Nuclear Decay MS

1. B
[1]

2. (a) β-particles can (easily) penetrate the body/skin (1)

Since they are not very ionising OR reference to what will stop them (1) 2

(b) (i) Use idea that number of unstable atoms halves every 8 days OR that
24 days represents 3 half-lives (1)
Correct answer (1)
Example calculation:
N0 N0 N0
N0 → → →
2 4 8
t=0 t = t1 t = 2t 1 t = 3t 1
2 2 2

Fraction decayed = 100% - 12.5% = 87.5% 2

(ii) Use of λ T1/2 = ln2 (1)

Use of an appropriate decay equation (1)
Correct answer (1) 3
Example of calculation:
ln2 0.693
λ= = = 0.0866day –1
T1 8 day
2

–1
×1 day
1.50MBq A0 e –0 0866 day

A0 = 1.50MBqe0.0866 = 1.64 MBq

[7]

3. (a) Alpha-radiation only has a range of a few cm in air / cannot penetrate

walls of container / skin (1) 1

(b) (i) Top line: 241Am 237Np 4α (1)

Bottom line: 95Am 93Np 2α (1) 2

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 (ii) Attempt at calculation of mass defect (1)
Use of (Δ)E=c2(Δ)m OR use of 1 u = 931.5 MeV (1)
Correct answer [5.65 MeV; accept 5.6 – 5.7 MeV] (1)
Example of calculation:
Δm = 241.056822u – 237.048166u – 4.002603u – 0.006053 u
Δm = 0.006053u × 1.66 × 10–27 kgu–1 = 1.005 × 10–29 kg
E = 1.005 × 10–29 kg × (3 × 108 ms–1)2 = 9.04 × 10–13 J
9.04 × 10 –13 J
E= = 5.65MeV 3
1.6 × 10 –13 MeVJ –1

(c) Reference to half-life and typical lifespan 1

[7]

4. C
[1]

= 5.65MeV 3

(c) Reference to half-life and typical lifespan 1

[7]

5. (a) use of counter (+GM tube)

determine background count in absence of source
place source close to detector and:
place sheet of paper between source and counter (or increase distance
from source 3-7 cm of air) reduces count to background 4

(b) alpha radiation only has range of 5 cm in air / wouldn’t get through casing (1) 1
[5]

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6. (a) 19 protons identified (1)
calculation of mass defect (1)
Conversion to kg(1)
use of E = mc2 (1)
divide by 40(1)
= 1.37 × 10–12 J(1)
[eg 19 × 1.007276 = 19.138244 + 21 × 1.008665 = 40.320209 – 39.953548 =
0.36666
× 1.66 × 10–27 = 6.087 × 10–28
× c2 = 5.5 × 10–11
/40 = 1.37 × 10–12 J] 6

(b) cannot identify which atom/nucleus will be the next to decay

can estimate the fraction /probability that will decay in a given time /
cannot state exactly how many atoms will decay in a set time 1

(c) (i) conversion of half life to decay constant

[eg λ = ln 2 / 1.3 × 109 = 5.3 × 10–10 y–1] 1

(ii) add both masses to find initial mass (1)

use of N = Noe–λt (1)
rearrange to make t subject (1)
Answer = 4.2 × 109 years (1)
(if 0.84 used instead of 0.94 3 max)
[eg total initial mass 0.94
t = ln 0.1 / 0.94 / 5.3 × 10–10
= 4.2 × 109] 4
[12]

7. (a) Show that rate of decay of radium is about 7 × 1013 Bq

Power divided by alpha particle energy (1)
Answer [(7.1 – 7.2) × 1013 (Bq)] (1)
[Give 2 marks for reverse argument ie
7 × 1013 Bq × 7.65 × 1013 J (1)
(53.5 – 53.6) (W) (1)]
55 W
Eg Rate of decay =
7.65 × 10 −13 J
= 7.19 × 1013 (Bq) 2

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 (b) Show that decay constant is about 1.4 × 10–11 s–1
0.69
Use of λ = (1)
T1/2
Answer [(1.35 – 1.36) × 10–11 (s–1)] (1)
0.69
Eg λ =
1620 years × 3.15 × 10 7 s
= 1.35 × 10–11 (s–1) 2

(c) The number of radium 226 nuclei

Use of A = λN (1)
Answer [(5.0 – 5.4) × 1024] (1)
Eg 7.19 × 1013 Bq = 1.35 × 10–11 s–1 × N
N = 5.33 × 1024 2

(d) The mass of radium

Divides number of radium 226 nuclei by 6.02 × 1023 and
multiplies by 226 (1)
Answer [1870 – 2040 g]
5.33 × 10 24
Eg Mass of radium = 226 g ×
6 × 10 23
= 2008 g 2

(e) Why mass would produce more than 50 W

The (daughter) nuclei (radon) formed as a result of the decay of
radium are themselves a source of (alpha)
radiation / energy (1)
Also accept
(having emitted alpha) the nucleus[allow
sample/radium/atom] (maybe left excited and
therefore also) emits gamma
Also accept
(daughter) nucle(us)(i) recoil releasing (thermal) energy
Do not accept
Nucleus may emit more than one alpha particle
Nucleus may also emit beta particle 1
[9]

