061 General Navigation

061
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Contents
About This eBook Series
Foreword
1. Basics of Navigation
1.1. The solar system
1.1.1. Rotation of the Earth
1.1.2. Time measurement
1.2. Geometry of the Earth
1.2.1. Great circle, small circle, and rhumb line
1.2.2. Convergency, conversion angle
1.2.3. Latitude, difference of latitude
1.2.4. Longitude, difference of longitude
1.2.5. Use of latitude and longitude coordinates to locate any
specific position
1.3. Time and time conversions
1.3.1. Apparent Erne
1.3.2. Universal Erne coordinated (UTC)

1.3.3. Local mean time (LMT)
1.3.4. Standard times (STs)
1.3.5. Date line
1.3.6. Sunrise, sunset, civil twilight
1.4. Directions
1.4.1. True North
1.4.2. Terrestrial magnetism: magnetic north, inclination and
variation
1.5. Distance
1.5.1. Units of distance and height used in navigation: nautical
miles, statute miles, kilometres, metres, feet
1.5.2. Conversion from one unit to another
1.5.3. Relationship between nautical miles and minutes of latitude
and minutes of longitude
1.5.4. Rhumb line tracks
2. Aircraft Magnetism
2.1. Basics of aircraft magnetism
2.1.1. Magnetic materials
2.1.2. Electromagnetism
2.2. The direct-reading compass
2.2.1. Working principle
2.2.2. Factors, influencing, accuracy
2.2.3. Serviceability
3. Charts
3.1. General properties of miscellaneous types of projections
3.1.1. The fundamental question of map-making: How can
geographic shapes be depicted on a flat sheet of paper?
3.1.2. Classification of sphere projections
3.1.3. Classification by preserving angles: Conformal projections
3.1.4. Scale of the chart
3.2. Some types of projections from the spherical surface to the
flat plane
3.3. Direct Mercator
3.4. Lambert conformal conic
3.4.1. Simple conical projection
3.4.2. Lambert’s conformal conic projection
3.4.3. Constant of cone/convergency factor
3.4.4. Chart convergency

3.5. Polar stereographic >
3.5.1. Shape and distortion of the projection >
3.5.2. Polar stereographic chart convergency >
3.6. The representation of meridians, parallels, great circles and
rhumb lines >
3.6.1. Direct Mercator >
3.6.2. Lambert conformal conic >
3.6.3. Polar stereographic >
3.6.4. Conversion angle >
3.6.5. Polar stereographic chart >
3.6.6. The use of current aeronautical charts >
4. Practical Navigation I. >

4.1. Dead reckoning navigation >
4.1.1. Definition >
4.1.2. Dead reckoning (horizontal plane) >
4.1.3. Dead reckoning (vertical plane) >
5. Practical Navigation II. >

5.1. Fixing >
5.1.1. Recognition of fixes
5.1.2. Revising navigation data
5.1.3. Planning and recording of flight progress
A. Glossary
B. Abbreviations
C. Literature and Regulations
D. Formulae
E. Learning Objectives
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April 2021
Foreword
Navigation has always been part of human culture. Beyond myths of sirens
and sea monsters, Homer’s Odyssey relates valuable and realistic details about
marine navigation of the ancient Greeks. Quite another part of the world,
Polynesian navigators on their canoes sailed thousands of miles on the Pacific
Ocean millennia ago, by careful observation of waves and winds, stars and
birds, using folksongs as scientific literature to teach the next generation.
Over time, techniques have altered but the core idea remained more or less
the same, dead reckoning navigation. Intriguingly, modern airliners use "dead
reckoning" in relatively sophisticated way (inertial navigation system) which is
checked against radionavigational aids or the global navigation satelite
system.
Consequently, subject Navigation is divided into two major parts, i.e. General
Navigation and Radio Navigation.
In this subject we are going to grab a practical concept of dead reckoning
navigation, but in order to successfully do that, the Earth and its
characteristics must be studied beforehand. Therefore, this book starts with
the Solar System and the Earth, then goes through concepts of spherical
geometry and finishes with practical navigation.
General Navigation is not an old-fashioned, superannuated discipline, so you

should definitely find it useful and interesting.
Dr. Istvan Lenart and Laszlo Rozgonyi

the authors
Basics of Navigation
This chapter deals with fundamental facts about the location and movement
of our planet in the universe. This knowledge helps understand directions,
charts, time zones, and other important concepts in further chapters of this
book.
Several topics in this chapter are connected to spherical geometry, which is

discussed in greater detail in Section 1.2.
1.1. The solar system
Once imagined to be the centre of the universe, the Earth is one of eight
planets revolving around the Sun, the star of our solar system, among billions
of stars in our galaxy: the Milky Way. There are four larger planets, larger than
the Earth, and a great number of moons, asteroids, and comets in the solar
system.
About 98 % of the mass of the whole system is comprised of the Sun itself. It
can be imagined as a huge sphere with small marbles revolving around it.
Using another comparison, the Sun corresponds to a watermelon, Jupiter is
about the size of a round grape, and our proud Earth a small pea.
Figure 1.1. Sun and planets
The order of the planets from the Sun outwards: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
Note: The ninth planet, Pluto, was demoted from the rank of "planet" to a mere
"dwarf planet" in 2006.
The Earth is relatively close to the Sun. If the Sun is represented by a marble
with a diameter of 1 cm, the Earth is at a distance of 100 marbles in a linear
queue, that is, 1 m away from the Sun. Jupiter is 5 m away, and Neptune 30 m.
The Earth is a microscopically small circle in this proportion.
MORE INFO L"
1.1.1. Rotation of the Earth

As well as orbiting around the Sun, the Earth revolves around the imaginary
axis of rotation through the North and South Poles. The axis is perpendicular
to the plane of the equator.
Media 1.1. Rotation of the Earth
A rotation can be either clockwise or counter-clockwise, which also depends

on the position of the spectator (if one views a transparent clock from behind,
they will perceive the counter-clockwise rotation of the hands). Suppose you
are sitting above the North Pole of the Sun, and look at the Earth. In a given
moment, you see the Indian Ocean on the revolving planet. Which ocean will
you see next, the Atlantic or the Pacific? The answer is the Atlantic, then the
Pacific, then the Indian again, and so on.
This rotation is counter-clockwise. In navigation and astronomy, it is also

called direct (or prograde) rotation. The other way round is clockwise (or
retrograde) rotation. The Sun itself and most of the planets in the solar system
have the same direct or prograde or counter-clockwise rotation. Only Venus
and Uranus rotate in the opposite, clockwise direction.
Note: As with so many facts in astronomy, many explanations but few proofs exist
for these findings.
The inclination of the axis of rotation to the

plane of the ecliptic
As the other planets, Earth revolves around the Sun on a slightly elliptical
orbit. The plane of the elliptical route is called the plane of the ecliptic. (We
define the ecliptic a bit later.) Almost all the planets orbit the Sun in almost the
same plane, with only a few degrees difference among the orbits of different
planes.
So the Earth has two main types of motion, orbiting the Sun in the plane of
the ecliptic, and at the same time revolving around the axis of rotation
through the poles.
It is of vital importance for all living creatures on the Earth that the axis of
rotation of the Earth is not perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic, but has
an inclination of about 66.5° to it. During the whole route the axis keeps this
angle of inclination to the plane of ecliptic. The equator of the Earth is
perpendicular (90°) to the axis of rotation, so the angle between the plane of
the equator of the Earth and the plane of the ecliptic is 90° - 66.5° = 23.5°.
Media 1.2. Inclination and ecliptic of the Earth
The angles of sunrays on the surface of the

Earth
When it comes to cosmological measures, it is even more important to get an
approximately correct idea about the relative magnitudes of different data.
This statement goes for the direction of the rays of the Sun to the surface of
the Earth.
The spherical Sun sends rays from all points of its surface to all directions.
If the rays reach another celestial body which is not much smaller than the Sun
itself and is not far away, the rays would hit the surface at different angles.
However, the Earth is a tiny little pea as compared with the melon-sized Sun,
and relatively close to it.
Figure 1.2. Sunrays
Consequently the rays of the Sun reach the surface of the Earth as almost
perfectly-parallel straight lines. (In direct sunlight, the shadows of trees in an
alley are parallel to each other, because the rays creating the shadows are
almost exactly parallel.) For that reason, we assume that the sunrays hit the
surface of the Earth along parallel straight lines.
Figure 1.3. Sunrays hitting the surface of the Earth
Sunrays warm a surface most effectively when they are perpendicular to it.
The lesser the angle, the lesser the rise in temperature. If the rays only touch
the surface, the warming effect is very weak. (Lying on your back in the
sunshine, your belly becomes sunburnt, because the rays are mostly
perpendicular to its surface; but turning on your side, your belly is almost fully
protected, because the rays hit its surface at much smaller angles.)
■ EARTH
SUN MIN ANGLE
SMALL ANGLE
GREAT ANGLE
MAX ANGLE
GREAT ANGLE
SMALL ANGLE
MIN ANGLE
Figure 1.4. Incidence angles of sunrays
The effect of inclination of the axis to the

formation of seasons
How does the angle of the axis of rotation shape the weather of a planet?
The axes of rotation of Mercury, Venus and Jupiter are nearly perpendicular to
the plane of the orbits. For that reason, it is their equatorial region where the
rays of the Sun are perpendicular or almost perpendicular to the surface. At
the northern and southern pole regions the rays are tangential to the surface,
with very low warming efficiency. There are no seasons on these planets. The
weather is different at different places of the planet, but does not change with
time.
Because of the rotation, days and nights do exist on these planets. The
borderline between light and dark regions, between days and nights goes
through the two poles.
Why do we have seasons on the Earth? And how long are the days and
nights?
At first glance we may think that we have summer when the Earth is closest to
the Sun, in perihelion, and winter at farthest distance, in aphelion.
Note: The measures and the distances are not proportional to the real
configuration. They are only for illustrating the concept.
Actually, the ellipse of the orbit of the Earth is very close to a perfect circle
(unlike the ellipse in the illustration below). This means that the difference
between the distance from the Sun at perihelion and aphelion is too small to
cause big differences in the weather.
The digression of the Earth’s ellipse from a circle can be illustrated as follows:
Take a circle of radius 15 cm, and distort it into an ellipse with major axis
15.2 cm and minor axis 14.7 cm. You could hardly perceive the digression of
the ellipse from a perfect circle.
The main reason lies with the axial tilt of rotation. In contrast with Mercury,
Venus and Jupiter, the axis of rotation of the Earth is not perpendicular, but
tilted to the plane of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun.
Figure 1.5. Orbit and seasons
The axis of rotation of the Sun is perpendicular to the plane of Earth’s orbit,
but the axis of rotation of the Earth is not perpendicular, but tilted to this
plane.
Imagine our Earth as a spinning top revolving along an ellipse around the Sun,
and keeping the same angle of tilt during the whole route. The axis of rotation
of the Earth has an angle 23.5° with the axis of rotation of the Sun in every
position during the year. It follows that the Earth’s axis has an angle 66.5° with
the plane of the ellipsoidal orbit, because 90° - 23.5° = 66.5°.
Figure 1.6. Inclination of the Earth
Because of the tilt, the sunrays reach different regions of the Earth with
different intensity during its orbit around the Sun.
Figure 1.7. Radiation and inclination
The picture shows Earth’s position in aphelion and perihelion, at farthest and
closest distances from the Sun. On the right side of the picture the Earth is in
aphelion, farthest away from the Sun, in late June I early July. In this position
the Northern Hemisphere is closer to the Sun because of the tilt of the axis of
rotation. The sunrays reach the Northern Hemisphere under greater angles,
with greater warming effect. It is summertime in the Northern Hemisphere,
and winter in the South.
The reverse of all this reasoning is shown on the left side of the picture where
the Earth is in perihelion, closest to the Sun, in late December I early January.
In this position the Southern Hemisphere is closer to the Sun. The sunrays
reach the Southern Hemisphere under greater angles, with greater warming
effect. It is summertime in the Southern Hemisphere, and winter in the North.
Figure 1.8. Radiation in winter and summer
It can also be seen in aphelion on the right side of the picture the North Pole
never disappears from the range of the sunrays, while the South Pole is in
total darkness. During a full revolution of the Earth, that is, during a full day
the "upper" extreme ray goes over the North Pole, continuously giving light to
it and the surrounding region. The "lower" extreme ray leaves the Earth before
giving light to the South Pole and the surrounding region. Consequently, there
is a half year long day at the North Pole, and half year long night it the South
in aphelion.
The perpendicular ray travels "in the middle" between "upper" and "lower"
extremes. Because of the tilt of the axis, the perpendicular ray reaches the
surface at latitude circle 23.5°N, called Tropic of Cancer, in aphelion. There is
no shadow of a stick perpendicular to the ground at 23.5°N on this day, and
you can see the water in the deepest well. (Cities close to this circle include
Kanton in China, Kolkata-Calcutta in India, Assuan in Egypt, and Tampico in
Mexico.)
Conversely, in perihelion on the left side of the picture, the South Pole never
disappears from the range of the sunrays, while the North Pole is in total
darkness. Consequently, there is a half-year long day at the North Pole, and
half-year long night it the South in perihelion. The perpendicular ray reaches
the surface at latitude circle 23.5°S, called Tropic of Capricorn, in perihelion.
There is no shadow of a stick perpendicular to the ground at 23.5°S on this
day, and you can see the water in the deepest well. (Cities close to this circle
include Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, Windhoek in Namibia, Rockhampton in
Australia, and Antofagasta in Chile.)
Between the two extremes of perihelion and aphelion there is a continuous

change in the length of the daylight and the darkness. There must be a date
halfway in one direction, and another in the other direction when the length
of the daylight is exactly the same as that of the darkness. These dates are
known as the autumn and spring equinoxes.
Figure 1.9. Radiation in spring and autumn

The right side of the picture shows that, during the autumn equinox in
September, the "upper" extreme ray goes through the North Pole, and the
"lower" extreme through the South Pole. The perpendicular ray "in the middle"
between the "upper" and "lower" extremes reaches the Earth exactly at the
equator. During a full revolution of the Earth, that is, during a full day the rays
give daylight for half a day, 12 hours, with the remaining 12 hours spent in
darkness. As the Earth continues its travel around the Sun towards perihelion
in December/January, the days become shorter in the Northern Hemisphere,
and longer in the South.
The situation is exactly the same at spring equinox in March, shown on the
left side of the picture. The only difference is that as the Earth continues its
travel around the Sun towards aphelion in June/July, the days become shorter
in the Southern Hemisphere, and longer in the North.
The only latitude where daylight is 12 hours per day during the whole year is
the 0°N/S equator itself. Going northwards or southwards the daylight is
continuously changing to 24 hours a day at one pole and 0 hour a day at the
other pole.
The four most noteworthy dates during the Earth’s travel around the Sun are
shown in the picture.
Figure 1.10. Aphelion, perihelion and equinoxes
In early July, aphelion, summer in the Northern Hemisphere and winter in the
South; longest day in the North, shortest in the South; six-month day at the
North Pole, six-month night in the South.
During the Autumn equinox, in late September, day and night are of the same
duration. Thereafter, days remain shorter in the Northern Hemisphere, and
longer in the Southern Hemisphere.
In early January, perihelion, winter in the Northern Hemisphere and summer in

the South; shortest day in the North, longest in the South; six-month night at
the North Pole, six-month day in the South.
During spring equinox, in late March, day and night are of the same duration,
thereafter days become longer in the Northern Hemisphere, and shorter in the
South.
The five noteworthy circles of latitude on the

