational speed, axial pressure, welding time and trans-
phases. Brittle phase formation is also a cause of low-quality lation distance) were initially tuned to identify a work-
results. Brittle phases can be created due to surface contami- ing processing window in which sound welds were pro-
nants that embrittle the weld interface, or from the formation duced. Tensile testing was used as the standard method to
of intermetallic phases between the normal constituents of evaluate weld quality, followed by micro-sectioning and
the alloys being welded. In material combinations where metallographic analysis. By systematically varying the
brittle phases can be created, the amount of such can be parameters, the tensile strength of the weld was increased
reduced by proper weld procedure development. Finally, until an ultimate weld strength of around 775 MPa was
the different thermal expansions between dissimilar metals repeatedly achieved [13]. Once the evolution of the weld
must be considered, since some combinations may fail or be strength reached a plateau, the subsequent welding trials
highly stressed during cooling. The designer must consider were inspected via metallographic analysis to fine-tune
the large stresses developed within the fabricated structure the last aspects of the welding procedure (Fig. 3). A final
if the welds are constrained when exposed to large tempera- optimization of the welding parameters was necessary to
ture changes. In regard to aluminium to titanium joining, achieve a smooth transition zone without gaps or oxides
special care must be taken at the formation of intermetallic [14]. At this stage the welding procedure was frozen, doc-
compounds, which are usually brittle in nature, and once umented, and submitted to qualification.
formed at the weld interface, may lead to premature welding Based on the discussions with potential customers and
failure [8]. It is known that ­TiAl3 is the only compound in Omnidea-RTG’s own experience in space propulsion
equilibrium that can be formed below the melting point of activities, it was decided that the transition joint design to
aluminium (555 ºC) [9–11]. be qualified under this activity should be compatible with
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Although there are a number of issues that need to be both titanium and stainless steel tubing of 1∕4 diameter.
addressed, the advantages of the technique compared to The final product would be a tube made both of titanium
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fusion welding are numerous. For example, no special atten- (Ti6Al4V) and stainless steel (304 L) with 1∕4 diameter,
tion to the cleanliness of the joining surface is necessary, 0.7 mm wall thickness and approximately 100 mm length.
since friction welding disrupts and removes any surface It must be stressed that the length is not a strictly limit-
films. No defects associated with melting and solidification ing factor, as this could be adjusted without the need to
phenomena are present [12]. Dissimilar materials and even re-qualify the welded joint. A typical joint in the welded
exotic combinations do not pose greater problems. Finally, it condition is shown in Fig. 4a. At the end of the welding
should be stressed that friction welding is a very cost-effec- process, a final machining step is performed to remove
tive technique, made possible by short weld cycles, simple the excess material and to machine the interior shape. An
part design, and low-energy needs. example is shown in Fig. 4b.

Fig. 3  Metallographic section

of a titanium–stainless steel
transition joint

13
Development of metallic transition joints for space propulsion systems applications

Fig. 4  a Example of a titanium–

stainless steel joint in the as
welded configuration, and b
after machining to the final
shape

2.1.2 Machining issues 2.1.3 Qualification and flight heritage

After the bulge was cut away and the outer diameter turned A qualification of the titanium–stainless steel joint was suc-
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to 1∕4 , some issues were encountered with the subsequent cessfully performed using the geometry shown in Fig. 5. The
machining. To establish the correct inner diameter, a first requirements are shown in Table 1 together with the levels
attempt was made to bore through the joint from both sides attained. As can be seen from Table 1, all of the require-
to achieve a 0.7 mm wall thickness. From the initial trials, ments were met including thermal cycling, leak and burst
it was clear that the drill head should not stop exactly in the pressure testing, fatigue and metallographic analysis. Fol-
welding area. This would have led to potential edges in the lowing an NCR for the biomass mission, Airbus Defence
inner diameter positioned such that cracks in the welding and Space UK requested confirmation of the compatibility
area could be started. To avoid this, an initial attempt was of the transition joints with hydrazine. The material’s com-
made to machine one side with a longer length compared to patibility had been known since the Apollo programme (i.e.
the opposite side. However, this attempt proved to be unsuc- for at least 50 years); hence, this additional compatibility
cessful, as the change of material properties from stainless confirmation was primarily a confirmation that the manufac-
steel to titanium had a significant influence in the drill’s turing and inspection flow did not introduce any operation
behaviour. leaving residue which is incompatible with hydrazine. In
To solve this problem, a different procedure was July 2020 confirmation was achieved, stating that not only
employed. Instead of drilling immediately with the final the materials but also the production methods employed are
inner dimensions, a smaller inner diameter was machined indeed compatible with hydrazine.
leaving several hundred microns excess material. The final Due to multiple customer requests, several derivations
inner diameter was then machined with a honing process and to the qualification configuration have now been designed,
its surface polished to Ra 0.8. This also has the advantage of produced and sold. These are divided into two main groups
being the final machining step, avoiding the use of electro- corresponding to the outer diameter of each side of the joint:
erosion techniques and the formation of copper residues Table 2 shows the configurations where identical diameters
which are incompatible with hydrazine. are used at either end of the tube (see Fig. 6a), whereas