8. (a) Change in nuclear composition

• Nucleus has one less neutron OR nucleus has one more proton) 1

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 (b) (i) Calculation of age of skull
• Use of λ = ln2/t½ to obtain value for λ
• Use of N = Noe–λt
• Correct answer for age of skull [1.2 × 104 y; 3.83 × 1011 s]
Example of calculation:
λ = ln 2/t½ = ln 2/5730 y = 1.2 × 10–4 y–1 [3.84 × 10–12 s–1]
ln(N/No) = –λt
ln(2.3 × 10–11/1.0 × 10–10) = –(1.2 × 10–4 y–1)t
t = 1.2 × 104 y
Alternative mark scheme
• Use of half life rule
• Correct answer for number of half lives [2.12]
• Correct answer for age of skull [1.2 × 104 y]
Example of calculation:
N/ No = (0.5)n
(2.3 × 10–11)/(1 × 10–10) = (0.5)n
log(0.23) = n log(0.5)
n = log(0.23)/log(0.5) = 2.12
t = 2.12 × 5730 = 1.2 × 104 y 3

(ii) Reason for inaccuracy

• Idea that it is impossible to know the exact proportion of
14
C in the atmosphere when the bones were formed OR
reference to the difficulty of measuring such small
percentages of 14C. 1

(iii) Why 210Pb is more suitable:

• Idea that the half life of 210Pb is closer to the age of
recent bones [e.g. a greater proportion of 210Pb will have
decayed as the time elapsed is one or more half lives] 1
[6]

9. (a) 18 1 18 1 (1)
O + p/H equals F + n (1)
8 1 9 0 (1)
[omitting the n with everything else correct = 1] 3

(b) Accelerated through 19 × 106 V / MV

Using linear accelerator / cyclotron / particle accelerator / (1)
recognisable description (1) 2

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 (c) Time taken for half the original quantity/ nuclei /activity to decay (1)
Long enough for (cancer/tumour/body to absorb) and still be
active/detected (1)
Will not be in body for too long (1) 3

(d) Use of E = mc2 (1)

Use of E = hf (1)
Use of v = f λ (1)
λ = 2.4 × 10–12 m (1)
eg 9.11 × 10–31 × 9 × 1016 (×2)
f = 8.2 × 10–14 / 6.6 × 10–34 ecf
λ = 3 × 108 / 1.2 × 1020 ecf 4

(e) Conservation of momentum (1)

Before momentum = 0 (1)
so + for one photon and – for other (1) 2 max
[14]

10. (a) How a beta-minus particle ionises

When a beta particle removes [accept repel] an electron
from an atom / molecule (1) 1

(b) How ionisation determines range

State that each ionisation requires energy (1)
The energy (to ionise) is obtained from the (transfer of)
(kinetic) energy of the beta particle (which is therefore reduced) (1)
Along its path it produces many ionisations until all its
(kinetic) energy is used up (1)
The more ionising a particle the shorter its range or the less
ionising the greater the range (1)
[Candidates may give the wrong reason for ionisation or even
compare alpha and beta but still award this mark.]
Max 3 marks from 4
[Note that the word –kinetic– is not essential for marks 2 and 3] 3

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 (c) Why more ionisation is produced towards the end of its range
(Towards the end of its range) the beta particle is travelling
slower or has less kinetic energy (than at the beginning of its range) (1)
(as a result it takes longer travelling a given length) and
therefore has more (close) encounters with atoms / molecules
or more opportunities to ionise (atoms / molecules)
or will remain in contact (with atoms / molecules) longer
or will collide with more (atoms / molecules per unit length)
or ionisation (of atoms/molecules) is more frequent (towards end of range) (1) 2
[6]

11. (a) Meanings

Spontaneous: Happens independently of/cannot be controlled by/
unaffected by chemical conditions/physical conditions/temperature/
pressure or without stimulation/without trigger. (1)
[Do not accept random/cannot be predicted]
Radiation: alpha, beta and gamma and positron
[give the mark if they name one of these] (1)
Unstable: (Nuclei) [not atoms] are (liable) to break up / decay /
disintegrate or nucleus has too much energy or too many nucleons
[not particles]/may release radiation/[Accept] binding force is
not sufficient/[Accept] binding energy is not sufficient/
[Accept] too many/too few protons/neutrons (1)
[For this mark do not accept ‘nucleus has high energy’ or ‘..has
many particles’] 3

(b) (i) Half life

Evidence of an average calculated ie have used more than just
one value (1)
[Make sure to look at graph, if 2 sets of lines are seen,
award this mark, even if there is no evidence in written answer]
Answer [(5.6 – 6) hours (20160 s – 21600 s)] (1) 2

(ii) Decay constant

Answer [Accept answers in the range 3.1 – 3.5 × 10–5 s–1 /
0.11(5) – 0.12(3) h–1] (1) 1
[ecf their value of half life]
[Do not accept Bq for the unit]
0.69 0.69
Eg λ = / = 3.19 × 10–5 s–1 / 0.12 h–1
6 × 3600 s 6 h