Earth: the Equator, the polar circles and the
tropics
The latitude circles are spherical circles, the centres of which are the North
and South Poles. The plane that cuts out a circle of latitude from the sphere is
perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
The Equator is the only circle of latitude that divides the globe into two (equal)
hemispheres. All the other latitudes divide the sphere into two unequal,
different parts.
Figure 1.11. Equator
The Arctic Circle and the Antarctic Circle are also latitude circles. The Arctic
Circle is approximately at 23.5° spherical distance from the North Pole. The
Antarctic Circle is at the same distance from the South Pole.
Figure 1.12. Cycles on the Earth
The Arctic Circle shows the borderline within which at least one "white night"
exists in a year at aphelion (when the Earth is farthest from the Sun). White
night means that during the whole day there is no darkness, no night, and the
Sun is visible in the cloudless sky. At the North Pole, the centre of the Arctic
Circle, there is a half-year-long day and a half-year-long night.
The Antarctic Circle shows the borderline in the same sense, with the
difference that the South Pole is the centre of the circle, and the white night
happens at perihelion (when the Earth is closest to the Sun).
Figure 1.13. Perihelion
Early January, perihelion: perpendicular or close-to-perpendicular sunrays hit

the Southern Hemisphere; the South Pole is in constant daylight, while the
North Pole is in constant darkness.
Early July, aphelion: perpendicular or close-to-perpendicular sunrays hit the

Northern Hemisphere; the North Pole is in constant daylight, while the South
Pole is in constant darkness.
Figure 1.14. Aphelion
The Tropic of Cancer is approximately at spherical distance 23.5° north of the

equator. The Tropic of Capricorn is at the same distance south.
They border the spherical band with the equator at the middle where the
sunrays are exactly perpendicular to the ground on a certain day of the year.
This day is around June 21st on the Tropic of Cancer, and around December
21st on the Tropic of Capricorn. On this day, a stick perpendicular to the
ground has no shadow, and one can see the surface of the water in the
deepest well.
MORE INFO
Figure 1.15. Perpendicular sunrays
The celestial spheres: the celestial coordinate

systems
What is a coordinate system, and what is it used for?
Coordinate systems provide a method by which to pick out one element

among a set of objects, palpable or imaginary. The Cartesian system uniquely
determines any point on the plane. The GPS system does the same on the
surface of the Earth. In a certain sense, a telephone directory or list of names
in a mobile telephone can also be considered as types of coordinate system.
The method we use in a coordinate system depends on our purposes (“What

to find?”) and on our possibilities and limitations (“What tools are at our
disposal?”).
Celestial spheres have risen to great importance in the development of natural

sciences and geometry since antiquity.
The objects that we locate on a celestial sphere are the heavenly bodies in the
Universe as seen from the Earth. We neglect their distance from our planet,
because there are no suitable measuring tools at hand, or the distance is
irrelevant for our investigations. What we actually mark on the sphere is the
direction of the given heavenly body from the centre of the sphere.
We choose a point of centre wherever it is convenient for us, and imagine a

transparent sphere with an arbitrary radius around the centre, be it as small as
a marble or as large as the Sun. We mark the heavenly bodies - stars, planets,
comets, etc. - on the surface of the sphere in the direction where they are
seen from the centre.
Here we deal with two types, the horizontal coordinate system and the
celestial sphere of the geocentric coordinate system:
a. The horizontal coordinate system takes the observer’s eye as the centre
of the sphere. The horizon of the observer is the equatorial plane. It can
be imagined as a tangential plane to the sphere. The highest point
vertically overhead the observer is the zenith; the imaginary opposite
point to the zenith under the observer the nadir. As many possible
horizontal systems exist as the number of observers.
b. The centre of the geocentric celestial sphere is in the centre of the

theoretical perfectly spherical Earth.
Figure 1.16. Horizontal systems
The celestial equator is the projection of the Earth’s Equator onto the celestial
sphere.
Another notion of fundamental importance is the ecliptic, the apparent path

of the Sun on the celestial sphere.
Media 1.3. Ecliptic
In the Copernican-Keplerian system, the Earth revolves around the Sun. For
the earthly observer, however, the ground stands still under their feet, and the
Sun is revolving around the Earth. The path of the Sun that the earthly
observer perceives is the circle of the ecliptic on the celestial sphere.
The plane of the ecliptic coincides with the plane of rotation of the Earth
around the Sun. The ecliptic is the cutting line of this plane with the imaginary
celestial sphere.
The celestial equator is the cutting line of the extension of Earth’s equatorial
plane on the celestial sphere. The axis of rotation of the Earth has an angle of
66.5° to the equatorial plane. The angle between the plane of the celestial
equator and the plane of the ecliptic is (90 - 66.5)° = 23.5°.
Because of the tilt of the axis of rotation of the Earth, the apparent movement
of the Sun varies with the time and the geographic location.
There are two extreme positions called solstices in this movement: the
greatest declination of the Sun northwards and southwards from the celestial
equator.
Note: It reminds a little bit of the movement of the Hula Hoop.

Figure 1.17. Solstices
The Sun arrives at this position twice in a year around June 21st-22nd and
December 21st-22nd.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the June solstice is the day when the Sun
reaches its highest point in the sky. At this date, within the spherical belt
between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, the Sun stands overhead the
observer, with no shadow of the Sun cast on the ground. In the Southern
Hemisphere, the December solstice is the day when the Sun reaches its
highest point in the sky. At this date within the spherical band between the
Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn, the Sun stands overhead the
observer, with no shadow on the ground.
Taking the reverse of this reasoning, the June solstice in the Southern
Hemisphere and the December solstice in the Northern Hemisphere are the
days when the Sun reaches the lowest maximum point in the sky during a day.
The declination of any celestial body is the angular distance northwards or

southwards from the celestial equator. For example, the red dot in the picture
close to the axis of rotation above the celestial equator has a declination of
around 15°N of the celestial equator.
Figure 1.18. Declination
How does the declination of the Sun and the latitude effect the period of
daylight?
The period of daylight is the time elapsed between sunrise and sunset. It
cannot exactly be defined, because the Sun is bigger on the sky than just a
point. The diffraction in the atmosphere also adds to the inaccuracy. Still, an
approximate length of the day can be stated.
Around December 21st, the daylight and darkness are both 12 hour long on
the equator. Going northwards to higher latitudes, the daylight becomes
shorter and shorter to the North Pole with its 24-hour darkness and zero
daylight. Going southwards to higher latitudes, the daylight becomes longer
and longer to the South Pole with 24-hour daylight and zero darkness. Around
June 21st, the Northern and Southern Hemispheres interchange roles with full
24-hour daylight at the North Pole, and full day’s darkness in the South.
Between the extremes in June and December there is a continuous transition

in the length of the day.
The following pictures give a rough outline of the change of daylight hours
from the Equator at latitude O°E/W to the North Pole at latitude 90°N.
Figure 1.19. Daylight hours (Equator)
At the Equator, there is a 12-daylight and 12-hour darkness during the whole
year.
24
22 -
20 -
18 -
16 -
14 -
12 -
10 -
Figure 1.20. Daylight hours (40°N)
Going northwards, the days are shortest in December/January and longest in

June/July during the year. The change is continuous but non-linear, as can be
seen in the picture that shows the duration of daylight around 40°N, as in
Prague (Czech Republic) or Vancouver (Canada).
24
Figure 1.21. Daylight hours (66.5°N)
At the Arctic Circle at latitude 66.5°N, for example at the Bering Strait, there
is one day in winter with no daylight and 24-hour darkness during the year,
and one day in summer with 24-hour daylight and no darkness. The change is
close to linear, as seen in the picture.
24
22
20
Months of the year
Figure 1.22. Daylight hours (78° N)
Between the Arctic Circle and the North Pole, there is a continuous but non
linear transit between winter days of 24-hour darkness and summer days of
24-hour daylight. The picture approximately refers to latitude 78°, for example
at Svalbard Islands (Spitzbergen, Norway).
24
Figure 1.23. Daylight hours (North Pole)
At the North Pole, there are six months of darkness and six months of
daylight.
The difference in the temperature at a given geographic spot mainly depends

on the latitude, not on the number of daylight hours. The reason is that on
lower latitudes the rays of the Sun are close to or equal to 90°, while on
higher latitudes the angle is close to or equal to zero.
At which time of the year does the duration of daylight change at the highest
rate?
The change is slowest in the June and December solstices. (The word
"solstice" means "the Sun stands still”.) It increases in the transition periods,
and reaches its maximum halfway at the two equinoxes. From its slowest of 1
minute per day in January and June it increases to 3 minutes in March and
September.
1.1.2. Time measurement
Note: This will be treated in more detail in Section 1.3.
Different methods of time measurement have emerged in numerous

civilisations over the tens of thousands of years of human history. These
methods have variously relied upon the movement of the stars, the change of
seasons, the migration of birds, and other natural phenomena.
Perhaps the most obvious principle of time measurement lies with the
movement of the Earth, the change of days and nights, and the apparent
movement of the Sun on the ecliptic.
The problem is that the movement of the Sun, or rather the Earth orbiting the
Sun, varies during a given time period for many reasons. The most important
factors are the elliptic (not circular) orbit, the uneven speed of movement, and
the tilt of the axis of rotation. That is why the apparent Sun as we see it does
not give an adequate basis for time measurement.
We have to work out mathematical models based on the movement of the

Sun, but (at least partially) eliminate the variations in movement.
Mathematically exact model does not exist, only the level of accuracy can be
set to our needs.
To solve the problem, we create a theoretical "mean Sun" in lieu of the real
Sun (apparent Sun). Following is the description of the famous Belgian
astronomer Jean Meeus.
Figure 1.24. Sun travelling along ecliptic
Consider a first fictitious Sun travelling along the ecliptic with a constant
speed and coinciding with the true Sun at perihelion and aphelion.
Figure 1.25. Sun travelling along celestial equator
Then consider a second fictitious Sun travelling along the celestial equator at a
constant speed and coinciding with the first fictitious Sun at the equinoxes.
This second fictitious Sun is the mean Sun.
So the resultant is an orbit derived from both the ecliptic and the celestial
equator. The theoretical mean Sun is conceived to move eastward along the
celestial equator. Its orbit and almost constant speed provides a uniform
measure of time equal to the average time reckoned from the true Sun. The
length of a day during a year is much closer to a constant by the mean Sun
than by the true Sun. Therefore, the mean Sun is a more reliable basis of time
measurement than the apparent Sun. The small digression from a constant
measure comes from the slowing rotation of the Earth because of the tidal
movement of the sea.
1.2. Geometry of the Earth
These chapters give an introduction to spherical geometry, in order to help
one describe and approximate the shape of the Earth. Although the concepts
of straight lines, distance, or angles might sound familiar, the seemingly-
obvious parts which follow will be more profound. A clear understanding of
the concept of rhumb lines is much easier with some knowledge of the basic
differences between planar and spherical geometry. (A sample question to
ponder: Is there a straight line on the sphere? Why, or why not?)
What is the meaning of the word "geometry"?
Consider all the shapes in the universe, real or imaginary, from a drop of water
to the waves of the sea, from the lines on your palm to the stars in the sky. To
establish a system of geometry means to find logical, human order in the mess
of shapes. This is an enterprise never to be completed, because “there are
more things in heaven and Earth ... than are dreamt of in your philosophy”; but
each system of geometry is an attempt to attack the task.
The science of geometry in the modern sense of the word is originated by the
Greek scientist Euclid around 300 BC. He set up a list of undefined notions,
such as the point, the straight line, the plane, and so on. From these undefined
terms he deduced further statements as theorems in the given system.
Euclidean geometry of the plane and the space proved to be so successful that
it prevailed in mathematics for more than two millennia. It had deep effect on
all other fields of European culture as well. It is the cornerstone of school
geometry to this day all over the world. This is the reason why other systems
such as spherical geometry or hyperbolic geometry are so alien and
frightening for most learners.
Given that the shape of the Earth is very close to a perfect sphere (we will
clarify it later in more detail), spherical geometry seems to be the most
applicable system of geometry in many fields of navigation.
In our investigations, we often follow the method of Comparative geometry

between the plane and the sphere. For most of us Euclidean geometry is much
more familiar than any other geometric system. In order to make spherical
geometry easier to understand we continuously compare the concepts of
Euclidean plane geometry with those of spherical geometry. It is the
comparison and contrast that explain the deeper meaning and significance of
the terms in both geometries.
Very important advice: At home or at an exam, when solving an exercise or

writing a test paper that involves spherical geometry, make a sketch, however
rude, on a table tennis ball or an orange or any other round-shaped tool with a
marker. This is the best way to grasp the configuration, and avoid big mistakes
in the computation.
What is a Sphere?
Take a point in the Euclidean three-dimensional space. Consider all the points
at the same distance from the original point. These points constitute the
surface of the sphere.
In our exploration of spherical geometry, we leave the size of the sphere out
of consideration. From our perspective, the size of the sphere is not important.
The geometry that we are going to study is the same on the surface of a pea
as on the Sun - provided we take both the pea and the Sun as perfect
spheres. Naturally, when we come to study the geometry of the Earth, we will
take its actual size into consideration.
1.2.1. Great circle, small circle, and

rhumb line
Introduction to basic geometric concepts
What is a Point?
What is a point on the infinite plane? It is something that we know nothing

more of than its location. Admittedly, this is just a statement, not an
explanation. Remember, Euclid also built his system on undefined notions.
Still, let us give some kind of clarification to this statement. We can say that
Deak Ferenc ter (Deak Ferenc Square) is a popular meeting point on the city
map of Budapest. Similarly, we can call Budapest a geographic point on the
map of Hungary. In both cases point indicates a location, nothing more. In a
given system of geometry, geography or astronomy it is up to the user to
decide which shape to be considered as a point.
Figure 1.26. Map of Budapest with a square in downtown as a point

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What is a Straight Line on the plane and on the sphere?
Stick two needles in a cardboard. Which is the shortest route between them?
Stretch a rubber band between the needles (= between two points). You get a
line segment. It shows the shortest route between the two points.
Figure 1.28. Line segment (plane)
Extending the segment with a straightedge in both directions to infinity, we

get an infinite straight line. The two points divide the straight line into three
parts: two infinite rays (half lines), and a finite segment.
Figure 1.29. Infinite and finite rays
The straight line that we know from school belongs to Euclidean geometry on
a flat sheet of paper or in three-dimensional space. We call it a planar straight
line when we want to make clear distinction between this line and the
spherical straight line, the great circle.
As can be seen in the figure below, the line between the two pins on the
sphere shows the shortest route on the spherical surface between the two
points.
Figure 1.30. Line segment (sphere)
Extend the line so it goes all around the sphere. We get a spherical straight
line. The two pins (= two spherical points) divide the spherical straight line into
two finite parts.
Figure 1.31. Spherical straight line
Cut the sphere along the line into two equal parts. The cutting line on the
edge shows the straight line on the sphere.
Figure 1.32. Cutting line shows spherical straight line
Both lines on the plane and the sphere show the shortest route between two
points. However, they differ in several ways. The straight line on the plane is
infinite. If we go forward along the line from a starting point, we never get
back to the same point. The straight line on the sphere is finite: walking along
the line from a starting point takes us back to the same point. Also, the
straight line on the sphere is not just a straight line but also a circle. Moreover,
it is a very special circle in terms of size: it is the greatest possible circle on the
sphere. On the infinite plane no greatest circle exists, but it does exist on the
finite sphere. This greatest circle acts as straight line in our system of spherical
geometry.
As you see, only the greatest spherical circles show the shortest route
between two spherical points. For that reason we call them great circles or
spherical straight lines. Both terms are correct.
Circles that are not great circles (such as the latitudes apart from the equator)
do not show the shortest route between two points. For instance, Seattle in
the USA and Salzburg in Austria are on the same latitude 48°N. The shortest
route between them follows the line of a great circle, not the line of the
latitude.
Figure 1.33. Great circle
It is very hard for a beginner to accept the great circle as the spherical straight
line. Menelaus of Alexandria (around AD 100) was the first to make clear
distinction between the great circle as the equivalent of Euclidean straight
line, and all other spherical circles as "only" circles, the equivalents of
Euclidean circles on the plane.
What are the basic features of points and straight lines on the plane and on
the sphere?
How many straight lines pass through two points on the surface of the plane?
(By two points we always mean two different points.)
Always one (see the following figure).
Figure 1.34. Straight line
How many straight lines pass through two points on the surface of the
sphere? (By two points we always mean two different points.)
One, unless the two points are opposite points (see the following figure).
Infinitely many if the two points are opposite points (e.g. infinite number of
meridians pass through the North Pole and South Pole, but of course any
geographical point has its opposite on the globe), see the following figure.
Figure 1.36. Meridians
How many points do two straight lines have in common on the plane?
One, if the two straight lines are intersecting (see the following figure).
Figure 1.37. Intersecting lines
None, if they are parallels (see the following figure).