Fig. 5  Interface control drawing

of the qualified titanium–stain-
less steel joint

13
 E. Carrolo et al.

Table 1  Requirements Test Level attained Requirements

and levels achieved for
the qualification of the ¼" Proof pressure 525 bar, 5 min No deformation @ 525 bar
titanium–stainless steel joint
Sinusoidal vibration No sign of damage 5–22 Hz
11 mm
22–100 Hz
20 g
Sweep rate 2 oct/min
Random vibration No sign of damage 20–100 Hz
+ 3 dB/oct
100–500 Hz
1.08 ­g2/Hz
500–2000 Hz
− 5 dB/oct
Test Duration 2 min
RMS 37 g
Thermal cycling + 90 to − 50 °C, 8 cycles No damage
Leakage < 2,4 × ­10–7 scc/s @ 200 bar, GHe < ­10–6 scc/s @ 200 bar, GHe
Tensile test (3 units) 693 MPa > 210 MPa
Burst pressure (3 units) 1400 bar, 5 min. Media: red oil No burst @ 875 bar
Microsection (3 units) No voids or oxides found No voids or oxides allowed
Fatigue (delta qualification) 35 N/mm2, 0.5 Hz No damage, no leakage
31.000 cycles—no damage, no leakage

Table 2  Available configurations for joints with identical diameters (see also Fig. 6a)
SS joint Transition zone thickness Ti joint Units sold
SS type Out ∅ Wall thickn. Thickn. (mm) Min. L to weld each side (mm) Ti type Out ∅ Wall thickn.
(mm) (mm)
1
AISI 316 /4ʺ 0.89 0.89 20 Ti6Al4V ¼ʺ 0.89 10
0.89 0.89 0.71 20
0.89 0.89 0.41 38
0.89 0.71 0.41 10
0.71 0.71 0.71 Qual
0.71 0.71 0.41 20
0.41 0.71 0.41 40

Fig. 6  a Configuration where the diameters at both ends of the joint are identical, and b configuration where the diameter at the end of the joint
are different

13
Development of metallic transition joints for space propulsion systems applications

Table 3  Available configurations for joints with dissimilar diameters (see also Fig. 6b)
SS joint Transition zone thickness Ti joint Units sold
SS type Out ∅ Wall Slope Thickn (mm) Min. L to weld each side (mm) Ti type Out ∅ Wall
thickn thickn
(mm) (mm)
1 1
AISI 316 /8ʺ 0.71 45º 0.71 20 Ti6Al4V /4ʺ 0.71 30
0.60 14º 0.71 0.41 30
0.71 18 0.71 0.71 10