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 (iii) Number of atoms
Use of A = λN
Answer [in range (1.50 – 1.65) × 1011]
0.5 × 10 7 Bq
Eg N =
3.2 × 10 −5 s −1
= 1.56 × 101 2
[8]

12. (a) Meaning of ‘random’

Impossible to predict which atom/nucleus (in a given sample) will
decay (at any given moment)/ unable to predict when a given atom
will decay (1)
[Mention of atom(s), or nucleus, or nuclei is essential because the
word ‘random’ is to be described in context. Do not accept for atom
or nucleus; substance; material; particle; molecule; sample.] 1

(b) Nuclear equation

95 Am→ 93 Np + 2 He
241 237 4

4 4
2 He or 2 α (1)
241 237
95 Am / 93 Np / both proton numbers correct / both mass numbers
correct (1)
Entirely correct equation (1) 3

(c) Absorbtion experiment

Diagram [must include the source, detector and an indication of
where the absorber is placed (maybe written in their account rather
than on the diagram) – none of these need to be labelled] (1)
(Record) background count (1)
Source – detector distance must be close / less than or equal to 2 cm (1)
Insert eg paper between source and detector = no change in count
rate or increase (by a small amount) the separation of the detector
and source = no change in count rate (therefore no α present) (1)
Insert aluminium/brass (a few mm thick) or lead (≈ 2mm thick) / concrete (1)
Count reduced to background (therefore no gamma present)
[Do not give this mark if only paper or card or plastic is used as
the absorber. Accept ‘0’ in place of ‘reduced to background’ if
candidate has deducted background from their measurements.] (1) Max 5
[9]

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13. (i) Plot a graph
Check any 2 points.
[Award if these correctly plotted in appropriate square] (1)
Curve of best fit. (1) 2

(ii) Half life average time required (1)

for the count rate / activity / intensity to reach half the original
value or time taken for half of the atoms / nuclei/nuclides to decay (1)
[NOT mass / particles / atom / (radio)isotope / count / sample/
cells/ nuclide]

(iii) Use the graph

Value of half life [Allow answers in the range 3.1 – 3.3. (1)
Mark not to be awarded if a straight lined graph was plotted]
Two or more sets of values used to find half life.
[Could be shown 1 on graph] (1) max 3 (ii &iii)

(iv) Similar to
eg (The programme) obeys an exponential law or once a cell has
‘decayed’, it is not available to decay later or (the ‘decay’ is)
random or it is impossible to predict which cell will ‘decay’ next. (1) 1

(v) Different
eg (Far) fewer cells available than atoms (in a sample of radioactive
material) or it is a different ‘scenario’ eg. they are not atoms but
cells on a grid generated by computer. (1) 1
[7]

14. Proton numbers:

55 and 94 (1) 1

Fuel for the power station:

(i) (Nuclear) fission (of 235U) (1)
(ii) Absorption of a neutron by(238)U(followed by β-decay) (1) 2
[not bonding, not fusion, allow combining] [Any other particle
mentioned in addition to neutron loses the mark]

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 Calculate emission rate:
Use of λ = ln 2 / t½ [allow either Cs t½] (1)
See 1.5 × 106.e–0.023 × 20 [allow ecf of λ for this mark] (1)
Correct answer [9.5 × 105(Bq m–2)] (1)
[2040(Bq m–2) scores 2/3]
OR
Work out number of half lives (1)
Use the power equation (1)
Correct answer (1) 3
Example of calculation:
λ = ln 2 / 30 = 0.023 yr–1
R = 1.5 × 106.e–0.023 × 20 Bq m–2
R = 9.5 × 105 Bq m–2
Assumption:
the only source in the ground is 137Cs / no 137Cs is washed out of(1) 1
soil / no clean-up operation / no further contamination / reference to
weather not changing the amount

Scattered isotopes:
(131)I and 134 Cs (1)
For either isotope: many half lives have passed / half life short 2
compared to time passed / short half life therefore now low emission (1)

Comment:
Even the isotopes with a thirty year half life are still highly
radioactive [eg accept strontium hasn’t had a half life yet] (1)
Plutonium will remain radioactive for thousands of years (as the
half life is very large) [accept the alpha emitting isotopes for
plutonium] [accept plutonium half lives much longer than 20 years] (1) 2
[11]

15. (a) Sources of background radiation

2 from:
Cosmic rays, rocks, soil, food, nuclear power/industry[buried waste as
alternative], atmosphere, building material, medical uses, nuclear weapons
testing (in the 60 s), Sun, radon gas 2
[Do not credit more than 1 example in each category e.g. coffee and Brazil nuts
is 1 mark not 2]

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 (b) (i) Measurement of background count rate
• Use GM tube or stop watch/ratemeter/datalogger (1)
• All sources must be in their (lead) containers / placed away
from the (1) experiment / place thick lead around tube
• Measure count over measured period of time (1)
(and divide count by time)
• Repeat and average / measure the count for at least 5 minutes (1)
• Subtract background (count rate) from readings (1)
max 4

(ii) Why it might be unnecessary to measure background count rate

Count rate for the radioactive material is much greater than the
background count rate. (1) 1
[Comparison required with count rate of radioactive material]
[7]

16. (a) (i) Stable ?