Figure 1.38. Parallel lines
How many spherical points do two spherical straight lines (great circles) have
in common on the sphere?
Always two opposite points (see the following figure).

Figure 1.39. Spherical straight lines
Two spherical straight lines (great circles) always intersect in two opposite
points. Parallel straight lines do not exist on the sphere.™
In Euclidean plane geometry there are two definitions of parallel straight lines:
1. Two parallel straight lines have no point in common.
2. Two parallel straight lines are at equal distance from each other. Points
at equal distance from a straight line lie on two parallel straight lines on
the two sides of the original line.
In spherical geometry:
1. Two spherical straight lines (great circles) have always two opposite
points in common.
2. The points at equal (non-zero) distance from a spherical straight line

(great circle) lie on two smaller circles (e.g. the Tropic of Cancer and the
Tropic of Capricorn are at equal distance from the equator). If the
distance is exactly a quarter of a great circle, these smaller circles
diminish into two points, the pole points of the original straight line.
How can we measure a distance of two points on the plane and on the
sphere?
As we clarified before, two points divide a straight line into three parts. Two of
these parts, the two half lines are infinite, the third one, the segment is finite.
Measure the planar distance of the two points by measuring the length of the
finite segment with a planar ruler.
Figure 1.40. Distance
Two points divide the spherical straight line (great circle) into two finite,
measurable arcs. If the two points are not opposite, the two arcs are different
in length. We agree to measure the spherical distance along the shorter arc
(the minor arc) with a spherical ruler. If the points are opposite, any meridian
between them represents their spherical distance.
Figure 1.41. Distance
The usual unit of measurement is called degree (°), l/360th part of a great
circle.
Two opposite points always divide all the great circles passing through them
into two equal parts. Each part is called a meridian. The length of a meridian is
180°.
The spherical length of a full great circle is 360°.

The spherical length of a meridian is 180°.
The spherical distance of a point to any point on its equator is 90°. (E.g. the
North Pole or the South Pole is 90° away from any point on the equator.)
Circles and concentric circles

On the plane, a circle is the set of points at the same distance (r) from a point
of centre (O). All circles with the same centre constitute a family of concentric
circles.
Figure 1.43. Concentric circles
On the sphere, a spherical circle is the set of spherical points at the same
spherical distance from a spherical point of centre. All circles with the same
centre constitute a family of concentric spherical circles.
A planar circle has only one centre. The spherical circle has two centres that
are opposite points (O and O’). Consequently, a spherical circle has two
radiuses. One is r°, the other is (180 - r)°. (Remember that we measure the
length of an arc of a great circle in degrees on the sphere.) We usually consider
the smaller arc (the minor arc) as the radius of the circle.
Figure 1.44. Spherical circle
A family of concentric circles on the plane can be extended beyond any finite
limit. There is no straight line among the circles.
The family of concentric circles on the sphere can only be extended to the
other centre, which is opposite to the first centre (or in other words 180°
away from the first centre). There is one spherical straight line (great circle)
among these concentric circles: the equator of the centre.
Figure 1.45. Concentric circles
Any spherical circle divides the surface of the sphere into two regions. Small
circles divide the spherical surface into two uneven parts. Only great circles
divide it into two equal regions, two hemispheres.
In this context "a small circle" has the meaning "not a great circle", even if the
circle is just a little bit smaller than a great circle.
Example: The Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle are small circles, because
they are smaller than the Equator.
What are latitudes and longitudes in the geographic coordinate system?
The geographic coordinate system is one of the possible systems of reference

for navigating on the sphere. It consists of spherical small circles and spherical
straight lines (great circles).
How can a coordinate system be built on the sphere?

1. Fix a point on the sphere. In geography we start with the North or South
Pole.
2. Take a great circle through the point. In geography we use the great
circle that passes through the North Pole and Greenwich.
3. Consider all the great circles that pass through the fixed point. All of
them pass through the opposite point of the first one as well. In
geography we have all the great circles through the North and South
Poles.
4. Each great circle is divided into two halves by the two opposite points.
Each of these half-lines (half of a full great circle) is called a meridian. In
geography the meridians between the North and South Poles represent
the longitudes of the coordinate system.
5. The longitude through the Poles and Greenwich is called the Prime
Meridian or Zero Meridian or Greenwich Meridian where longitude is 0°.
The other half of the great circle with the Prime Meridian is the Anti
Meridian with longitude 180°.
6. The circles around the Poles as points of centre represent the latitudes
of the coordinate system. The biggest one among all circles is a great
circle, the equator of latitude 0°. The North Pole as a point circle
represents 90°N, the South Pole 90°S.
Each longitude (meridian) is half of a spherical straight line (great circle). There
is only one straight line (great circle) among the latitudes: the equator. The
rest of the latitudes are spherical small circles.
The location of any geographical point can be given as the point of

intersection of a meridian of longitude and a circle of latitude. The only
exception is the location of the two Poles.
The axis of the Earth

Note: Here we use Euclidean geometry of the 3D space to explain the mutual
position of the equator and the Earth's axis of rotation.
Figure 1.46. Equator and axis of rotation
From the Euclidean point of view, any Euclidean straight line through the
centre of the sphere is an axis of the sphere. Any Euclidean plane through the
centre of the sphere cuts the sphere into two hemispheres. The cutting line is
a great circle on the surface. Any spherical circle that is not a great circle
divides the sphere into two uneven parts.
The axis of rotation of the Earth is the Euclidean straight line through the
North and South Poles. The plane through the centre and perpendicular to the
axis of rotation goes through the equator belonging to the North and South
Poles. This cutting plane divides the Earth-globe into the Northern
Hemisphere and Southern Hemisphere.
Vertex
We already described important geometric properties of a great circle. Now
we define another important property of a great circle in a geographic
coordinate system, its vertex.
Note: Most books of geometry use the word "vertex" in different meaning, as a
point where two straight lines meet. For example: "An angle region has one vertex."
or "A triangle has three vertices."
In navigation, the vertex of a great circle is the point where the great circle
reaches the highest latitude, that is, the farthest possible distance from the
equator.
Figure 1.47. Vertex
A great circle has two opposite vertices in the Northern and Southern
Hemispheres. They are called antipodal points in navigation. The only
exception is the Equator itself, because all of its points are vertices. Any great
circle of longitude has its two vertices at the North and South Poles.
A great circle on the graticule (the geographic coordinate system) is uniquely

determined by any of its two vertices on a latitude circle. In the first picture
above, the northern meridian of a great circle touches the 30°N latitude at
one of the two vertices. In the second picture the southern vertex can also be
seen at the antipodal or opposite point at 30°S on the southern meridian of
the same great circle.
How much is our Earth squashed?

How much does the figure of the Earth differ from a perfect sphere? What
other geometric solids can be used to approximate its real shape?
As we mentioned in the Foreword, the shape of the Earth is not perfectly

spherical. To what extent is it correct to apply spherical geometry to the
geometry of the Earth?
If the entire Earth were covered with the world ocean, the form of the Earth
would be a so-called geoid. This shape is very close to a special ellipsoid or
oblate spheroid flattened at the Poles and bulging at the equator.
The spheroid or the ellipsoid of revolution can be derived from the ellipse on
the plane.
An ellipse is a closed curve on the plane with two focal points: F^ and F2. For
any point (P) on the ellipse we have PFj^ + PF2 = constant (the sum of
distances to the two focal points Fj^ and F2 is the same for any point P on the
ellipse). If the two focuses coincide: F^ = F2, the ellipse becomes a circle.
Media 1.4. Construction of an ellipse
An ellipse has two perpendicular axes of symmetry. On the longer one, the
major axis goes through the two focal points and F2. On the shorter one,
the minor axis is perpendicular to the segment F^F2 at its midpoint. The point
of intersection of the two axes is the centre of the ellipse.
■o
Figure 1.48. Ellipse
If we rotate the planar ellipse around one of the two axes, we get a spheroid
(ellipsoid of revolution). Rotating around the major axis gives a prolate
(elongated) spheroid. Rotating around the minor axis gives an oblate
(flattened) spheroid.
Figure 1.49. Sphere
Figure 1.50. Prolate spheroid
Figure 1.51. Oblate spheroid
The geoid form of the Earth is an oblate spheroid. The diameter of the Earth
globe between the North Pole and South Pole is shorter than the diameter
between any two opposite points on the equator.™
The length of the semi-major axis (half of the major axis) between any point on
the equator and the centre of the Earth is about 21 km longer than the length
of the semi-minor axis between the North Pole and the centre of the Earth, or
between the South Pole and the centre of the Earth. As the Earth is not a
perfect sphere, it means more difficulties in determining an accurate position.
During the last decades, many models have been created to cover the oblate
spheroid/ellipsoid shape of the Earth as accurately as possible, but the model
used nowadays is the WGS-84 (World Geodetic System-1984). This provides
the basic coordinate system for Global Positioning System (GPS) as well. Here,
coordinates are given with the help of geodetic longitude and latitude (in
degrees, minutes of arc and seconds of arc).
The measure of the flattening of an oblate spheroid expresses the deviation of
the spheroid from a perfect sphere.
MORE INFO L"
The extent of deviation between a perfect sphere and the shape of the Earth
can be visualised by removing/adding one single sheet from/to a 300 sheets
per pack of copy paper.
Due to this relatively small deviation, the shape of the Earth can be
approximated as a perfect sphere for practical purposes of navigation.
Knowing that the length of the equator is 40000 km (21600 NM), we get
approximately 40000/3.14 = 12 700 km (6 800 NM) for the diameter (d) of
the Earth. The radius (r) is 6350 km (3400 NM).
Angle and its measurement

On the plane, two rays (half lines) a and b starting from a common point P
divide the plane into two infinite regions. We call this shape of two rays with a
common starting point an angle. The two infinite regions marked by the angle
are the two angle regions.
The image below shows one of the most commonly used units of angle
measurement. The infinite plane is divided into 360 congruent infinite angle
regions with the help of a circle. First, we divide the perimeter of the circle
into 360 equal circular arcs. The angle region marked by the centre point of
the circle and two neighbouring rays is called 1 degree (°).
Measuring an angle means to determine how many of this unit of angle region
(= 1°) to fully cover the given angle region without gaps or overlaps. For
instance, we need exactly 90 pieces of the unit (= 90°) to cover the angle
region assigned to a right angle.
We can split up 1 degree into further units (minutes, seconds, etc.) as needed.
Figure 1.52. Angles
By this method of tiling an infinite angle region with the unit which is also an
infinite angle region, we get a concrete number of measurement.
Probably this paradox (“Can infinite regions be measured at all?”) is the source
of many misunderstandings about the angle. This is the reason why the
concept of angle is more accessible on the finite sphere than on the infinite
plane.
So how is it on the sphere? Two meridians (each is half of a great circle) a and
b starting from a common point P join again in P’, the opposite point of P. The
two meridians divide the sphere into two finite spherical angle regions.
Figure 1.53. Angles between meridians
Our method of measuring an angle on the sphere is based on the same

principle as on the plane. The spherical angle region is finite, so it is easier to
visualise.
The unit of spherical angle measurement is a 1/360 size spherical angle region
of the finite spherical surface (see the thin region on the first picture). It was
created the same way as on the plane: the perimeter of a circle was divided
into 360 equal parts, etc.
Figure 1.54. Angle region of one degree
Measuring a spherical angle means how many units of spherical angle region
(= 1°) are needed to fully cover the angle region to be measured, without gaps
or overlaps. For instance, we need exactly 180 pieces of the unit (= 180°) to
cover the angle region assigned by a great circle. (In this case the great circle
divides the sphere into two equal spherical angle regions, two hemispheres.)
So we define the angle of two straight lines as the region between two rays on
the plane and two meridians on the sphere, starting from a common point.
Is it possible to measure the angle of one ray and a curved line starting from a
common point on the plane, or one meridian and a curved spherical line
starting from a common point on the sphere?
Yes, using the following method: On the plane or on the sphere, we substitute
the curved line with a special straight line. In this way, we can measure the
angle of two straight lines on the plane and on the sphere. But how can we
make a curved line straight? We replace the curve with a tangential straight
line at the point of the intersection of the curve and the straight line.
For example, if we want to measure the angle between a circle (a curved line)
and its radius, we mark the point of intersection of the circle and the radius,
and draw a tangent to the circle in this point. To measure the angle between
the circle and the radius means to measure the angle between the tangent of
the circle and the radius. This angle is always 90° wherever we draw the
tangent to the circle.
Figure 1.55. Angle between radius and tangent
The angle between an ellipse and a straight line through its centre is not
always 90°, but depends on the point of intersection where we draw a
tangent to the ellipse.
Measuring the angle of a spherical straight line and a spherical curved line in
their point of intersection can be carried out in the same way as on the plane.
In the given point of the curved line, we draw a tangential spherical straight
line to the curve, and measure the angle of the spherical tangent and the given
straight line.
Tangent
The pictures show an ellipse and a fixed point P on it. In the first picture, a
straight line goes through P and another point on the ellipse. This straight
line is a secant of the ellipse. In the second picture, another secant goes
through the same P and another point of intersection Q2. Point Q2 is closer to
P than point Q^. All secants in the pictures go through P. The other points of
intersection Q1; Q2, Q3, Q4, Q5 get closer and closer to P. We get the tangent
of the ellipse in P when the two points of intersection coincide in P, and the
two points become one point. Here the secant of the curve transforms into a
tangent of the curve.
Figure 1.56. Tangent
The pith of the concept of tangent (and the fundamental idea of Calculus) is
that a tangent is always the product of an infinite (= miraculous) process. The
distance between the two points becomes smaller and smaller, but there is a
well-defined straight line, a secant through the two points in every position.
After infinitely many steps, the two points miraculously disappear into the
infinitely small nothing, and emerge from nothing as one point with a
miraculously well-defined straight line, a tangent. The tangent is not a secant,
but the limiting position of secants through a given point.
A mathematician ironically called the tangent as derived from the secants "the
ghost of departed quantities".
The slope of the tangent of the function f(x) in point x = a, y = f(a) in the usual
coordinate system on the plane is:
.. f (a + h) - f (a)
lim---------- -------------
hô h
Connection between distance and angle on the

plane and on the sphere
This is one of the most important differences between plane geometry and
spherical geometry. As such, this is the basis of many further concepts in
General Navigation, from time zones to map projections.
On the plane, we measure the distance between two points by the finite
segment of a straight line that connects the two points. We fit the unit
segment or its fractions on the line as many times as necessary.
In order to measure the infinite angle region between two intersecting straight
lines, we tile the region with the unit which is also an infinite angle region.
Figure 1.57. Infinite angle region
How can we measure angle regions with finite pieces of lines? We draw any
circle around the point of intersection, and compare the arc of this circle
within the angle region with the perimeter of the whole circle. In the picture,
the angle region is 90°, because the arc within the region is a quarter of the
whole perimeter of any given circle around the common point.
Figure 1.58. Finite angle region
This means that distance and angle on the plane cannot directly be added or
subtracted, because they are measured by different kinds of lines: segments of
a straight line vs. arcs of a circle. That is the reason why the question “What is
the sum of twenty centimetres and thirty degrees?” makes no sense on the
plane.
At first sight, the situation is very similar on the sphere.
We measure the distance between two spherical points by the finite segment
of a spherical straight line (an arc of a great circle) that connects the two
points. We fit the unit spherical segment (an arc of a great circle) or its
fractions on the connecting line as many times as necessary.
Spherical angle regions are measured with a unit of angle region.