Table 4  Process parameters used for the titanium–aluminium joint with a wall thickness of 1.5 mm (inner diameter = 3.35 mm).
development The final length of each tube-to-tube joint was 70 mm.
Parameter From To A number of welding trials were performed to identify
the optimum welding parameters, and the window in which
Rotational speed 6000 rpm 14,000 rpm high-quality defect-free welds could be produced. The devel-
Contact force 500 N 500 N opment was mostly concentrated on producing one joint at
Friction force 9.0 kN 18.0 kN
a time, by varying only one of the welding machine param-
Friction time 3000 ms (maximum)
eters from Table 4. Each sample joint was then sectioned,
Forging force 13.0 kN 30.0 kN
polished and metallographically examined to assess the
Forging time 250 ms 2500 ms
performance of the last set of parameters in terms of weld
alignment and interface quality. A new set of parameters was
then chosen iteratively with respect to the last one and subse-
Table 3 shows the configurations where different diameters quently tested. From time to time, when significant progress
are used (see Fig. 6b). was made, a tensile strength test was also performed, where
the ultimate stress and elongation at break were assessed.
The aim was always to reduce the production of oxides in
2.2 Titanium–aluminium development the welding area, as well as augmenting the loads that the
samples were able to sustain before rupture. Both of these
2.2.1 Parameter development aspects gave an insight into the actual quality of the sam-
ple. Prior to welding, the ends of the rods were shaped to
To identify the best material combination, a trade-off was per- improve the joint integrity. Some examples of the first weld-
formed to evaluate different candidates for the aluminium and ing trials are shown in Fig. 7. One key observation from
titanium alloys, taking into consideration how their characteris- the initial welding trials was a misalignment in the welded
tics would potentially facilitate the cold-welding process, as well joint. As this occurred in all samples, it was concluded that
as the suitability of these materials to meet the requirements of although the chosen welding parameters had a certain influ-
the intended application. The materials selected for the tube- ence on the amount of misalignment, the root cause had to
to-tube joints were AA6082-T651 12 mm diameter rods and be structural. Analysis of the machine revealed that during
Ti-6Al-4V 8 mm diameter rods. After welding, the outer diam- welding, the region below the welding area bent slightly
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eter of each tube-to-tube joint was machined to 6.35 mm (1∕4 ) under the high forces of the friction and forging phases of

Fig. 7  Examples of titanium–

aluminium welded coupons

13
 E. Carrolo et al.

Fig. 8  a Failure mode of the full

rod, b and after machining to
the final profile

Fig. 9  Micrographs of a
sectioned titanium–aluminium
transition joint

the welding process. The machine was therefore stiffened by

adding a structural frame which allowed the counter forces
to be equally distributed in the machine, thus maintaining
the alignment of the welded coupons, even under the large
forging force.
Once the optimum process parameters were determined,
a number of coupons were welded to evaluate the tensile
strength and failure location. The typical tensile strength of
the unwelded AA6082 alloy in the T651 condition is around
350 MPa, which is much lower than the tensile strength of
Ti-6Al-4V, which is usually at least 900 MPa. When the
materials are joined through RFW, and machined to form a
tube with 1.5 mm wall thickness, the tensile test results are
typically 320 MPa which is about 91% of the strength of
the unwelded aluminium. Furthermore, the rupture of the Fig. 10  Hardness profile across one of the welded joints. (Red) Tita-
transition joints consistently occurs in the base material of nium, (blue) aluminium
the aluminium alloy and not in the transition zone, with quite
comparable elongations before rupture (in the vicinity of (~ 80 Hv) which increased to around 110 Hv approximately
15.6% with variance of 2%). This is irrespective if the joint 1 mm from the interface.
is a solid rod (Fig. 8a) or a machined tube (Fig. 8b). For
those joints which were subjected to micro-sectioning, no 2.2.2 Qualification of the 1/4" titanium–aluminium joint
abnormalities were observed in the welding zones, which
were completely closed and free of oxides and gaps (Fig. 9). At the end of the parameter study, the process parameters
Hardness profiles taken along both the aluminium and tita- were frozen and an additional 12 welds were made for the
nium sides of the welded joint (Fig. 10) revealed that for qualification programme. The qualification approach is sum-
the titanium side, the hardness was unaffected, whereas for marized in Fig. 11. Each tube-to-tube joint was subjected to
the aluminium side, the lowest hardness was at the interface a rigorous testing campaign consisting of visual inspection,