Will not: decay / disintegrate / be radioactive / emit radiation / emit (1) 1
particles / break down
[Do not accept will not emit energy]

(ii) Complete equation

1
1
Y (1) 1

(iii) Identify particles

X = neutron (1)
Y = proton (1) 2

(b) (i) Decay Constant

Use of λ = 0.69 i.e. = 0.69 (1)

t1 / 2 5568 × 3.2 × 10 7 s
[Do not penalise incorrect time conversion]
Correct answer [ 3.87 × 10–12 (s–1)] to at least 2 sig fig. [No ue] (1) 2
[Bald answer scores 0]

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 (ii) Number of nuclei

Use of A = λN eg 16 = (–) 4 × 10–12 N (1)

60
[Ecf their value of λ] [Do not penalise incorrect time conversion]
Answer in range 6.6 × 1010 to 7.0 × 1010 (1) 2
[8]

17. (a) (i) Complete equation

Correct identification of 42 for α (1)
Correct substitution (1) 2
27
13 OR correct values which balance the candidate’s equation

(ii) Completion of 2nd equation

0
1 (1)
Correct identification of positron / positive (+ ve) electron / β+ / (1) 2
antielectron
[If incorrectly given 0−1 allow electron / β– ie 1 mark]
[Correct spelling only]

(b) Half-life
Average (1)
Time taken for the activity/intensity/count rate to drop by half
OR time taken for half the atoms/nuclei to decay (1)
[NOT mass, count, particles, radioisotope, sample]
Isotope
Same: proton number / atomic number (1)
[Not same chemical properties]
Different: neutron number / nucleon number / mass number (1) Max 3
[Not different physical properties/density]

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 (c) γ-ray emission 1
EITHER OR
(The loss of a helium The nucleus emits its surplus
nucleus/electron has left the energy (in the form of a quantum
remaining) nucleus in an of γ-radiation) (1)
excited state/with a surplus
of energy
[8]

18. Why gamma radiation used

γ is the most/more penetrating (1) 1
(OR α/β less penetrating)
Factors controlling amount of radiation
Any 2 from:
• Strength/type of radiation source/half-life/age of source
• speed of conveyor belt/exposure time
• shape/size of food packages/surface area
• distance from radiation source (1) (1) Max 2

Suitable material for wall

Concrete/lead (1)
Suitable thickness
30 cm – 1 m/1 – 10 cm (1) 2
[thickness mark dependant on named material]
Source of natural radiation
Rocks, soil, cosmic rays, named radioactive element, sun, space, air (1) 1
[6]

19. Age of part of the stalagmite

λ = ln2/t1/2 = 1.2 × 10–4 years–1 (= 3.8 × 10–12 s–1) (1)

Use of N = N0e–λt (1)

1 = 256 e–1.2 × 10 – 4t
[allow 255 instead of 1 for this mark but do not carry forward]
t = 46 000 years ( = 1.45 × 1012 s) (1) 3
[OR recognise 1/256 (1)
8 half-lives (1)
45 800 years (1)]

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 Carbon-14 concentration
Carbon-14 measurement would be greater (1) 1
Validity of radio-carbon dating
3 points, e.g.
• not valid
• twice original concentration gives greater proportion measured now
• object seems younger than it actually is
• older parts could have more carbon-14 than younger parts
• technique relies on constant levels, therefore unreliable
• mixture of old and young carbon-14 in 1 stalagmite makes dating
impossible (1) (1) (1) 3
[7]

+ü20. Velocity of jumper

ω = 2π/T = 2π/5.0 s (= 1.26 s–1) (1)
υmax = Aω
= 4.0 m × 2π/5.0 s
=5.0(3) (m s–1) (1) 2

Why tension in rope and jumper’s weight must be balanced

When υ is maximum, acceleration = 0 (1)
so net force = 0 (1) 2
[OR: If forces not in equilibrium, he would accelerate/decel. (1)
So velocity cannot be maximum (1)]
Calculation of force constant for rope
Use of T = 2π m / k (1)

Hence k = 4π2m/T2 = 4π2 × 70 kg/(5.0 s)2

= 109 – 111 N m–1 [kg s–2] (1) 2

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 Verification that rope is never slack during oscillations
F = mg = 70 kg × 9.81 N kg–1 = 687 N (1)
At centre of oscillation, when forces in equilibrium,
x = F/k
= 687 N/110 N m–1 (allow e.c.f. from previous part) (1)
= 6.2 m which is larger than amplitude (1) 3
OR
Calculation of amax (= – ω2A) [6.32 m s–2] (1)
Comparison with g 9.81 m s–1 (1)
Deduction (1)
Likewise for forces approach.