Figure 1.59. Angles on a sphere
How can we measure spherical angle regions with spherical pieces of lines?
We draw any circle around the point of intersection, and compare the arc of
this circle within the angle region with the perimeter of the whole circle, just
as we did on the plane.
However, we have an option on the sphere that does not exist on the plane.
We can choose a special circle among the circles around the point of
intersection, namely, the equator of the point of intersection. This circle is a
great circle, that is, a spherical straight line.
Figure 1.60. Spherical straight lines
This option seems a trifle, but it leads to fundamental changes in the

measurement of distance and angle on the sphere.
Figure 1.61. Spherical angle and distance
The picture shows spherical angle a and spherical distance d. Both of them
can be measured with the same device, a protractor along the great circle that
corresponds to the equatorial arc of the angle region a. “What is the sum of a
+ d?” makes no sense on the plane, but this is a reasonable question on the
sphere: a + d = 2a = 2d.
Therefore, the angle between two great circles can be measured not only with
a spherical protractor along a small circle around the point of intersection of
the sides, but also with a spherical ruler along a great circle, the equator of the
point of intersection. The pictures show the measurement of 90° with a
spherical protractor and a spherical ruler.
Figure 1.62. Spherical protractor and spherical ruler
Both distance and angle can be measured in the same units, degrees on the
sphere. The spherical distance and angle can be directly added or subtracted,
because both of them can be measured by an arc of the spherical straight line
or great circle.
Figure 1.63. Distance and angle in degrees
As an example, take a spherical triangle with angle a and subtending side a.

We can use a spherical ruler to measure the length of side a. Then, instead of
measuring angle a with a protractor, we measure the equatorial arc of the
point at angle a with the spherical ruler again, and add the measure of side a
to the measure of angle a.
Spherical distance and angle measured by

Euclidean straight lines and planes
We could measure spherical angle and distance by spherical small circles and
great circles (spherical straight lines). However they can also be measured by
planar straight lines and flat planes.
Figure 1.64. Two planar rays
We fit two tangential planar rays to the point of intersection of the two
spherical sides of the angle. We measure their angle which is the same as the
spherical angle.
Figure 1.65. Cut the sphere
We cut the sphere across the centre with two flat planes at the sides of the
spherical angle region, and measure their angle. This is the same as the
spherical angle of the two sides; or the length of the equatorial arc of the
angle region.
Figure 1.66. Spherical distance
Spherical distance can be viewed as an angle on a flat (Euclidean) plane that

passes through the centre of the sphere.
This implies that sine and cosine functions (see below) can be applied both for
spherical distance and angle, as both can be considered Euclidean angles.
Rhumb line
Although great circles are the shortest path between two points on the
sphere, rhumb lines show a route that is more or less longer, but much easier
to navigate along it. Here we give an intuitive definition of a rhumb line based
on the concepts that we have already become familiar with.
Starting on the plane, consider all the straight lines which are parallel with a
given straight line. Take a point that moves along a track on the plane so that
the track cuts all parallel lines at the same angle. The track is another straight
line on the plane.
Figure 1.67. Same angles on a plane
On the sphere, take all the meridians connecting two opposite points (as the
longitudes in the geographic coordinate system). Follow the track of a point
that moves on the sphere so that the track cuts all meridians at the same
angle.
Figure 1.68. Same angles on a sphere
In general, the track is not a spherical straight line but a spherical spiral called
a rhumb line.
The following pictures show the concept of creating a rhumb line of constant
angle 90° on the sphere.
Figure 1.69. Creating a rhumb line
The first picture shows three lines (each of them is half of a great circle)
through a pole point. Starting from a point on a line but outside the pole point
(marked on the picture by a small empty circle) we draw a perpendicular (=
90°) to the next line. From the point of intersection, we draw the next
perpendicular to the next line, and so on. We get infinitely many spherical
straight line segments that become shorter and shorter, and go closer and
closer to the pole point but never reach it. The whole shape reminds of a
spiral, but it is a broken line of spherical segments.
In the second picture we have twice as many lines through the common point
as in the first picture. We do exactly the same procedure that we did in the
first case, starting from the same point. We get a broken line again which is
apparently smoother, closer to a real spiral than the line in the first picture.
Also, its shape is closer to a circle than the line in the first picture.
The third picture shows twice as many lines through the common point as the
second one. The resulting broken line is smoother than the first two broken
lines, its shape even closer to a circle.
It can be proved mathematically that the increase of the number of lines

results in more and more smooth broken lines, closer and closer to a circle. If
the number of meridians tends to infinity, the broken line tends to a perfectly
smooth circle through the initial starting point, as shown in the fourth picture.
This circle has an angle of 90° with each meridian through its centre. The
angle between a radius of the circle and the circle itself can be measured by
drawing a tangent to the circle at the point of intersection.
The spherical circle is a special kind of a rhumb line of constant angle 90°.
Figure 1.70. Rhumb lines as spherical circles
If the constant angle is anything else but 90°, the same construction tends to
a perfectly smooth line again, but never ends in a circle. This line is a smooth
spiral that tends to the pole points but never reaches it. It widens to its largest
when crossing the equator of the two pole points.
Figure 1.71. Rhumb line as a spiral
Note: In this case the rhumb line is a centrally symmetric spherical spiral.00
According to our definition, the equator in the geographic coordinate system

is a rhumb line crossing all the meridians at 90°.
Latitude circles other than the equator are also rhumb lines, but we need to
apply tangents when measuring the angles they cut with the meridians. Don’t
forget that latitudes (apart from the equator) are not spherical straight lines
but spherical small circles. We get 90° when we draw a tangent to the latitude
circle in any point of intersection of the circle with a meridian.
Consider all the longitudes meeting at the North and South Poles in the
geographic coordinate system. The rhumb line with any fixed angle (except the
right angle) is a spiral that approaches but never reaches the North and South
Poles.
Figure 1.72. Rhumb line spiral
The spherical rhumb line is also called a loxodrome as compared with the
great circle whose name is an orthodrome in this context.
The great circle (orthodrome) shows the shortest spherical distance between
two points on it. The rhumb line (loxodrome) does not follow the shortest
spherical distance between two points. The difference between the two lines
increases as they get closer and closer to the pole points, and becomes smaller
and smaller as they cross the equator.
The angle between a rhumb line (loxodrome) and a longitude remains constant
at any point of intersection. The constant angle at any longitude can be shown
by drawing a tangent to the spiral in the point of intersection with the
longitude.
The angle between a great circle (orthodrome) and a straight line in the pencil
is continuously changing between any two points of intersection.
Figure 1.73. Rhumb line and great circle
What line to follow during a sea trip or an air flight? The answer depends on
the tools that help us navigate. If it is easy to follow the great circle with our
navigational tools, then of course the great circle is the best option, because it
shows the shortest route on the globe. If, however, our tools show the angle
between the line of our route and the meridians we come across (as with a
compass), then it is safer to sail along the rhumb line. We simply follow the
constant angle between the line of the route and the meridians. The
disadvantage of a longer route is outweighed by the safety of the navigation.
Of course, we must take into account the difference between the lengths of
the two routes. The difference is small at the equator, and increases towards
the Poles.
1.2.2. Convergency, conversion angle

Convergency of meridians
We draw a straight line on the plane, and erect two perpendiculars on it. The
distance between them remains a constant, however far we move away from
the original line. The two perpendiculars never meet. They are parallel to each
other.
We draw a straight line, that is, a great circle on the sphere, and erect two
perpendicular straight lines (great circles) on it. The distance between them
diminishes as we move away from the original line until they meet in the pole
point of the original straight line (great circle). In mathematical terms, the two
perpendiculars are continuously converging towards each other until they
meet at the point of intersection.
Conversely, if we start from the pole point, and move away towards the
equator, the distance between the two perpendiculars keeps growing until
they reach the equator. The two perpendiculars are continuously diverging
from each other until they reach their maximal distance at the equator.
The same reasoning on the geographic coordinate system gives that two
longitudes between the two Poles have their maximal distance at the equator.
They continuously converge towards each other to their points of intersection
at the Poles.
The convergence can be mathematically expressed in several forms. For

example, we measure the spherical distance at corresponding points of the
longitudes at the same latitude, proceeding from lower to higher latitudes,
from the equator to the Poles.
>\?A apJP lieuvs
apm|je| Mo7
a\O-*P ll«?U/s
aPn*JC| ued^
0pJPH^
9ê'<^
O' -Ay
g> 3\3uV §
S d g
% -Angle S'
Greatcircle
Pnerical straight HnC
_ , Great circle
Pherical straight''0
s Great circle
PZ1erical straight line
Figure 1.77. Convergency
In general navigation, however, we can choose another way.
We take two longitudes (meridians), and the arc of the equator between them.
Now we step out from the spherical surface into three-dimensional Euclidean
space: At the endpoints of the arc of the equator, we erect two Euclidean rays
(each is half of a straight line) tangential to the sphere and perpendicular (=
90°) to the equatorial arc at the endpoints. They are parallel, so their angle is
zero. Next, we go to other latitude, and do the same: We erect two Euclidean
rays tangential to the sphere and perpendicular to the arc of the given latitude
at the endpoints. The rays are intersecting. Their angle is greater than zero.
Going towards the Pole, the angle keeps growing. It reaches the maximum
value at the Pole where the angle of the two Euclidean rays is the same as the
spherical angle of the two longitudes.
90° POLE
a
60° LATITUDE
30° LATITUDE
0° EQUATOR
The angle of two rays at the endpoints of a given arc of the same latitude is
convergency or Earth convergence between two longitudes measured at a
given latitude.
It can be proved by trigonometry that the angle of convergency of two

longitudes measured at the same latitude can be calculated by the formula:
Convergency = Change in Longitude x Sine of Latitude

Change in Longitude Convergency = Change
(the angle a between Latitude Sine of Latitude in Longitude ■ Sine of
the two longitudes) Latitude
a = 94° 0° (the Equator) sin 0° = 0 94° -0 = 0° (the two
Euclidean tangents
are parallel - For any
angle a it would be
a° • 0 = 0°)
a = 94° 30° sin 30° = 1/z = 0.5 94° • 0.5 = 47°
a = 94° 60° sin 60° = (V3)/2 = 0.866 94°-0.866 = 81°
a = 94° 90° (one of the Poles) sin 90° = 1 94° • 1 = 94° (the two
Euclidean tangents
have the same angle a°
as the two longitudes
- For any angle a it
would be a0 • 1 = a°)
Figure 1.79. Convergency change with latitude
For the above construction, we step out from the spherical surface into three-
dimensional Euclidean space. Can we demonstrate the same concept on the
surface of the sphere? Yes, we can.
Two points on the same latitude line are connected with a great circle track.
Convergency c is represented by the difference between interior angle b and
exterior angle d, so convergency c = d - b.
Two points on the same latitude are of the same distance from the Pole. This
means that the triangle with the two points and the Pole is an isosceles
triangle. So the third interior angle is also b. Convergency c = d - b, so c = 180
- 2b. We have the equality.
Change in longitude * sine of latitude = convergency c = a x sin(latitude) = 180

-2b
The proof involves trigonometry. We only illustrate the result in the second
picture.
a = 65°; b = 67°; latitude I - 45°
c = 65° x sin 45° = 65° x 0.707 = 46°, and 180 - 2 x 67 = 46°. So c - 46°.
MORE INFOl"
Convergency of meridians between different

latitudes
Figure 1.81. Straight line and spherical spiral
On the plane, the track of a point that has the same angle with parallel lines is
a straight line. In the geographic coordinate system on the sphere, the track of
a point that has the same angle with longitudes is not a spherical straight line
but a spherical spiral, a rhumb line. The track of a spherical straight line (great
circle) cuts different longitudes under different angles.
A great circle track on the sphere moves from a geographic point of given
longitude and latitude to another geographic point with different longitude
and latitude. This track has an angle with the first longitude, and another angle
with the second longitude. The convergency in this case is the difference
between the two angles.
Its exact value can be calculated by spherical trigonometry, but for relatively
short distances its value may be approximated with the formula:
Convergency = change in longitude x sine mean latitude
Mean latitude is the arithmetic mean between the two latitudes with a
positive sign if they are in the same hemisphere, and a negative sign in
different hemispheres. For example, the mean latitude between 20°N and
40°N is (40 + 20)/2 = 30°, halfway between the two latitudes in the Northern
Hemisphere. Between 20°N and 40°S is (40 - 20)/2 = 10°S, because the two
original latitudes are in different hemispheres, and the southern latitude is the
higher one, so the mean latitude falls in the Southern Hemisphere.
Of course, the convergency = change in longitude x sine mean latitude

formula holds good when the departure latitude is the same as the arrival
latitude. This same latitude is the mean latitude as well.
Rough illustrations that can be checked on a globe or a map:
• Tunis and Hamburg are close to longitude 10°E. Tunis is close to latitude
37°N, Hamburg to latitude 54°N. The mean latitude between their latitudes
is also in the Northern Hemisphere. It can be calculated as follows: (54 +
37)/2 = 45.5°N. This is approximately the latitude through Milan, also close
to longitude 10°E, and halfway between Tunis and Hamburg.
• Cape Town and Sarajevo are close to longitude 18°E. Cape Town is close to
latitude 34°S, Sarajevo to latitude 44°N. The mean latitude between their
latitudes is in the Northern Hemisphere, because 34 < 44. It can be
calculated as follows: (44 - 34)/2 = 5°N. This is approximately the latitude
through Bangui, also close to longitude 18°E, and halfway between Cape
Town and Sarajevo.
It is important to understand what convergency is and how it is calculated,

therefore it is beneficial to deal with some examples. Let us now have a look
at such examples of computing convergency.
EXAMPLE 1.1 L"
EXAMPLE 1.2 L"
EXAMPLE 1.3 L"
Conversion angle and what it expresses

Two important types of spherical lines are described in the preceding
paragraphs: the great circle (spherical straight line) or orthodrome, and the
rhumb line or loxodrome. The great circle shows the track of the shortest
distance between two spherical points. The rhumb line shows the track of a
spherical line that has the same angle with each meridian between two fixed
What is the convergency during the route from A (4000°N 00500°W) to B
(5000°N 01000°E)? (approximately from Madrid to Munich; better approximation
from Talavera de la Reina to Schweinfurt)?
Convergency =
Change in Longitude
Change in Longitude
(the angle a between Mean Latitude Sine of Mean Latitude X
the two longitudes)
Sine of Mean Latitude
a = 5°+ 10° = 15°

(add them, because A is 15° x 0.707 = 10.6°
to the west, B to the east (50 + 40)/2 = 45°N sin 45° = (V2)/2 = 0.707
(Y - X = 10.6° on the picture)
from the Prime Meridian
through Greenwich)
On the route from A to B, X<Y, the great circle track Y at B is greater than track X
at A. The difference is 10.6°.
What is the convergency during route from B (5000°N 01000°E) to A (4000°N
00500°W)? (Approximately from Munich to Madrid; better approximation from
Schweinfurt to Talavera de la Reina.)
Convergency =
Change in Longitude
(the angle a between _. . ... . Change in Longitude
Mean Latitude Sine of Mean Latitude x
the two longitudes)
a = 5’+ 10’= 15’