13
Development of metallic transition joints for space propulsion systems applications

pressure testing, dye penetrant inspection, leakage testing, been expanded to include additional sizes. Development and
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thermal cycling and vibration testing. Three of the welded qualification activities have been performed for both 1∕2 and
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joints were then subjected to mechanical testing, three 3∕ titanium–aluminium joints using the same material com-
8
welded joints were subjected to burst, and three were sub- binations of AA6082 and Ti-6Al-4V. The requirements and
jected to micro-sectioning and metallographic inspection. levels attained for both tube diameters are shown in Tables 6
The requirements are shown in Table 5 together with the and 7, respectively. In both cases excellent quality joints
levels attained during testing. All of the welds successfully were produced which resulted in a successful qualification
passed the testing programme, and this development activity campaign.
has clearly demonstrated the feasibility of manufacturing
titanium–aluminium transition joints using RFW.
3 Magnetic pulse welding/forming
2.3 Additional qualification activities
Magnetic pulse welding (MPW) is a technology in which
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Following the successful development of the 1∕4 tita- two materials are joined through a cold joining method,
nium–aluminium transition joint, the portfolio of joints has i.e. no melting or solidification occurs. This technique is

Fig. 11  Flowchart showing the qualification approach for the ¼ʺ titanium–aluminium joint

Table 5  Requirements Test Level attained Requirements

and levels achieved for
the qualification of the ¼ʺ Proof pressure 450 bar, 5 min No deformation at 450 bar
titanium–aluminium joint
Vibration Sinusoidal, random, sinusoidal search Resonance search, no damage
Thermal cyclying + 80 to − 50 °C, 8 cycles No damage
Leakage 200 bar, gHe Leak < ­10–6 scc/s @ 150 bar
Tensile test (3 units) > 291 Mpa > 260 MPa
Burst pressure (3 units) 1000 bar, 5 min. Media: red oil No burst at 750 bar
Microsection (3 units) Analysis No gaps or oxides
Dye penetrant MR 68 NF + MR 70 No findings

Table 6  Requirements Test Level attained Requirements

and levels achieved for
the qualification of the ½ʺ Proof pressure 450 bar, 5 min No deformation at 450 bar
titanium–aluminium joint
Vibration Sinusoidal, random, sinusoidal search Resonance search, no damage
Thermal cyclying + 80 to − 50 °C, 8 cycles No damage
Leakage 200 bar, gHe Leak < ­10–6 scc/s @ 150 bar
Tensile test (3 units) > 291 Mpa > 260 MPa
Burst pressure (3 units) 1000 bar, 5 min. Media: red oil No burst at 750 bar
Microsection (3 units) Analysis No gaps or oxides
Dye penetrant MR 68 NF + MR 70 No findings

13
 E. Carrolo et al.

Table 7  Requirements and levels achieved for the qualification of the Based on a previous study, where the process was applied for
3
/8ʺ titanium–aluminium joint joining aluminium to CFRP tubes with a diameter of 20 mm,
Test Level attained Requirements it was identified that a successful joint can only be achieved
with an internal stiff mandrel. This is shown schematically
Proof pressure No damage No deformation at 450 bar
in Fig. 12 and is used to prevent the collapse of the CFRP
@ 450 bar,
5 min tube at impact.
Leakage < ­10–6 scc/s Leak < ­10–6 scc/s The dimensioning the aluminium wall was performed
Tensile test (3 units) > 290 MPa > 260 MPa by calculating the contact pressure between the two mate-
Burst pressure (3 units) 1300 No burst @ 1000 bar rials, using the CFRP tube’s hoop resistance and its esti-
Microsection (3 units) OK No gaps or oxides mated radial deformation (≈ 0.25 mm). The thickness of the
Dye penetrant OK No findings aluminium was then calculated from its yield strength of
420 MPa. From the diagram shown in Fig. 13, the maximum
contact pressure on the aluminium walls is given by:
characterized by a strong magnetic pulse that imposes an
acceleration on a metallic surface of one of the materials
Pc = 2𝜎al Tal ∕Dc , (1)
against a second standing metallic material. When both com- where Pc is the contact pressure, 𝜎al is the aluminium yield
ponents are metals, the interlocking force is large enough to strength, Tal is the aluminium wall thickness, and Dc is the
induce localized micro-melting, resulting in a weld being contact diameter. The CFRP tubes were subjected to hoop
created, even though at a microscopic level, the interface compression tests, from which a pressure of 75 MPa was
structure of both materials is still clearly discernible. In estimated for a 0.25 mm radial deformation (estimated
a typical MPW application, several tens of kJ can be dis- maximum compression of the CFRP to fit the aluminium
charged in microseconds, leading to large instantaneous mandrel).
power delivered to the connection. When one of the materi- Additionally, from previous microscopy results, it was
als is a non-metal such as CFRP, the joint becomes purely established that the aluminium penetration on the epoxy
mechanical as no melting of the CFRP is possible. This tech-
nique is referred to as magnetic pulse forming (MPF) and
the connection between the two materials is classified as a
crimp. The MPF process can be tuned for specific materials
by adjustment of a number of processing parameters includ-
ing the discharge energy, stand-off distance, and impact
angle.