Motion of jumper
Any 1 from:
• motion is damped shm
• so amplitude decreases
• but period stays (approximately) the same (1) 1
[10]

21. Decay constant

λ = 0.69/432 (yr–1) (1)
λ = 5.1 × 10–11 (s–1) [At least 2 significant figures] (1) 2
Number of nuclei
3.0 × 1013 (1) 1
Activity calculation
Use of A = λN (1)
A = 1.5 × 103 Bq / s–1 [ecf ] (1) 2
Explanation
Range few cm in air / short range (1)
Alpha would produce enough ions (to cross gap) OR ionises
densely/strongly/highly (1) 2
Features of americium sample
Half–life long enough to emit over a few years (1)
Count well above background (1)
Suitable as safe as range very low / shielded (1) 3
[10]

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22. (a) Explanation of binding energy
Energy required to separate a nucleus (1)
into nucleons (1)
What this tells about an iron nucleus
Iron is the most stable nucleus (1) 3

(b) Nuclear equation for decay

14
6 C→ 14
7 N+ 0
−1 β/ 0
−1 e +ν
Symbols [C → N + β] (1)
Numbers [14, 6, 14, 7, 0, –1] (1)
Antineutrino / ν / ν e (1) 3

Estimate of age of a fossil

3 half–lives (1)
giving 17 000 years to 18 000 years (1) 2

23. Why γ rays are dangerous

For example:
Penetrates (skin) (1)
Can cause ionisation / cell damage / mutation (1) 2
[not kill cells]
Material for shielding
Lead (1)
Several centimetres (0.5 → 5 cm) (1) 2
Why α radiation not used
Not (sufficiently) penetrating (not absorbed by luggage) (1) 1
Increased background radiation
Exposed to more cosmic radiation (1)
Less atmosphere above them for shielding (1) 2
[7]

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24. Isotopes
same different
Number of protons Number of neutrons
Atomic number Neutron number
Element Nucleon number
Proton number Atomic mass
Mass number (1) 1

Polonium decay
Po at (84, 210) with label (1)
2 steps west (1)
4 steps south (1) 3
Experimental check
Use of GM tube (1)
Inserting sheet of paper/aluminium foil/very thin aluminium/a few cm of
air stops the count (1)
Measure background, and look for count rate dropping to background (1) 3
NB Award points 2 and 3 for correct converse argument.
[7]

25. Meanings ot terms

Range: distance travelled (before being stopped) (1)
Ionises: removes electron(s) from atoms (1) 2
Explanation
More strongly ionising means shorter range (1)
ionising means energy lost (1) 2
Mass
Use of m = ρV (1)
8.1 kg (1) 2
T’hickness of lead sheet
Use of 8.1 kg/ρ OR t proportional to 1/ρ (1)
0.7 mm (1) 2
[8]

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26. Emission - written above arrows
α β– β– α α
All five correct [Allow e–, 4He 2+] (1) (1) 2
[For each error –1]
[α β β α α gets 1/2]
Number of alpha particles emitted
Five (1) 1
[3]

27. Nuclear radiation which is around us

Background (1) 1
Source of radiation
e.g. Sun / rock (eg granite) / cosmic rays [not space] / nuclear power stations (1) 1

Why exposure greater today

Nuclear power stations/nuclear bomb tests/X–rays/
Radon from building materials (1) 1
Beta radiation
(i) Any two from:
• γ more difficult to shield
• β lower range (than γ)
• β more ionising (than γ) (1) (1)

(ii) α stopped by a few cm of air or has a short range/much

lower range (than β) / β radiation has a long range (1) 3

Why gamma radiation is suitable

Any two from:
· γ will pass through (metal of) wing / α and β cannot pass through the wing
· but passes more easily through cracks
· hence crack shows as darker mark on photo or increased count
on detector (1) (1) 2
[8]

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28. Plutonium-238
238 protons + neutrons [OR nucleons] in the (nucleus of the) atom (1) 1
Why plutonium source caused concern
If accident at launch, radioactive Pu would be spread around Earth (1) 1
Activity of plutonium source
λ = ln2/88 × 3.16 × 107 s = 2.5 × 10–10 (s–1) (1)
Use of dN/dt = –λN (1)
= 2.5 × 10–10 s–1 × 7.2 × 1025 = 1.8 × 1016 (Bq) (1) 3

Power delivered by plutonium

Use of power = activity × energy per decay (1)
= 1.79 × 1016 Bq × 5.6 × 106 × 1.6 × 10–19 s
[conversion of MeV to J] (1)
= 1.6 × 104 (W) (1) 3
[2 × 1016 Bq gives 1.79 × 104 (W)]

Whether power can be relied upon

Large number of nuclei present, so decay rate (almost) constant (1) 1
Percentage of power still available after 10 years
Percentage = N/N0 × 100 = 100 e–λt (1)
= 100 e –10 × ln2/88 = 92% (1) 2
[After 10 y, N = N0 e–λt = 7.2 × 1025 × 0.92 = 6.65 × 1025 (1)]
Why plutonium was chosen for Cassini mission
Examples:
• long (enough) half–life for duration of mission
• Power constant / no orientation problems compared with solar
• α-emitting, so energy from particles easily transferred
• availability (1) 1
[12]