(we add them, because
Madrid is in the Western (50 + 40)/2 = 45°N sin 45° = (72)/2 = 0.707 15’x 0.707 =10.6’
Hemisphere, Munich in the (X'-Y' ■ 10.6° on the picture)
Eastern Hemisphere)
The two computations give the same result, because the change of angles, the
absolute value of convergency is the same in either direction.
Do these computations give the value of the angle X or the value of Y? No. We
could only determine the difference between the two values. We can get a rough
estimation by drawing and measuring on a globe; but we need spherical
trigonometry to compute the exact values.
To satisfy the interested reader, we give the computation below. Remember that
the spherical angle can be considered spherical distance, and the spherical
distance can be considered Euclidean angle.
We can take the sine and cosine functions of both the sides and the angles in a
spherical triangle.
In a spherical triangle with sides a, b, c and angles A, B, C the following

trigonometric identities hold:
cos a = cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos A

sin A sin B sin C
sin a sin b sin c
See the figure above and take spherical triangle ABP (P = North Pole). In this
triangle we know angle Z at the North Pole: Z = 5 + 10 = 15; distance AP, that is,
distance of A to the North Pole: AP = 90 - 40 = 50; distance BP, that is, distance of
B to the North Pole: BP = 90 - 50 = 40.
From these three data we can calculate AB (distance between A and B in degrees):
cos AB = cos AP cos BP + sin AP sin BP cos Z = cos

50 cos 40 4- sin 50 sin 40 cos 15 = cos 14. 5
Equator
See the figure above and take spherical triangle ABP (P = North Pole). In this
triangle we know angle Z at the North Pole: Z = 5 + 10 = 15; distance AP, that is,
distance of A to the North Pole: AP = 90 - 40 = 50; distance BP, that is, distance of
B to the North Pole: BP = 90 - 50 = 40.
From these three data we can calculate AB (distance between A and B in degrees):
cos AB = cos AP cos BP + sin AP sin BP cos Z = cos

50 cos 40 + sin 50 sin 40 cos 15 = cos 14. 5
sin X __ sin Y __ sin Z __ sin X __ sin Y __ sin 15
sin BP sin AP sin AB sin 40 sin 50 sin 14.5
On the route from A to B
sin X = (sin 4o) ( sin 41. 6°

\ / \ sin 14.5 /
so the great circle track at A is 41.6°.
sin Y = (sin 50^ ( sin 52.4°

\ / \ sin 14.5 /
so the great circle track at B is 52.4°.
On the route from B to A
sin Y’ = (sin 50^ ( sin (180 - 52.4)°

\ / \ sin 14.5 /
so the great circle track at B is 127.6°.
sin X’ = (sin 40) ( sin (180 - 41.6^°

\ / \ sin 14.5 /
so the great circle track at A is 138.4°.
Y - X = X’ - Y’ = 10.8° which is very close to 10.6° that we received with the

formula:
Convergency — Change in Longitude x Sine of Mean Latitude

The convergency from Brisbane to Melbourne is 4.3°. Melbourne is at 3780°S
14500°E, Brisbane is at 2750°S.
1. What is the longitude of Brisbane?
2. If great circle track V at Brisbane is 210.4° and great circle track W at

Melbourne 214.7°, what is the approximate great circle track at longitude
14900°E?
SOUTH POLE
SOUTH POLE
Convergency =
Change in Longitude
Change in Longitude
(angle a between Mean Latitude Sine of Mean Latitude X
the two longitudes)
x (yet unknown) (3800+ 2750)72 = 3 275°S sin 32.75° = 0.541 4.3° = (x) x 0.541
Convergency 4.3 ~ £
Sine of Mean Latitude 0.541 ~ °
Brisbane is east of Melbourne, so the longitude of Brisbane is 14500 + 8 =

15300°E.
Longitude 14900°E = (14500°E + 15300°E)/2, so it is halfway between longitudes

through Melbourne and Brisbane. The great circle track is also halfway between
210.4° and 214.7°, that is (210.4° + 214.7°)/2 = 212.5°.
pole points.
In navigation, both lines are in constant use. We want to find a mathematical

expression to compare the two lines. One way to do so would be to measure
the length of a piece of a great circle and a piece of a rhumb line between two
given points.
Figure 1.83. Rhumb line spiral
Just as with convergency, we choose another way based on measuring

spherical angles.
Figure 1.84. Spherical angles
We take two spherical points, and draw the great circle track and a rhumb line
track between them. We measure the two equal angles given by the great
circle track and the two tangents to the rhumb line at the endpoints. These
angles are called conversion angles.
As can be seen in the pictures, the rhumb line tends to bulge out of towards
the poles, and straighten out towards the equator (but does not exactly
coincide with a great circle). This means that the conversion angle is growing
towards the poles, and diminishing towards the equator. The difference
between the great circle track and the rhumb line track keeps growing
towards the Poles and diminishing towards the equator. Naturally, it depends
on the length of the route as well. To travel along a rhumb line track instead of
the great circle track means greater loss of time for long routes than for short
distances; or for routes closer to the poles than to the equator.
For instance, if we compare flying from Yamande International (app. 3°40'N,

ll°30' E) to Addis Ababa (app. 9°N, 38°40'E) (Route 1) with having a flight
from Mosjoen Airport Kjaerstad (65°N, 13°13'E) to Lovozero, Murmansk (app.
68°N, 35°E) (Route 2), we can easily conclude that - in spite of the fact that
the change in longitude is roughly 27° for the first route and 22° for the
second route - the convergency is much greater for the second route,
approximately 20°, whereas it is 3° for the first route only.
Connection between convergency and

conversion angle
There is a surprisingly simple and beautiful connection between the two:
conversion angle is half of convergency. This is one of the reasons why
conversion angle is useful in navigation.
To prove this, we need the vertical angles theorem. It holds both on the plane
and on the sphere. At the point of intersection of two straight lines, the
opposite angles are always of the same measure.
Figure 1.85. Opposite angles
If the two lines are perpendicular, all the four angles are the same, 90°.
Following are two pictures to show the connection between convergency and
conversion angle. One single picture would be confusing because of
overlapping angles in the construction.
Figure 1.86. Convergency and conversion angle
Given points and P2, we draw a great circle track (spherical straight line
track, orthodrome) and a rhumb line track (loxodrome) between them. We
label five angles in the pictures: a, b, c, d and x.
Angle a in the first picture shows that the tangent of the rhumb line has the
same angle with meridian through point P^ as the other tangent of the rhumb
line with meridian through P2. Angle b shows the angle of the great circle
track at Plt and angle b + c shows the angle of great circle track at P2. This
means that angle c is the convergency between P^ and P2. Angle d on the first
picture shows the difference between angle b + c and 180°, so d = 180 - (b +
c). Angle x is the conversion angle between the straight line track and the
rhumb line track. We want to find a connection between angles c and x.
5
Figure 1.87. Convergency and conversion angle
For angles a, b, x at Pj_ on the first picture 180 = a + x + b, so x = 180 - (a + b).

For angles a, b, c, d, x at P2 on the second picture x = a- d = a- [180 - (b +
c)].
Here we make use of the vertical angles theorem for angle a. From these
equations we get:
x = 180 - (a + b) = a - [180 - (b + c)]

180 - a - b = a - 180 + b + c
360 - 2a - 2b = c = 2(180 - a - b)
180 - a - b = 180 - (a + b) = c/2
But 180 - (a + b) = x = c/2
The Conversion Angle is half of convergency - what was to be proved. (Q.E.D.

"Quod erat demonstrandum" at the end of a proof in classical books on
mathematics and philosophy.)
Illustrating the difference between angles on the Northern and Southern

Hemispheres
The following sections will help you to imagine how the angles will change,
while flying on a specific track. You will also see the difference between the
great circle and the rhumb line, when comparing on Northern and Southern
Hemisphere.
1. Great circle track from west to east and from east to west
Given geographic spots XN and Xs on the same longitude, XN in the Northern

Hemisphere, and Xs in the Southern Hemisphere.
Given geographic spots YN1, YN2, YN3, YN4, YN5, YS1, YS2, YS3, YS4 on the
same longitude east of the (XN, Xs) longitude, YN1, YN2, YN3, YN4, YN5 in the
Northern Hemisphere, YS1, YS2, YS3, YS4 in the Southern Hemisphere.
Figure 1.88. Angles on NH and SH
Northern Hemisphere: Start from XN to YN1, YN2, YN3, YN4, YN5, respectively.
As we go down from the North Pole to the equator, the angles at XN keep
growing to a fixed number at the equator (on the picture 10°, 40°, 70°, 90°,
120°); and the angles at YN1, YN2, YN3, Yn4» Yns also keep growing to a fixed
number at the equator (in the picture 70°, 90°, 110°, 120°, 130°).
Southern Hemisphere: Start from Xs to YS1, YS2, YS3, YS4, respectively. (We
did not mark out YS5 because it would make the sketch confusing.) As we go
up from the South Pole to the equator, the angles at Xs keep diminishing to a
fixed number at the equator (in the picture 170°, 140°, 110°, 90°, and the one
at the equator can be calculated 60°); and the angles at YN1, YN2, YN3, YN4,
YN5 keep diminishing to a fixed number at the equator (in the picture 110°,
90°, 70°, 60°, and the one at the equator can be calculated 50°).
Now take the return trip everywhere. In order to give the great circle track
from east to west, we add 180° to each angle of the west-east track.
Northern Hemisphere: Start from YN1, YN2, YN3, YN4, YN5, respectively, to
XN. As we go down from the North Pole to the equator, the angles at YN1,
YN2, Yn3’ Yn4’ Yns keep growing to a fixed number at the equator (in the
picture 180° + 70°, 180° + 90°, 180° + 110°, 180° + 120°, 180° + 130°). The
angles at XN also keep growing to a fixed number at the equator (in the
picture 180° + 10° = 190°, 180° + 40° = 220°, 180° + 70°, 180° + 90°, 180° +
120°).
Southern Hemisphere: Start from YS1, YS2, YS3, YS4, respectively, to Xs. (We
did not mark out YS5 because it would make the sketch confusing.) As we go
up from the South Pole to the equator, the angles at YN1, YN2, YN3, YN4, YN5
keep diminishing to a fixed number at the equator (on the picture 180° + 110°,
180° + 90°, 180° + 70°, 180° + 60°, and the one at the equator can be
calculated 180 + 50). The angles at Xs keep diminishing to a fixed number at
the equator (in the picture 180° + 170°, 180° + 140°, 180° + 110°, 180° +
90°, and the one at the equator can be calculated 180° + 60°).
2. Mutual position of the great circle track and the rhumb line track in the
Northern and Southern Hemispheres
Between Brussels and Kiev, two cities at the same latitude in the Northern
Hemisphere the rhumb line goes "under" the great circle, as illustrated in the
following figure. The angle of the great circle track to the western meridian
from west to east is smaller than the angle of the rhumb line track. But
between Perth and Newcastle, two cities at the same latitude in the Southern
Hemisphere the rhumb line goes "above" the great circle. The angle of the
great circle track to the western meridian from west to east is greater than the
angle of the rhumb line track.
Numerically, this means that in the Northern Hemisphere the angle of the
great line track from west to east is smaller than the angle of the rhumb line
track; from east to west, the angle of the great circle track is greater than that
of the rhumb line track. It is just the opposite in the Southern Hemisphere:
From west to east, it is the rhumb line track that has the smaller angle, while
from east to west the smaller angle belongs to the great circle.
Figure 1.89. Rhumb line and great circle
A few pages before, we have done a lot of examples with convergency only so
you should now be safe in those calculations. The next step provides some
examples of computing convergency and conversion angle.
EXAMPLE 1.4 L"
EXAMPLE 1.5 L"
1.2.3. Latitude, difference of latitude

1. Determine the value of convergency from Brussels (5045°N 00435°W) to
Kiev (5085°N 03042°E).
The latitudes for the two cities are almost the same, and the longitudes are
also not far apart, so we can trust the Mean Latitude formula:
Convergency =
= (03042 - 00435) x sin ( 5045+5085 )
= 26.07° x sin 50.65°

= 20.16°
= c
(We subtracted the Brussels longitude from the Kiev longitude, because it is
only the difference of longitudes that interests us in the Mean Latitude
formula, not the direction of the route.)
2. What is the rhumb line track from Brussels to Kiev?
Brussels and Kiev are almost on the same latitude. This latitude can be taken
for the rhumb line through the two cities. It is also a spherical circle which is
a latitude circle in this case. The constant angle to the meridians/longitudes
is 90°.
3. What is the initial great circle track from Brussels to Kiev?
First we calculate (very easily) the Conversion Angle which is half of

convergency, that is, 20.16°/2 = 10.08°. Conversion Angle shows the
difference between great circle track and rhumb line track. We see on the
globe above that the angle of the great circle track to the western meridian
at Brussels is less than the angle of the rhumb line track (the rhumb line goes
"under" the great circle), so the great circle track at Brussels is b = 90.00 -
10.08 = 79.92°. The same track at Kiev is 90.00 + 10.08 = 100.08° = b + c.
1. A and B are in the same Hemisphere.
The initial great circle track from B to A is 268°(T) and the initial great circle
track from A to B is 092°(T).
i. In which hemisphere are A and B?
If the track from A to B is 092°, and from B to A is 268°, then A is west

of B. The great circle track of the A-to-B route has angle 092° at A,
and 268 - 180 = 088° at B. The angle is diminishing when traveling
from west to east, so A and B are in the Southern Hemisphere.
ii. What is the rhumb line track from A to B?
Convergency is 092 - 088 = 4°. The conversion angle is half of

convergency: 4/2 = 2°. The difference between the great circle track
and the rhumb line track is 2°. The great circle track can be calculated
92 - 2 = 90°; or 88 + 2 = 90°. This is a special case of a rhumb line
track: It is not a spiral, but a latitude circle in this case. So A and B are
on the same southern latitude.
2. C and D are on the same hemisphere.

The initial great circle track from C to D is 063°(T) and the rhumb line track
from D to C is 240°(T).
i. In which hemisphere are C and D?
If C-to-D great circle track is 063°(T), the route from C to D is from

west to east. The rhumb line track from D to C is 240°, so on the C-to-
D track it is 240 - 180 = 60°. The rhumb line track has a smaller angle
to the western meridian than the great line track. So C and D are in the
Southern Hemisphere. (See the globes with Brussels/Kiev and
Perth/Newcastle.) The conversion angle is the difference between the
great circle track and the rhumb line track: 063 - 060 = 3°. The
convergency is 2 x 3 = 6°.
ii. What is the approximate initial great circle track from D to C?
The rhumb line track from D to C is 240°. Since D is east of C, we

track from A to B is 092°(T).
i. In which hemisphere are A and B?
If the track from A to B is 092°, and from B to A is 268°, then A is west

of B. The great circle track of the A-to-B route has angle 092° at A,
and 268 - 180 = 088° at B. The angle is diminishing when traveling
from west to east, so A and B are in the Southern Hemisphere.
ii. What is the rhumb line track from A to B?
Convergency is 092 - 088 = 4°. The conversion angle is half of

convergency: 4/2 = 2°. The difference between the great circle track
and the rhumb line track is 2°. The great circle track can be calculated
92 - 2 = 90°; or 88 + 2 = 90°. This is a special case of a rhumb line
track: It is not a spiral, but a latitude circle in this case. So A and B are
on the same southern latitude.
2. C and D are on the same hemisphere.