3.1 Aluminium–CFRP transition joints

The objective of this investigation was to produce 40 mm

diameter joints of aluminium alloy AA7075-T7351 to CFRP
tubes, without the use of adhesives. The CFRP tubes have an
Fig. 13  Schematic diagram showing the key parameters of the mag-
outer diameter of 40 mm and are produced with M55J fibre
netic pulse forming process. Dc is the contact diameter, Ac is the con-
and Hexion 862 epoxy resin. The aluminium fittings were tact area, Lc is the contract length, Aal is the aluminium resistant sec-
machined from a rod and have a wall thickness of 4 mm. tion, and Tal is the aluminium wall thickness

Fig. 12  Setup of the alu-

minium–CFRP transition joint
showing the position of the
mandrel

13
Development of metallic transition joints for space propulsion systems applications

matrix is limited and the mechanical locking is not signifi- Fc = Pc Ac = Pc 𝜋Dc Lc . (3)
cant for the joint’s resistance. Hence, the joint is purely fric-
tional, and its frictional force is governed by: To cope with the larger diameter parts, several upgrades
were made to the machine so that higher discharge energies
Ff = Cf Fc , (2) could be utilized. Eventually a stand-off distance of 1 mm
where Ff is the friction force, Cf is the friction coefficient, was identified as being the most efficient together with a
and Fc is the contact force, given by 6.7° impact angle. Using these settings, the influence of the
discharge energy on the joint strength was studied by pro-
ducing five samples with discharge energies ranging from 5
to 7 kJ. (Fig. 14).
The samples were tensile tested on an Instron 4206 tensile
testing machine, with a 150 kN load cell, and a crosshead
displacement speed of 5 mm/min. The sample assembly for
temperature-controlled tensile testing is shown in Fig. 15a
and each sample was connected to the testing system with
a steel piece shown in Fig. 15b, with an aluminium rod as
the cross bar to fix the samples. To first test and compare
the joint strength, three samples underwent tensile testing
at 90 °C and at room temperature, while two samples were
retained for later tests. For the first three samples which
were produced with a discharge energy of 5 kJ, the highest
recorded peak resistance was around 850 N. When the dis-
charge energy was increased to 6.5 kJ, the peak resistance
showed a marked increase to around 2.5 kN. By increasing
the discharge energy to 7 kJ, the peak resistance increased
significantly to around 7.5 kN (see Fig. 16). Although
Fig. 14  Aluminium–CFRP transition joint samples used for tensile there is a clear correlation between discharge energy and
testing joint strength, a future study is needed to investigate this