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29. Graph
Sensible scale + point (0, 192) plotted (1)
Rest of points [ –1 mark for each misplot] (1) (1) 3
[(1,96); (2, 48); (4, 12)]
[Accept bar chart]

Random process
Cannot predict which nuclei will decay/when a particular nucleus
will decay (1) 1
Model
Cannot predict which children will flip a head/which coins will be
heads/when a particular coin /child will flip a head (1) 1

Half-life
Time taken for activity/count rate to drop by half/time taken for half
the atoms/nuclei to decay (1) 1
How model illustrates half-life
Yes, if children were told to flip coin at regular time interval
OR
Yes, because about half of the children flipped a head each time
OR
No, because time is not part of the experiment (1) 1
[7]

30. Revision Notes: Radiation

One suitable source, e.g. cosmic radiation, rocks, soil, medical
equipment, power stations. (1) 1

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 Nuclear radiation properties

Alpha Beta Gamma

Ionising ability (Very) strong Medium Weak
Penetration Thin paper or Few mm Many cm lead
power 3-10 cm air aluminium or of m of concrete
(stopped by) few × 10 cm
air

1
Correct materials for both alpha and beta (1)
Correct thickness for one correct material (1) 3
[4]

31. Oscillations
Correct ticks/cross (1)
Reasons (1) (1) (1) 4

Oscillations SHM Reason

Mass on end of spring Force ∝ displacement

[OR acceleration ∝
displacement]
OR
Force always towards the
equilibrium position
Child jumping up and Force constant when child in
down the air
OR
Period/frequency not
independent of amplitute
Vibrating guitar string Force ∝ displacement
[OR acceleration ∝ displace-
ment]
OR
Frequency not dependent on
amplitute
[4]

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32. Nuclear equation

49 ln → 50 Sn
115 115
+ –01 e/ –01 β
Correct symbol and numbers for tin OR beta 1
Correct symbols and numbers for the other two 1
Decay constant
Use of λ = 0.69/t1/2 1

1.57 × 10–15 y–1 OR 4.99 × 10–23 s–1 1

Activity of source and comparison with normal background count rate
Use of A = λN. 1
0.11/0.12 (Bq) 1
Lower (than background) [Allow ecf- assume background = 0.3 to 0.5] 1
[7]

33. Radiation tests

Alpha:
Test 2 or 2 and 1 1
Count drops when alphas have been stopped by the air / alphas have
a definite range / (only) alpha have a short range (in air) 1
Beta:
Test 3/3 and 1 , because 1 mm aluminium stops (some) beta/does
not stop any gamma rays 1
Gamma:
Test 4 or 4 and 1, because 5 mm aluminium will stop all the betas,
(so there must be gamma too )/gamma can penetrate 5 mm of aluminium 1
[4]

34. Equation
14
7 N + 01 n →146 C+11 X
14/7 and 1/0 1
1/1 [no e.c.f.] 1
Hence X is H atom/H nucleus/proton/H/hydrogen 1
Estimation of age
Down to 1.9 cpm needs 3 half-lives 1
3 × 5730 1
17 000/17244 years/5.4 × 1011s 1

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com 22
 Suggested problem in measuring
Background count mentioned/randomness significant 1
[OR need larger mass than one gram]
[7]

35. Number of neutrons

8 (1)

Decay constant
Use of λ = 0.69/t1/2 (1)

λ = 1.2 × 10–4 yr–1 OR 3.9 × 10–12 s–1 (1) 3

Number of nuclei
3.0 × 1014 (1)

Calculation of activity
Their N × their λ (1)
= 1170 Bq [No e.c.f. if no conversion to seconds] (1) 3

Nuclear equation
14
6C
→ 14
7 N + −1 e
0
(1) (1) 2
[8]

[1 mark for 147 N , 1 mark for −10 e as −1 β

0
]
[Must be on correct side of arrow]

36. Calculation of age of the Moon

Any six from:
λ = ln 2 / half-life (1)
= ln 2 / 1.3 × 109 y
5.3 × 10–10 y–1 (1)

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com 23
 Original mass of 40K = 0.10 + 0.840 = 94 µ g (1)
Use of N = N0e– λ t (1)
So 0.10 = 0.94 e– λ t (1)
So ln(0.10/0.94) = – λ t (1)
So t = 4.2 × 109 y (1)
[A valid assumption may be given a mark]
[Max 6]

37. Precautions
Measure background radiation //shield apparatus (1)
Subtract it off/ because it may vary//to eliminate background (1)
Repeat the count and average (1)
Because count (or emission) is random/varying (1)
Source the same distance from GM on both occasions (1)
Because count rate varies with distance (1) Max 3
[NB Marks must come from any TWO precautions.]