The initial great circle track from C to D is 063°(T) and the rhumb line track
from D to C is 240°(T).
i. In which hemisphere are C and D?
If C-to-D great circle track is 063°(T), the route from C to D is from

west to east. The rhumb line track from D to C is 240°, so on the C-to-
D track it is 240 - 180 = 60°. The rhumb line track has a smaller angle
to the western meridian than the great line track. So C and D are in the
Southern Hemisphere. (See the globes with Brussels/Kiev and
Perth/Newcastle.) The conversion angle is the difference between the
great circle track and the rhumb line track: 063 - 060 = 3°. The
convergency is 2 x 3 = 6°.
ii. What is the approximate initial great circle track from D to C?
The rhumb line track from D to C is 240°. Since D is east of C, we

subtract the conversion angle 3° from 240° and get: 240 - 3 = 237°.
The latitude as one of the coordinates on the
Graticule
On the plane, we use the Cartesian coordinate system to locate a point with
two numbers, the two coordinates.
In like manner, we build a geographic coordinate system, the Graticule, to

locate a point on the spherical surface with two numbers, the two geographic
coordinates. One of the coordinates comes from the latitude circle of the
spherical point.
Figure 1.91. Latitudes
Suppose for starters that the Earth is a perfect sphere revolving around its
axis. The axis is an imaginary Euclidean straight line that runs through the
spherical Earth. The two points of intersection of the axis with the surface of
the Earth are two opposite points, the North and South Poles.
Cut the Earth in two halves with an imaginary Euclidean plane perpendicular
to the axis. The line of intersection of the plane with the surface of the Earth
is a spherical straight line or spherical great circle, the equator. The three
components, the two Poles and the equator are the basic elements of the
Graticule, the geographic coordinate system.
Figure 1.92. Equator
Circle of latitude
Figure 1.93. Circles of latitude
We give three definitions:
1. The latitude is a spherical circle whose centre is either of the two Poles.
2. The latitude is a spherical circle that keeps the same distance from the
equator.
3. The latitude is a spherical circle cut out from the surface of the sphere
by a Euclidean plane parallel to the equator. (It reminds of cutting slices
of an onion or a pineapple on a slice-board.) This is the reason why the
circles of latitude are often called parallels of latitude. Each parallel of
latitude connects all positions on the Earth with the same latitude.
The parallel of latitude at the equator is a great circle. The parallels of latitude
at the two Poles are two points. All the other parallels of latitude are small
circles on the spherical Earth.
How can we measure a circle of latitude? What number can be attributed to

the circle of latitude for representing one of the two geographic coordinates?
We have three different options again:
1. Measure the distance of any point on the latitude circle from the North
Pole.
2. Measure the distance of any point on the latitude circle from the South
Pole.
3. Measure the distance of any point on the latitude circle from the
Equator.
In navigation, we choose the third option. Take any point on the given circle of
latitude. Draw a perpendicular from this point to the equator. The
perpendicular is a meridian in this case. Measure the segment of the meridian
between the original point and the point of intersection at the equator. This
measurement gives the value of coordinate of the given circle of latitude.
The picture shows halves of latitude circles in the Western or the Eastern
Hemisphere (not in the Northern or Southern Hemisphere!).
10°S
20°S
30°S
40°S
50°S
6O°S
7O“S
8O°S
OO"S
Figure 1.94. Halves of latitude circles and equator
The equator of latitude 0° is in the middle of the Eastern or Western

Hemisphere.
The latitude of the North Pole and the South Pole is 90°.
There are two latitude circles at, say, 40° distance from the equator, one in the
Northern Hemisphere, and the other in the Southern Hemisphere. How can
we distinguish one from the other? We add the letter N (North) or S (South) to
the number: 40°N to the northern latitude, 40°S to the southern latitude.
The latitude of the North Pole is 90°N; the latitude of the South Pole is 90°S.
We can extend the labelling of the latitude of the equator as 0°(N/S).
How can we convert 1° difference of latitude into nautical miles or

kilometers?
The length of the equator is 21600 NM (40 000 km). The length of a meridian
between the two Poles is half of it, 10800 NM = 20000 km. This length
corresponds to 180° of latitude between the Poles. So we get approximately
10 800 NM/1800 = 60 NM = 110 km for one degree difference of latitude.
This means that two cities with one degree difference of latitude must be at
least 60 NM = 110 km distance from each other. To determine their actual
distance it is necessary to know the other coordinate, the longitude of each
city as well.
How can we calculate the difference and distance of latitudes?
Tunis and Hamburg are close to longitude 10°E. Tunis is close to latitude
37°N, Hamburg to latitude 54°N. They are in the Northern Hemisphere, so
the difference between their latitudes is 54 - 37) = 17° which corresponds to
17° x 60 NM/° = 1020 NM = 17° x 110 km/° = 1870 km. This is the distance
of the two circles of latitudes. If Tunis and Hamburg were not approximately
on the same meridian, we would only know that their distance cannot be less
than 1020 NM = 1870 km; but they are both close to longitude 10°E, so
1020 NM = 1870 km is their actual distance on the globe.
Cape Town and Sarajevo are close to longitude 18°E. Cape Town is close to
latitude 34°S, Sarajevo to latitude 44°N. Cape Town is in the Southern
Hemisphere, Sarajevo in the Northern Hemisphere. The difference between
their latitudes is 34 + 44 = 78° which corresponds to 78° x 60 NM/° =
4680 NM = 78° x 110 km/° = 8 580 km. This is the distance of the two circles
of latitudes. If Cape Town and Sarajevo were not approximately on the same
meridian, we would only know that their distance cannot be less than
4680 NM = 8 580 km; but they are both close to longitude 18°E, so 4680 NM
= 8 580 km is their actual distance on the globe.
Tunis is on latitude 37°N, and Sarajevo on 44°N. The difference in latitude is

44 - 37 = 7°. Converting it into spherical distance, we get 7° x 60 NM/° =
420 NM = 7° x 110 km/° = 770 km. However, Tunis and Sarajevo are not on
the same longitude. The data 420 NM = 770 km only says that the distance
between the two cities cannot be less than 420 NM = 770 km. To calculate
actual distance, we need their longitude coordinates as well. (It is 650 NM =
1047 km.)
How can we calculate the Mean Latitude between two positions?
Tunis and Sarajevo are both in the Northern Hemisphere. Tunis is close to
latitude 37°N, Sarajevo to latitude 44°N. The Mean Latitude between their
latitudes is also in the Northern Hemisphere. It can be calculated as follows:
(37 + 44)/2 = 40.5°N.
Cape Town is in the Southern Hemisphere, Hamburg in the Northern

Hemisphere. Cape Town is close to latitude 34°S, Hamburg to latitude 54°N.
The Mean Latitude between their latitudes is in the Northern Hemisphere,
because 34 < 54. It can be calculated as follows: (54 - 34)/2 = 10°N.
What if we take the shape of the Earth for an oblate spheroid?
To introduce the concept of latitude, we took the Earth as a perfect sphere.

However, the shape of the Earth is flattened, closer to an oblate spheroid.
Note: In fact, our planet is an irregular piece of material floating through the
universe. It is up to us to decide which geometric shape is most convenient for us to
study the geometry of the Earth.
If we take the shape of the Earth for an oblate spheroid with the minor
(shorter) axis as the axis of rotation, we can transfer the concepts of the Pole
Points and the equator from the spherical globe to the oblate spheroid.
Figure 1.95. The Earth, an oblate spheroid
We have several options to define the circle of latitude for the spheroid. The
most common options are the geographic (or geodetic) latitude and the
geocentric latitude.
The geocentric latitude The geocentric latitude is easier to explain, but less
frequently applied. Take the centre of the oblate spheroid and a given point on
the surface of the spheroid. Connect the two points with a segment of a
Euclidean straight line. This line has an angle with the plane of the equator.
The geocentric latitude consists of all the points which give the same angle
with the equator by this construction.
The geographic (geodetic) latitude The geographic latitude is much more

frequent in the applications. In fact, the term latitude without any adjective
usually means this type of definition.
Take a given point on the surface of the spheroid, and construct the Euclidean
plane that touches the spheroid in this point. This plane is called a tangential
plane to the three-dimensional body. Erect a perpendicular straight line to this
plane in the given point. In mathematics, this straight line is called a normal to
the three-dimensional body. In navigational practice, it is also called a plumb
line.
Figure 1.96. Tangent planes and plumb lines (normals) on a sphere

Figure 1.97. Tangent planes and plumb lines (normals) on an oblate spheroid
This normal or plumb line does not always pass through the centre of the
spheroid, but always has an angle with the plane of the equator. The
geographic latitude consists of all the points which give the same angle with
the Equator by this construction.
The difference between the two types is zero at the Poles, and zero at the
equator also. It reaches its maximum halfway between the two extremes, at
the angle of 45°. Since the flattening of the Earth is relatively small, the
maximal deviation is only about 0.2°. The principle is shown on the spheroid
below which is much more flattened than the real Earth-globe.
Figure 1.98. Geocentric and geographic latitudes
1.2.4. Longitude, difference of longitude

Second coordinate of a point in the Graticule
In the Cartesian coordinate system on the plane we need two coordinates to
locate a point on the surface.
In the Graticule coordinate system on the sphere, we also need two

coordinates of a given spherical point to locate. One of the coordinates is
given by the latitudes. The other coordinate comes from the longitudes, a
special type of meridians on the Earth-globe.
Figure 1.99. Longitudes/Meridians
What is a meridian?
A meridian is half of a spherical straight line or great circle. It connects two

opposite points or pole points on the sphere.
On the Graticule of the Earth, the two opposite points are the North and
South Pole. There are infinitely many meridians connecting the two Poles.
MORE INFOl"
Given a meridian, the other half of the same great circle is the anti-meridian of
the original meridian. (By a reasonably good approximation, the meridian
through New Orleans in the U.S.A, and the meridian through Dhaka (Dacca) in
Bangladesh are anti-meridians of each other.)
How can we label a meridian in the Graticule?
How can we attribute a number to a meridian? This number will be the second
coordinate of a spherical point. The first coordinate is given by the circle of
latitude.
We have to choose a meridian to start from. Since ancient times, different

authors proposed different geographic spots for the purpose. Finally in 1884
an international conference agreed on the meridian through Greenwich,
England to be the Zero Meridian or the Prime Meridian.
We give three definitions for locating a given meridian:
1. We measure the spherical angle between the given meridian and the
Greenwich (Prime) meridian.
Figure 1.100. Spherical angle
2. We measure the spherical distance of the two meridians along the

equator.
3. We erect a Euclidean plane through the Greenwich meridian, and

another plane through the given meridian, and measure the Euclidean
angle of the two planes.
Figure 1.102. Euclidean angle
Each of these measurements gives the same numerical result, the longitude of
the meridian:
• The longitude through the Greenwich meridian is 0°.

• The maximal value of longitude, at the anti-meridian of the Greenwich
meridian, is 180°.
There are two meridians at, say, 40° longitude from the Greenwich meridian,
one in the Eastern Hemisphere, and the other in the Western Hemisphere.
How can we distinguish one from the other? We add the letter E (East) or W
(West) to the number: 40°E to the eastern longitude, 40°W to the western
longitude. We can extend the labelling of the Greenwich meridian as 0°E/W
and its anti-meridian 180°E/W. Another frequently used notation is +40° or
simply 40° for 40°E, and -40° for 40°W.
We have two coordinates for every geographical point: latitude and longitude.
Latitude is given in four digits, longitude in five digits. For example, the
geographic coordinates of Praha (Prague) are 5008°N 14438°E.
Examples of computing the difference of longitude:
1. Melbourne is at 3780°S 14500°E, Brisbane at 2750°S 15300°E.

Both are in the Eastern Hemisphere (and in the Southern Hemisphere,
but it does not matter in this case). The difference in longitude is 15300
- 14500 = 00800°, that is, 8°.
2. Melbourne is at 3780°S 14500°E, Kiev (5085°N 03042°E).

Both are in the Eastern Hemisphere (Melbourne in the Southern
Hemisphere, Kiev in the Northern Hemisphere, but it does not matter in
this case). The difference in longitude is 14500 - 03042 = 11458°, that
is, 115°.
3. Melbourne (3780°S 14500°E), Buenos Aires (3460°S 58382°W).
Melbourne is in the Eastern Hemisphere, Buenos Aires in the Western
Hemisphere (both in the Southern Hemisphere, but it does not matter in
this case). The difference in longitude is 14500 + (plus, not minus) 58382
= 19882, that is, 199°. But the difference in longitude cannot be greater
than 180°. Therefore we consider, not 199°, but 360 - 199 = 161° as the
difference in longitude between Melbourne and Buenos Aires.
This reasoning is illustrated on the rough outline of the Southern

Hemisphere below.
Figure 1.104. Difference in longitude
All the meridians and anti-meridians follow the line of great circles in the
Graticule. The equator is also a great circle. The Poles are points. All the other
circles of latitudes are small circles, as for example, the Arctic and Antarctic
Circles, the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
MORE INFO
Rhumb line
The following part is a slightly changed and strongly abridged version of the
previous Rhumb line section of Section 1.2.1, referring to the learning
objective "Define a rhumb line" - A line which cuts all meridians at the same
angle. The present chapter refers to the learning objective which takes the
concept of meridians through a pair of opposite points granted on the basis of
previous learning objectives. We use the same picture because we deal with
the same concept of rhumb line, from a different perspective.
On the sphere, take all the meridians connecting two opposite points (as the
longitudes in the geographic coordinate system). Follow the track of a point
that moves on the sphere so that the track cuts all meridians at the same
angle.
Figure 1.105. Rhumb line
In general, the track is not a spherical straight line but a spherical spiral called
a rhumb line.
To create a rhumb line, take a few meridians and a point on one of them. Draw
a broken line of segments each of which intersects the next meridian under
the same angle. Insert new meridians among the original ones, and repeat the
process: Draw a broken line again under the same angle.
Taking more and more meridians, the broken line is more and more similar to a
smooth (not broken) curved line. We get a rhumb line in the limiting case
when the number of meridians tends to infinity - when we take all meridians
between the two pole points. (It is an infinite process, similar to the
construction of a tangent to a curved line.)
The pictures show the concept of creating a rhumb line of constant angle 90°
on the sphere.
Figure 1.106. Rhumb line construction
If the constant angle is 90°, the limiting rhumb line is a spherical circle. If the
meridians connect the North and South Poles, the rhumb lines with constant
angle 90° are the parallel circles or latitude circles. If the constant angle is 90°
and the starting point lies on the equator, the rhumb line coincides with the
same equator.
If we take a point on a meridian, and the constant angle is zero, the route
never leaves the meridian. This means that the meridian is also a rhumb line
with constant angle 0°.
If the constant angle is anything but 0° or 90°, the same construction gives a
perfectly smooth line again, but not a circle. This line is a smooth spiral that
tends to the Poles but never reaches it. It widens to its largest when crossing
the equator.
Figure 1.107. Rhumb line construction
In this case the rhumb line is a centrally symmetric spherical spiral.
To sum it up, the rhumb line has constant angle with all the meridians
between the Poles. If the constant angle is zero, the rhumb line track coincides
with a meridian. If the constant angle is 90°, the rhumb line track coincides
with a latitude circle or parallel circle. If the constant angle is anything greater
than 0° and less than 90°, the rhumb line track is a spherical spiral between
the two Poles.
The great circle (orthodrome) shows the shortest spherical distance between
two points on it. The rhumb line (loxodrome) does not follow the shortest
spherical distance between two points. The difference between the two lines
increases as they get closer and closer to the pole points, and becomes smaller
and smaller as they cross the equator.
The angle between a rhumb line (loxodrome) and a longitude remains constant
at any point of intersection. The constant angle at any longitude can be
measured by drawing a tangent to the spiral in the point of intersection with
the longitude. In contrast with the rhumb line, the angle between a great circle
(orthodrome) and a straight line in the pencil is continuously changing
between any two points of intersection.
Figure 1.108. Loxodrome and orthodrome
1.2.5. Use of latitude and longitude

coordinates to locate any specific
position
DD and DMS coordinates
The coordinates can be given in decimal degrees; or in degrees, minutes,
seconds where one degree is equal to 60 minutes, and one minute is equal to
60 seconds. 1 degree = 1° = 60 minutes = 60’ = (60 x 60) seconds = 3 600
seconds = 3 600”.
For example, the GPS coordinates of Colombo (Sri Lanka) are (6.927079°N
79.861243°E) in decimals; and (6°, 55’, 37”N 79°, 51’, 4O’’E) in degrees,
minutes, seconds.
Degree distance, NM distance, and km distance

on the equator
Knowing that the length of the equator 21600 NM (40 000 km) corresponds
to 360° (remember that spherical distance can also be measured in degrees),
one degree distance on the equator corresponds to approximately
21600 NM/3600 = 60 NM/° = 40000 km/360° = 110 km/°.
Try to find any two geographic spots in your environment with this distance
apart.
Distance between two meridians from the