Fig. 15  a Setup of the tensile

testing machine, and b connec-
tion piece

13
 E. Carrolo et al.

Fig. 16  Plot of resistance force

as a function of discharge
energy for the aluminium–
CFRP joints

dependence in more detail, e.g. with a higher number of an improved understanding and higher confidence level of
specimens to establish a more reliable trend and confirm the the final product. It is worth mentioning that a commercial
reproducibility of the results. interest is foreseen for all three sizes of titanium–aluminium
transition joints, for example, for the propellant port from
the lower part of the VEGA AVUM tank and general devel-
4 Conclusions opments of the demisable aluminium tanks for satellites and
launchers. Qualification of a fourth geometry of 1/8", without
The rotary friction welding technology has been success- the need to perform a dedicated welding qualification, by
��
fully developed for both titanium–stainless steel and tita- machining 1∕4 welded rods to give them the final geometry
nium–aluminium joint combinations. The titanium–stain- is considered as an option for a future activity.
less steel configuration has reached a high level of maturity To close the loop of joining dissimilar metals, it is
such that since the final qualification was achieved, about Omnidea-RTG’s intention to develop stainless steel–alumin-
200 flight units have been manufactured and sold in the ium transition joints in the near future. This breakthrough
last 11 years, with a steady demand over time. Although would allow pressure vessels which are normally manufac-
changes have been introduced into the design (there are tured in aluminium, to be directly connected to other com-
now 10 configurations and 2 different families concerning ponents in stainless steel, without any constraints or the cost
length, wall thickness and outer diameter), the high level of intermediate transition joints (Al–Ti and Ti–SS). It will
of reliability of the product is assured, ensuring customer be necessary to qualify the joints in at least two qualifica-
satisfaction, as the data packages and the necessary destruc- tion sizes (¼ʺ and ½ʺ), providing a total of four additional
�� �� ��
tive and non-destructive testing thoroughly discussed and qualified geometries, 1∕8 manufactured from 1∕4 , and 3∕8
��
agreed between parties, aiming at the full compliance of all manufactured from 1∕2 .
customer’s product assurance requirements. For these rea- For the challenge of also joining reliable connections
sons, titanium–stainless steel transition joints are nowadays between metals and non-metals, the production of alumin-
considered to be a consolidated product in the market. ium to carbon fibre tubes joints was achieved with the MPW
For the titanium–aluminium transition joint, development technology. From the obtained results, the friction-based
and qualification activities were successfully performed model for the joint was confirmed, and it was also possible
�� �� ��
with three different geometries: 1∕4 , 3∕8 , and 1∕2 . The to conclude that the discharge energy plays a critical role
testing campaigns were designed to seek the performance in the joint strength. It was also observed that to maintain
limits of the units (e.g. vibration testing) and this allowed the same joint strength, the discharge energy needs to be

13
Development of metallic transition joints for space propulsion systems applications

increased when the flyer wall thickness and joint diameter 5. Seshagir, P.C., et al.: Improvement of mechanical properties of
are also increased. Furthermore, the gap to the aluminium aluminium–copper alloy (AA2219) GTA welds by Sc addition.
Sci. Technol. Weld. Join. 13(2), 146–158 (2008). https://​doi.​org/​
mandrel, corresponding to the admissible deformation pos- 10.​1179/​17432​9308X​283866
sible to impose within the elastic regime of these tubes, 6. Riley D., et al.: Design for Demise techniques to reduce re-entry
should not only be considered to avoid damaging the CFRP casualty risk. In: 66th International Astronautical Congress, Jeru-
tubes with the impact/deformation, but can also be used as salem, Israel, IAC-15, A6, 4, 5, x30058 (2015)
7. Elmer, J.W., Kautz, D.D.: Fundamentals of friction welding
a control parameter for the joint resistance, since it is this (1993). https://​doi.​org/​10.​31399/​asm.​hb.​v06.​a0001​349
elastic deformation that in part determines the contact force 8. Meisnar, M., et al.: Microstructural characterisation of rotary fric-
between the two materials. This technology proved to be tion welded AA6082 and Ti-&Al-4V dissimilar joints. Mater. Des.
a viable approach to performing 40 mm diameter tubular 132, 188–197 (2017). https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​matdes.​2017.​07.​
004
joints between aluminium and CFRP tubes. However, for a 9. van Loo, F.J., et al.: Diffusion in the titanium–aluminium system-I.
full characterization of the effect of the discharge energy on Interdiffusion between solid Al and Ti or Ti-Al alloys. Acta Met-
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to establish a trend, as well as confirming its reproducibility. 90220-4
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Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the effort (1997). https://​doi.​org/​10.​1023/A:​10185​09026​596
put by IWS on the development and tuning of RFW technology over 11. Mostafa, M.: On the kinetics of ­TiAl3 intermetallic layer formation
the different transition joint configurations and materials. The authors in the titanium and aluminum diffusion couple. Intermet. J. 32,
would like to highlight the strong support given by ESA/ESTEC per- 297–302 (2013). https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​inter​met.​2012.​08.​017
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welda​bility-​of-​mater​ials-​alumi​nium-​alloys-​021

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