Ratio
0.88 or 1.1 [min. 2 sfi [not %] (1) 1
Count for year 3
11 994 (1) 1

Graph
Suitable axes and scales [don’t award if factors 3, 7 used] [not Bq] (1)
Correct plotting of points (1)
Use of curve and halving count rate (1)
5.3 to 5.4 yr (1) 4
[9]

38. Name of nuclei

Isotopes [not radioisotopes] (1)
Nuclear equation
50 Sn → 1 e (or β) + 49 In
111 0 111

Electron numbers correct anywhere (1)

Correctly balanced (1)
Densest material
Sn-115 (1)
[4]

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39. Warm river
How radioactive nuclei heat,
e.g. by decay/ionising/nuclear radiation 1

α, β and γ radiation
α helium nucleus [or equivalent] (1)
β (fast) electron (1)
γ electromagnetic wave (1)
[Accept an answer that fully differentiates between the types of radiation
by describing their properties] 3

Most hazardous nuclei

α emitting (1)
When ingested, α particles damage body cells
[e.c.f. from previous β or γ linked to penetration & damage] (1) 2
Source of radioactivity
e.g. rocks, Sun, cosmic radiation 1
[7]

40. Compositions of nuclei:

Different number of neutrons (1)
Same number of protons / proton no. (1)
Physical property:
Boiling point/melting point/density/ [ not mass; heavier; RAM] (1) 3

Nuclear Equation:
( )H
3
1 (1)
( )He
3
2 (1)
( )β
0
−1 (1) 3

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com 25
 Experiment:
GM tube [allow ionisation chamber, cloud chamber] (1)
How to check no alpha:
Source close/next to/near/up to 5 cm to GM or ionisation /cloud chamber,
insert paper, no change in ‘count rate’
OR
Source close to GM, move away, no sudden drop in count rate (1)

How to check no gamma:

Insert a few mm aluminium, count rate reduced to zero
OR
Apply E or B field, GM tube fixed, count rate to zero (1)
Correcting/Allowing for background (i.e. measure it, and look for
count reducing to background in “no gamma” test) (1) 4
[10]

41. Half-life:
Use of t1/2 λ = 0.69 (1)
13 (1)
Initial number of nuclei:
Use of A = λN (ignore wrong time units) (1)
1.0 × 1015 (1) 4

Graph:
Horizontal line from same initial point (1)
[max drop 1 small square]
Initial activity marked as 6.4 × 108 Bq or equivalent scale (1)
Their half-life marked where A = 3.2 × 108 Bq, or equivalent scale (1) 3
[7]

42. Graphs:
T T

0 θ 0 m (2) 2

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com 26
 Description:
Time for a number of cycles ÷ by no. of cycles (1)
[accept swings]
Count from centre of swing/repeat timing and average/keep amplitude small (1)
Repeat for different lengths AND plot Graph of T v √l (1)
[allow for ratio method]
should be straight line through origin [consequent] (1)
[allow for ratio method] 4

Calculation (based on graph):

Attempt to find gradient (1)
Rate of change = 0.103 –0.106 s2 m–1 (1)

Rate of change of l plus comment on answer:

9.6 m s–2 [1/their value above] [no ue] [ecf] (1)
close to/roughly/approx. acceleration of free fall/g (1)
[only if range 8.8 to 10.8 m s–2] 4
[10]

43. Nuclear equation:

15 P → 16 S + β –1 β –1 e
32 32 – 0 0
e – [Ignore + γ + υ] (1)
1

Description:
Take background count (1)
Take count close to source, then insert paper/card and count (1)
Little/no change (1)
[OR absorption in air: Take close reading and move counter back; no
sudden reduction (1)(1)]
Insert sheet aluminium and count (1)
Down to background, or zero (1)
Max 4

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com 27
 Diagram: Any region above dots [show (1) or (X)] (1)
1

Number of
120
neutrons N

100

XX
80

XXX
60

40

20

0
0 20 40 60 80
Number of protons Z

Explanation:
1 β– decay involves a neutron → a proton Any two from: (1)
Any two from:
2. on the diagram this means ↓–1 ( +1 / diagonal movement
3. so nuclide moves towards dotted line
4. decay means greater stability (1)(1)
[β– in wrong region, (1) and (4) only available.
Decay towards drawn N = Z line 1 and 2 only available]
[9]

44. Sources of background radiation:

Radioactive rocks/radon gas/cosmic rays or solar wind (1)
Fall out/leaks from nuclear installations
named materials, e.g. uranium/granite/14C (1) 2
Nuclear equation:
22
11 Na → 22
10 Ne + 0
+1 e [Accept β]
22 and 0 (1)
10 and +1 OR 10 and 1 (1)
20 – 26 Na [NOT 22Na] [Must have correct proton number, if given] (1) 3

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com 28
 Decay constant of sodium–22 in s–1:
λ =0.69/2.6 [Ignore conversion to seconds] [Not 0.69/1.3] (1)
λ = 8.4 × 10–9 [No unit, no e.c.f.] (1)

Number of nuclei:
2.5 = 8.4 × 10–9 N (1)
N = 3.0 × 108 (1) 4
Whether salt is heavily contaminated:
(No.) This is a small number (compared to no. of atoms in a spoonful of salt)
OR
Rate < background (1) 1
[10]