Equator to the Poles
Figure 1.109. Distance (plane)
Given two straight lines perpendicular to the same straight line, the distance
between them remains constant. The two perpendiculars never meet.
Figure 1.110. Distance (sphere)
Given two meridians perpendicular to the equator, the distance between them
becomes smaller and smaller from the equator to the Poles. The distance is
maximal at the equator, and diminishes to zero at the Poles. On the Graticule
we measure the latitude as zero at the equator and 90° at the Poles, so the
greater the latitude, the smaller the distance between two meridians. The
distance between meridians will decrease with increase in latitude.
In spherical geometry we usually measure distance along spherical straight

lines, great circles.
In navigation we also measure distance along arcs of latitude circles between

two meridians.
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Figure 1.111. Great circle and small circle
As shown in the pictures, the length of an arc of a latitude circle between two
meridians is greater than the segment of the corresponding great circle,
because the great circle shows the shortest possible distance between two
spherical points.
It is true for the arcs of great circles and latitude circles that between two
meridians the arcs are the greatest at the equator and shrink to zero at the
Poles. The length of an arc on some random latitude between two meridians
depends on the distance of the latitude from the equator, and on the angle of
the two bordering meridians.
The length of the arc on the latitude between two meridians is called
departure.
The difference between "normal" distances and departures is that "normal"
distances are measured along great circles, and departures are measured along
arcs of latitudes. Departure is measured along a great circle only if measured
along the equator. All latitudes have angle 90° with the meridians, so all
latitudes are rhumb lines. Therefore to measure departure is to measure
distance along a rhumb line. Meridians can be considered rhumb lines with
constant angle 0° (the route does not step out from the line of the meridian).
Why do we measure distance along latitude circles, rhumb lines? Why not
stick to straight lines only, as we do on the plane? The reason lies in directions
on the sphere.
If we travel precisely from north to south or backwards on the globe, we move

along a meridian, a great circle track. However, if we move precisely from west
to east or backwards, we move along a small circle (except for moving on the
equator).
Figure 1.112. Travelling along great and small circles

Routes in navigation often follow tracks of geographic directions. This is the
reason why we also consider non-straight routes on the globe.
How can we calculate departure from given latitudes and longitudes?
Departure is the length of a route between two meridians along a parallel of

latitude.
On the parallel of the equator the departure track is a great circle track. The
other parallels of latitude are spherical circles. The length of the route is
maximal on the Equator (O°N/S), and decreases to zero towards the North
Pole (90°N) or the South Pole (90°S). The greater the latitude, the smaller the
departure is. But it is not true that halfway between 0° and 90°, at 45°, the
length of the route is half of the length of the equatorial arc.
90° polb
a
60° LATITUDE
30° LATITUDE
0° EQUATOR
Figure 1.113. Departure
The connection between departure (distance along a parallel circle between

two meridians) and degrees of latitude is given by the trigonometric formula:
Distance in NM = difference of longitude x 60 x cosine latitude
Distance in km = difference of longitude x 110 x cosine latitude
The factors 60 and 110 are for converting degrees into NM or km.
Departure
Change in Longitude = Difference of longitude x 60
(the angle a between Latitude Cosine of Latitude x Cosine latitude NM
the two longitudes) = Difference of longitude x 110
x Cosine latitude km
a = 94° 0° (the Equator) cos 0° = 1 94° x 60 x 1 = 5640 NM = 10340 km
(distance is measured along a
great circle track - For any angle a
we have a0 x 60 x 1.852 N M =
value in km)
a = 94° 30° cos 30° = (V3)/2 = 0.866 94° x 60 x 0.866 = 81° x 60 = 4860 NM
= 8910 km (distance is measured
along a small circle track)
a = 94° 60° cos 60° = % = 0.5 94° x 60 x 0.5 = 47° x 60 = 2820 NM
(distance is measured along
a small circle track)
a = 94° 90° (one of the Poles) cos 90° = 0 94° x 60 x 0 = 0° x 60 = 0 NM = 0 km
(For any angle a it is a° x 60 x 0
= 0NM°)
Figure 1.114. Departure change with latitude
Accuracy of the calculation
The accuracy of the result of a calculation cannot be greater than that of the
least accurate initial data. In what follows, we take the geographic coordinates
of a city with about 1° accuracy. This means that the results are also within
the same accuracy. For example, we say that Prague, Karaganda and Winnipeg
are all on latitude 50°N. This statement is only valid within 1° accuracy for
each city, so the calculations should also be taken with this same accuracy.
Example 1: Seattle (4761°N 12234°W) in the USA and Salzburg (4781°N

01303°E) in Austria are approximately on the same latitude 48°N. The
shortest route distance along a great circle track between them is 5 321 NM =
8 563 km. What is the departure between these cities?
Figure 1.115. Departure Seattle - Salzburg
If possible, always begin with guessing the result to be expected. The guess
does not give exact results, but helps avoid grisly mistakes.
Here, departure is measured along a latitude circle but not along the equator.
The difference between longitudes is 122 + 13 = 135° (plus, not minus,
because Seattle is in the Western Hemisphere, Salzburg in the Eastern). This is
far from 0°, but still not too close to 180°. Both 0° and 180° differences in
longitude would mean that the route between the two cities follows a great
circle track, and the departure distance is the same as the great circle distance.
This is not the case between Seattle and Salzburg, so departure must be
longer than the great circle distance between the two cities.
Looking at the globe we expect a result bigger than the great circle route ,but
at the same time, it should be less than 150 % of the great circle route:
5 321 NM < Departure < 1.5 x 5 321 NM = 7800 NM. (This is just a rough
estimate, so we do not need the exact value of 1.5 x 5 321.)
Any result between 5 321 NM and 7800 NM is not surprising, but 1000 NM
or 20000 NM are certainly wrong answers.
Now the calculation:
Departure = Difference of longitude x 60 x Cosine latitude NM = (122 + 13) x

60 x cos 48 = 135 x 60 x 0.67 = 5420 NM = Difference of longitude x 110 x
Cosine latitude km = (122 + 13) x 110 x cos 48 = 135 x 110 x 0.67 =
9 937 km
Example 2: A famous old problem in the language of navigation:
1. A wandering bear leaves home and travels 120 NM = 220 km on a track

of 180°(T). After a well-deserved rest, she turns and takes 120 NM =
220 km on a track of 090°(T), then 120 NM = 220 km on a track of 000°
(T). To her surprise she finds that she is home again. What colour is the
bear?
If the bear travels the same distance (120 NM = 220 km) due S, then E, then
N, and arrives home, she walks along a latitude circle when she walks
eastward, keeping the same distance (120 NM = 220 km) from the geographic
point of her home. The only points on the Graticule which are at the same
distance from two different points on the same latitude are the North or
South Poles. The bear begins her walk southwards. If it happened at the North
Pole, the bear walks along a small latitude circle in the Northern Hemisphere.
Her home is at the North Pole, so she is a white polar bear.
What is the difference of the two meridians through the two endpoints of her
walking eastwards?
To calculate the difference of meridians, we use the formula Departure =

Difference of longitude x 60 x Cosine latitude NM = Difference of longitude x
110 x Cosine latitude km. From the data we know Departure = 120 NM =
220 km. We also know that the latitude circle is at 120 NM = 220 km distance
from the North Pole. 120 NM = 220 km = 2°, so this circle is at (90 - 2) = 88°
latitude. Difference of longitude = (Departure)/(60 x cos latitude) =
(120 NM)/(60 x cos 2°) = 120 - 59.96 = 2.001°.
2. The bear’s route is too short to be properly displayed on a globe. How
can we calculate other measures that satisfy the condition of equal
routes, but are more appropriate for illustrating the problem?
The length of each route is x°. (Here we measure spherical distance in degrees
that can easily be converted to nautical miles by multiplying by 60, or to
kilometres by multiplying by 110.) If the length of the route from the North
Pole to the point where the bear turns to east is x°, the latitude of this point is
the distance from the equator, (90 - x)°. Labeling the angle between the two
meridians a, we have the formula:
Departure = difference of longitude in degrees x cosine latitude

Departure x = difference of longitude a° x cos (90 - x)
We rearrange the formula for a, substitute different values into x, and get the
corresponding values for a.
Difference of longitude a° = departure x/cos (90-x)
For example, if x = 90°, then a = 90/cos (90 - 90) = 90/cos (0) = 90 -s-1 = 90.
All the three routes are of length 90° = (90 x 60) NM = 5 400 NM = (90 x
110) NM = 9 900 km. Poor Bear starts from the North Pole, walks southwards
to the equator, turns east, walks the same distance that she covered between
the North Pole and the equator, turns northwards, and walks to the North
Pole along another meridian.
Or, if x = 30°, then a = 30/cos (90 - 30) = 30/cos (60) = 30/(1 - 2) = 60. The
bear starts from the North Pole, walks southwards to the equator, turns east,
walks the same distance that she covered between the North Pole and the
equator, turns northwards, and walks to the North Pole along another
meridian.
Figure 1.116. Determining departure
The bear starts from the North Pole, walks 30° distance southwards to the
60° latitude circle, turns east, walks the same distance along the latitude,
turns northwards, and walks to the North Pole along another meridian.
3. Is the North Pole the only possible solution?
Re-write the question: A wandering creature leaves home and travels 120 NM
= 220 km on a track of 180°(T), then 120 NM = 220 km on a track of 090°(T),
then 120 NM = 220 km on a track of 000°(T). To its surprise, the creature
finds that it is at home again. Where is its home?
The real challenge lies in the sense of reality and imagination, not in
calculation. (Important remark: Calculation is to help good sense, not to
replace it.) We saw that the North Pole was a proper choice. The South Pole is
excluded, because there is no route southwards from that point. But it is
possible that somewhere to the north from the South Pole, the Creature walks
southwards along a meridian, turns east, walks along a full latitude circle, then
walks northwards on the same meridian back to her home.
Calculation is needed as above, to satisfy the condition that the three routes
to South, East, and North are of the same length.
Figure 1.117. Determining departure
In the picture, Creature’s home is at 70° distance from the South Pole, so the
latitude is (90 - 70) = 20°S. It leaves home and walks south along a meridian to
the distance of 10° from the South Pole, at latitude (90 - 10) = 80°S. It turns
east and walks around a full circle of latitude 80°S. It arrives back to the point
where it turned east before. Now it turns north and walks straight away on
the same meridian to its home.
Question: Are the numbers correct? Clearly, the two routes on the same
meridians are of length 60° in either direction. But how long is the route along
the latitude circle?
Departure = Difference of longitude in degrees x Cosine latitude = 360° (the

whole circle) x cos 80° = 360° x 0.173 = 62.5°
So the value is only a good approximation. The length of the three routes
respectively: 60°; 62.5°; 60°. To get the exact values, the Creature should
walk a little bit more southwards along the meridian.
Example 3: Prague (Czech Republic) (5008°N 01447°E) Karaganda

(Kazakhstan) (4980°N 07311°E) and Winnipeg (Canada) are close to 50°.
Figure 1.118. Departure Prague - Karaganda - Winnipeg
1. Flying the 50°N latitude circle (rhumb line), what is the departure
between Prague and Karaganda?
Departure between Karaganda and Prague: (73.11 - 14.47) x cos 50° =

7166 x 0.6423 = 46.06° = 46.06 x 60 = 2764 NM = 46.06 x 110 =
5 067 km.
2. The departure between Prague and Winnipeg is 7 893 km, what is the
longitude of Winnipeg?
Difference of longitude between Prague and Winnipeg =
(Departure)/(cos latitude) = (7 893 km)/(110 x cos 50°) = 7 893/(110 x
0.6423) = 111.71°. With these data given, we have two solutions. If
Winnipeg is in the Eastern Hemisphere, its longitude is (111.71 +
14.47)° = 126.18°E, in the northernmost tip of China. If Winnipeg is in
the Western Hemisphere - as is the case, the longitude is (111.71 -
14.47)° = 97.24°W, in the middle of Canada, not far from Lake Superior.
3. What is the departure between Karaganda and Winnipeg?
Departure between Karaganda and Winnipeg: (73.11 + 97.24)° (plus,

because Karaganda is n the Eastern Hemisphere, Winnipeg on the west)
x cos 50° x 110 = 170.35 x 0.6423 x 110 = 12035 km.
4. Is it true that the departure from Prague to Winnipeg is equal to the sum
of departures Prague-Karaganda and Karaganda-Winnipeg?
The answer is: Yes, but it was close! The difference of longitude between
Karaganda and Winnipeg is (73.11 + 97.24)° = 170.35°. It is less than
180°, so the departure Karaganda-Prague and Prague-Winnipeg can be
added to show departure Karaganda-Winnipeg. However, if the
difference were more than 180°, we should choose the other arc of the
circle of latitude 50°N.
Figure 1.119. Departure Vancouver - Prague
Vancouver (Canada) (4925°N 12313°W) is also close to latitude 50°N.