45. Uranium correctly marked at (92, 142) (1)

Beta decay: SE at 45° [One box] into the uranium (1)
Alpha decay: Proton number down 2 (1)
Neutron number down 2 (1)
[NB No arrows needed, but lines must be labelled appropriately; lines not essential if clear]
[4]

46. N–Z grid

Sr at 38, 52 (1)
Y at 39, 51 [e.c.f. Sr incorrect → 1 diagonal move] (1) 2
Rb at 37, 45 (1)
Decays by β+ emission/positron/α (1) 2
[4]

47. How to determine background radiation level in laboratory:

Source not present/source well away from GM tube [> 1 m] (1)
Determine - count over a specific period of time
> 1 min OR repeats (1) 2

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 How student could confirm that sample was a pure beta emitter:
To demonstrate no γ:
A1 between tube and source: reading → 0 or background (1)
No γ / γ not stopped by Al (1)
To demonstrate no α:
GM moved from very close (or ≈ 1 cm) to source
to ≈ 10 cm: count rate does not drop (or no sudden drop) (1)
No α / α stopped by a few cm air (1)
Clarity: Only available if at least 2 of above 4 marks
awarded. Use of bullet points acceptable. (1) 5
[7]

48. Half-life of radionuclide:

One value for half-life: 33 → 36 s
Repeat and average/evidence of two values (u.e.) 2
Decay constant:
ln2 ÷ their value for t1/2 calculated correctly
= (0.02) s–1 (u.e.) 1

Rate of decay:
Tangent drawn at N = 3.0 × 1020
Attempt to find gradient, ignore “−“ sign
= 5.5 → 6 × 1018
[or Use of N = Noe−λt , calculate λ, or other graphical means]

[NB 6.25 × 1018 = 0/3 as use of coordinates] 3

Decay constant:
Substitute in dN/dt = − λN
e.g. 6 × 1018 = (−) λ × 3 × 1020 [their above]
= (0.02) [their λ correctly calculated] 2

Methods: 1
Either value chosen with a valid reason
e.g. 1st because can take several and average
1st because difficult to draw tangent
[9]

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49. Maximum acceleration of mass:
a = (−) ω2x with x = 6.0 mm used or a = (−)(2πf)2 x
2π 2π
ω= or f =
3.2 3.2
= 23 mm s–2 [u.e.] 3

Graph:
a / ms–2

x 0.02

–6 6

–0.02
x

Straight line
Negative gradient
4 quadrants: line through 0,0
Line stops at 6, 0.023 [e.c.f. x, a] 4

Reason why mass may not oscillated with simple harmonic motion:
F not proportional to x or a not proportional to x
Spring past elastic limit: K not constant: spring may swing as well as bounce.
Other possibilities, but not air resistance, energy losses 2
[9]

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50. (i) Reference to (individual) nuclei/atoms/particles
Each has a chance of decay/cannot predict which/when
will decay 2
(ii) Use of λt ½ = ln 2
→ λ = ln 2 ÷ 600 s = 1.16/1.2 × 10–3 s–1
∴ A = (1.16 × 10–3 s–1) (2.5 × 105) [Ignore minus sign]
= 288/290 Bq/s–1 [c.a.o.] [Not Hz] [17 300 min–1]
(iii) 13
7 N → 0
1 e/ 0
1 β+ 13
6 C / X (+ ν e ) [N/O/C/X] [e.c.f. β–]
[β+ on left, max 1/2] 5
[7]

51. Type of radioactive decay

α-decay

Nuclear equation for decay

147× 143 Y + 4 α / 4 HE
62 60 2 2

[1 mark for letters, 1 mark for numbers]

Addition of arrow to diagram

88
N
86
X

84 P
Y

82
W

80
58 60 62 64
Z
Point P on diagram
[5]

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52. Design of experiment to find what types of radiation are emitted:
Soil in container with opening facing detector
Take background count /or shield apparatus
With detector close to soil, insert paper
or take close reading then at, ≈ + 5 cm; count rate reduced so α present
Insert aluminium foil: further reduction ∴β present
Insert lead sheet: count rate still above background or count rate reduced
to zero,∴ϒ present.
or, if no count after aluminium foil, no ϒ
or, if count rate above background with thick aluminium, then ϒ present
[5]

53. Sketch of two graphs:

a

0 t

Sinusoidal
Negative start

O d

Linear through 0,0

Negative gradient 4

Amplitude of tide = 3.1 m

Next mid-tide at 12.00 (noon)
Next low tide at 15.00 (3 pm) 3

PhysicsAndMathsTutor.com 33
 Calculation of time at which falling water levels reaches ring R:
 2πt 
x = x0 sin   [Allow cosine]
 12 

1.9 m = 3.1 m sin  2πt 

 12h 
[Error carried forward for their amplitude above; not 1.2 ml
t = 1.26 h or t = 4.25 h if cosine used
Time at R = 12.00 h + 1.26 h = 13.26 h (1.16 pm) 4
[11]

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