Departure Vancouver-Prague: (123.13 + 14.47)° x cos 50° x 110 = 9 722 km.
Departure Karaganda-Prague: (73.11 - 14.47) x cos 50° x 110 = 5 067 km.
However, the difference of longitude between Vancouver and Karaganda
would be (123.13 + 73.11)° = 196.24° (plus, not minus, because Vancouver
west, Karaganda east) which is greater than 180°. So we have to take the
other arc of the circle of latitude: (360 - 196)° = 164°. Departure Vancouver-
Karaganda: 164 x cos 50° x 110 = 11587 km.
Example 4: What is the departure of two cities lying on the same meridian or
on a meridian and its anti-meridian?
This is the easiest case, because the departure is exactly the same here as the
geographic distance. All we have to do is to calculate the difference of latitude
between the two cities, then convert degrees into nautical miles or kilometres.
Tunis and Hamburg are close to longitude 10°E. Tunis is close to latitude
37°N, Hamburg to latitude 54°N. Difference of latitude is (54 - 37) = 17°
(minus, because both are in the Northern Hemisphere).
Departure = Geographic distance = 17° x 60 NM = 1020 NM = 17° x 110 km

= 1870 km
Cape Town and Sarajevo are close to longitude 18°E. Cape Town is close to
latitude 34°S, Sarajevo to latitude 44°N. Difference of latitude is (34 + 44) =
78° (plus, because they are in different hemispheres).
Departure = Geographic distance = 78° x 60 NM = 4680 NM = 78° x 110 km

= 8 580 km
Example 5: The picture shows two round trips along rhumb lines (latitude and
longitude lines).
One route starts at Pl (0°N/S 10°W) of track 180(T), then P2 (10°S 10°W) of
track 270(T), then P3 (10°S 50°W) of track 000(T), then P4 (0°N/S 50°W) of
track 090(T).
The other starts at Ql(10° S 40°E) of track 180(T), then Q2 (40°S 40°E) of
track 270(T), then Q3 (40°S 20°E) of track 000(T), then Q4 (10°S 20°E) of
track 090(T).
Figure 1.120. Rhumb line distances
Are they of equal length? If not, how much longer is one than the other?
One way to solve this is to apply the formulas Departure = Difference of

longitude x 60 x Cosine latitude NM = Difference of longitude x 110 x Cosine
latitude km, and count in the good hope of not making mistakes.
The other way is to apply common sense first. Which are the lines in the
picture that represent segments of great circles where departure and distance
are the same? These are the parts of the routes on the equator and the
meridians. Both routes contain six segments with a length of 10° each:
• 4 segments: P4-P1
• 2x 2 segments: P1-P2 and P3-P4
• 2x 3 segments: Q1-Q2 and Q3-Q4
So we neglect these parts in both routes, and focus on the remaining

departures which are not straight lines.
An even closer look reveals that among these departure lines, there are equal
arcs, namely, half of the arc between P2 (10°S 10°E) and P3 (10°S 50°W) in
the first route, and between QI (10°S 40°E) and Q4 (10°S 20°E) in the second
route.
It remains to be seen if the other half of the arc between P2 and P3 in the first
route or the arc between QI and Q4 in the second is the longer one. Even
now, we can avoid computing, just recall that the arc of a circle of latitude
between two meridians keeps diminishing towards the Poles. This means that
the arc between (40°S 40°E) and (40°S 20°E) in the second route is certainly
shorter than half of the arc between (10°S 10°E) and (10°S 50°W) in the first
route.
The second route is the shorter one. To give a numerical answer, we have to
calculate: Departure of the arc between (10°S 10°W) and (10°S 50°W) in the
first route: (50 - 10) x cos 10° = 39.4°. We need half of this: 39.4°/2 = 19.7°.
Departure of the arc between (40°S 40°E) and (40°S 20°E) in the second
route: (40 - 20) x cos 40° = 15.3°.
STUDY TEST
1.3. Time and time conversions
Have you ever thought about the meaning of the word "Time"? Could you
explain it to someone who has never heard of it before? Quoting Definition of
Time from Google: "Time is something we deal with every day, and something
that everyone thinks they understand. However, a compact and robust
definition of time has proved to be remarkably tricky and elusive.” We do not
go into the philosophical definition of time (we would certainly fail to invent
one), but accept it “as we deal with it every day”.
It is worth remarking that only in the last 150 years have physicists begun to
think about a unifying theorem of time and distance - two concepts that
apparently have nothing to do with each other.
How to measure time? In this chapter, we describe the method of time

measurement by the movement of the Sun, and the principle of time zones on
the Earth-globe. Next, we study the ways of correcting the mistakes that
come from the uneven movement of the Sun. It can be done either by
replacing the real Sun with a theoretical, imaginary Sun with steady, even
movement on the ecliptic; or by replacing the real Sun with a star so distant
from us that it seems to be at one fixed point of the sky. We define Leap
Years, and list the three main types of time measurement: Universal Time
Coordinated which is the same all over the Earth; Local Mean Time defined by
the time zone of the given geographic spot; and Standard Time actually
existing in a given country, determined by the country’s government.
1.3.1. Apparent time

Principles of zone time
How to measure time on the Earth?
Since antiquity, the main way of measurement of time has been connected
with the apparent movement of the Sun, the duration of daylight from sunrise
to sunset. The 24-hour day and the 60-minute hour conventions come from
the duodecimal (12) and sexagesimal (60) systems of ancient Sumers,
Babylonians and Egyptians.
The apparent movement of the Sun is not constant in time because of several
factors that we will discuss later. Provisionally, we suppose that each day
consists of exactly 24 hours of exactly equal duration. We label hours of the
day as 00:00 h = 24:00 h; 01:00 h; 02:00 h;...10:00 h; 11:00 h; 12:00 h;
13:00 h;... 22:00 h; 23:00 h; 24:00 h = 00:00 h; 01:00 h;... The only ambiguity
in our notation is 00:00 h = 24:00 h, but it always refers to midnight. The
usual am/pm notation is very confusing in the most delicate cases of midnight
00:00 h = 24:00 h and noon 12:00 h.
Suppose that it is, say, 12:00 h noon in London right now. What is the time in
other geographic locations?
One possible answer is that it is the same 12:00 h everywhere on the Earth.
Some people have their supper at 12:00 h in the evening, or it is just midnight
at 12:00 h, or it is the usual time for breakfast in the morning. Remember that
this is exactly the case with months! For an Englishman "the sweet season" of
spring is April-May, but for a New Zealander it is October-November.
This kind of Universal Time does exist and plays a crucial role in time
measurement, as we will see.
Still, in contrast to months, a harmonised system for the hours of the day is
the most commonly used method of measuring time worldwide. Roughly
speaking, the aim is that 12:00 h noon means the middle of the daylight
between sunrise and sunset for most people around the world.
The problem is that sunrise-sunset time is continuously changing on the

revolving globe. Two east-west neighbours have - a little bit but - different
sunrise and sunset at their homes. Exact measurement of time on this basis
would be unfit for normal, civil life. We try to find a reasonable compromise
between one time for all points and different time for each point.
As early as 1858, Filopanti, an Italian mathematician divided the globe into 24

equal slices (like those on an orange) representing 24 time zones.
How to construct a time zone?
The whole equator is equal to 360° = 40000 km = 21600 NM. Dividing it into
24 equal arcs we get 360/24 = 15° = 1670 km = 900 NM for the width of
each slice.
We choose the meridian through Greenwich as the Prime Meridian. It cuts the
equator in a point. From this point we measure 7.5° = 835 km = 450 NM both
eastward and westward on the equator, and draw two meridians
(perpendiculars to the equator) at the endpoints. We get a spherical slice of
measure 15° with the Prime Meridian as the vertical axis of symmetry.
In spherical geometry, a slice is called a biangle. Starting from the first slice or
biangle, we cover the whole surface of the globe with 24 copies of the same
15° shape.
How to measure time in these zones?
We agree that hours are constant within a zone, and minutes are constant in
all zones. What about the hours in different zones?
Suppose that it is 12:00 h in the time zone of the Prime Meridian through
Greenwich. Since the Earth is rotating from west to east, the Sun and all the
celestial bodies appear to revolve around the Earth from east to west.
Therefore the zone which is adjacent eastward to the Prime Meridian zone
has already passed noon. Its zone time is 13:00 h in the afternoon. In the same
manner we proceed to 14:00 h, 15:00 h, and so on in the eastern direction.
Now proceed westward from the Prime Meridian zone in the opposite
direction. Since the Earth is rotating from west to east, the zone which is
adjacent westward to the Prime Meridian zone has not yet passed noon.
Therefore its zone time is 11:00 h in the morning. In the same manner, we
proceed to 10:00 h, 09:00 h, and so on in the western direction.
. <T1 (WOO 1000 11:00 12:00 13.00 14:00 1506 IM! Oil
Figure 1.121. Time zones (prime meridian)
The two routes collide in the time zone opposite to the Prime Meridian zone.
This zone contains the antemeridian of the Prime Meridian. The antemeridian
is called the date line Meridian or simply the date line. What time should be
assigned to the date line zone?
Figure 1.122. Time zones (date line)
If we proceed eastward from the Prime Meridian zone of 12:00 h, we have

24:00 h in the date line time zone. If we proceed westward from the Prime
Meridian zone of 12:00 h, we have 00:00 h in the date line time zone. This
causes no problem with hours or minutes, because 24:00 h = 00:00 h marks
midnight anyway. But what DAY is it in this zone?
To clear up this question, we begin with an easier example.
Suppose that the time is 17:00 h Monday in the Prime Meridian zone in the
Eastern Hemisphere.
Eastward from this zone of 17:00 h, the time in the next zone is 18:00 h
Monday, then 19:00 h Monday,... then 24:00 h Monday, then, logically,
01:00 h Tuesday, then 02:00 h Tuesday, then 03:00 h Tuesday, then 04:00 h
Tuesday, then 05:00 h Tuesday in the date line zone.
Westward from the Prime Meridian zone of 17:00 h, the time in the next zone
is 16:00 h Monday, then 15:00 h Monday,... then 07:00 h Monday, then
06:00 h Monday, then 05:00 h Monday in the date line zone where we already
stated 05:00 h Tuesday as the date.
What is the date in this zone, then, 05:00 h Monday or 05:00 h Tuesday?
Media 1.5. Time zones (clockwise)
Media 1.6. Time zones (anti-clockwise)

There is only one solution to this problem. We agree on the following:
• If we cross the date line from east to west, we keep the hour and minute,
but subtract one day, from Tuesday to Monday, or from Wednesday to
Tuesday, or...
• If we cross the date line from west to east, we keep the hour and minute,
but add one day, from Monday to Tuesday, or from Tuesday to Wednesday,
or...
Now we can answer the question that we skipped earlier.
Going eastward from the Prime Meridian zone of 12:00 h we arrive at the
date line zone of 24:00 h. Going westward from the Prime Meridian zone of
12:00 h we arrive at the date line zone of 00:00 h. This causes no problem
with hours or minutes, because 24:00 h = 00:00 h marks midnight anyway.
But what DAY is it?
In this special case, all the 24 time zones around the globe refer to Monday.
However, if on the eastern side of the date line it is midnight from Monday to
Tuesday, then on the western side it is also midnight, but from Sunday to
Monday! The 24-hour difference remains valid under any circumstances. The
next minute after midnight will be 00:01 h Tuesday on the eastern side, but
00:01 h Monday on the western side of the date line.
Media 1.7. Time zones
What time is it on the North or South Pole? The above reasoning says nothing
about this, because all time zones meet at the Poles. There is a mess of time at
the Poles that must be cleared up by further arrangements.
What day is it for someone who stands exactly on the date line? Nobody
knows. They are free to decide if it is Sunday or Monday for them.
Is this time zone construction strange? Yes, it is. We can take it as a useful
handiwork with many advantages and several disadvantages. It solves many
difficult problems of harmonising time measurement globally, and leaves
several others unsolved which call for further discussion.
How can we measure the length of a day?
We took the concept of a day for granted, but what does the length of a day
exactly mean?
Neither sunrise nor sunset provides a precise enough basis for measuring the
length of a day. The Sun is not a point but a disc on the sky. Its appearance or
disappearance does not occur at a glimpse™, but during a period of time.
Besides, the refraction of the layer of air above the Earth also interferes with
the visibility of the Sun. So we choose another method.
At a given place of the Earth (except the two Poles) we determine the north
south direction, the direction of the meridian that belongs to the given place.
Since the Earth is revolving from west to east, the Sun and all the celestial
bodies seem to rotate from east to west for the earthly observer. A given
celestial body crosses the local meridian in a given time. This crossing is called
a transit of the given celestial body with reference to the given geographic
spot.
Instead of observing sunrise and sunset, we can measure the length of a day
by the time elapsed between two successive transits of a celestial body.
What objects in the sky can be chosen for this purpose?
We have two main options:
1. The obvious choice is the Sun itself, the star of our solar system. The
solar noon is the time when the Sun is at its highest position above us,
and the shadows are the shortest possible during the day. In this case,
the time elapsed between two solar noons, two transits of the Sun is
called an apparent solar day. This method is based, not on sunrise and
sunset, but the middle of the daylight, the noon which can more
precisely be determined.
2. The other option is to choose a star so distant from the Earth that it
appears for us as a fixed point on the sky, on the celestial sphere.
To describe a configuration via geometric concepts and tools, a careful

distinction must be made between important and negligible factors.
This statement is particularly valid for interstellar configurations. For example,

exactly mean?
Neither sunrise nor sunset provides a precise enough basis for measuring the
length of a day. The Sun is not a point but a disc on the sky. Its appearance or
rlicnnnanrnnro nrnit- ->+ -> rrli
, but during a period of time.
What is a "glimpse"? It is "a very short period of time", but /e the Earth also interferes with
the Sanskrit word "ksana" means l/75th of a "glimpse" as
Br method.
the time necessary for "bodhi", the enlightenment of the
soul in Buddhism. (In mathematics literature, the type of
Poles) we determine the north-
"mathematical enlightenment" is called "the AHA
moment".) It is very difficult to exactly define "a very short
that belongs to the given place.
period of time". Calculus answers many questions, but t, the Sun and all the celestial
leaves many others open. he earthly observer. A given
celestial body crosses the local meridian in a given time. This crossing is called
a transit of the given celestial body with reference to the given geographic
spot.
Instead of observing sunrise and sunset, we can measure the length of a day
by the time elapsed between two successive transits of a celestial body.
What objects in the sky can be chosen for this purpose?
We have two main options:
1. The obvious choice is the Sun itself, the star of our solar system. The
solar noon is the time when the Sun is at its highest position above us,
and the shadows are the shortest possible during the day. In this case,
the time elapsed between two solar noons, two transits of the Sun is
called an apparent solar day. This method is based, not on sunrise and
sunset, but the middle of the daylight, the noon which can more
precisely be determined.
2. The other option is to choose a star so distant from the Earth that it
appears for us as a fixed point on the sky, on the celestial sphere.
To describe a configuration via geometric concepts and tools, a careful

distinction must be made between important and negligible factors.
This statement is particularly valid for interstellar configurations. For example,

we stated earlier that the rays of the Sun could be taken as parallels for the
earthly observer. We argued that the Sun was relatively huge, compared to
the Earth.
Figure 1.124. Sunrays
Now take a distant star, for example the Sirius at a distance of about 8.5 light
years = 8.5 x 365 x 24 = 74460 ~ 75 000 light hours from the Sun. The
diameter of our solar system is about 10 light hours. The ratio of the Sirius-
Sun distance to the diameter of the solar system is 75 000 4-10 ~ 7 500. To
watch our solar system from the Sirius is proportional to watching a rotating
ring of 2 cm in diameter from about 7 500 x 2 cm = 150 m distance. We can
safely suppose that all parts of the rotating ring are about the same distance
from the observer.
Conversely, any minuscule astronomer on the rotating ring perceives the

person at 150 m distance away at (approximately) the same place,
independently of his momentary position on the ring.
This means that from the Sun or from the Earth the stars are so far away that
they seem to be fixed at the same place on the sky. Conversely, rays of light
from the distant stars can be taken as parallel straight lines because of the
huge distance between them and us. They are "almost at infinity", so to speak.
Solar day and sidereal day

We said that the length of the day could be measured as the time elapsed
between two transits, two noons of the Sun, or between two transits, two
"noons" of a fixed star on the sky. The time measured by two successive
transits of the Sun is called an apparent solar day; the time measured on this
basis is apparent solar time. The day measured by the two consecutive transits
of a fixed star is a sidereal day.
Are these two the same? Is a solar day of the same duration as that of a
sidereal day? The surprising answer is NO, the solar day is a bit longer than a
sidereal day. Why?
The Earth rotates counterclockwise around its axis, and at the same time
moves on an elliptic orbit around the Sun, also in the counterclockwise
direction. To compare the length of a solar day and a sidereal day means to
compare the duration of time between two successive noons, transits of the
Sun and two successive "noons", transits of a fixed star.
The illustrations below show that the time between two transits of the star is
shorter than that of the Sun. The reason is that the Earth’s rotation around its
axis and its movement around the Sun are both counterclockwise.
Figure 1.125. Initial stage
Initial stage The observer on the Earth (marked by a small arrow pointing to
the observer’s position on the Earth) is in line both with the Sun’s transit
(noon) and the star’s transit. The solar day and the sidereal day begins at the
same time in this position.
Figure 1.126. End of sidereal day
End of sidereal day After rotating around its axis (shown by the rotation of
the arrow) and also moving on the orbit around the Sun, the Earth is in a
position where the observer on the Earth sees the star’s transit again. No
arrow until now points exactly to the Sun again, so the solar day still goes on.
Figure 1.127. End of solar day
End of solar day Further rotation around its axis and at the same time
revolving on the orbit brings the Earth in a position where the arrow points
exactly to the Sun again. It is solar noon on the Earth, the end of the solar day.
The arrow is beyond the position where it pointed to the distant star and
marked the end of the sidereal day. The solar day lasts longer than the sidereal
day.
The effect is just the opposite if we consider another planet, for example
Venus, whose rotation around its axis is clockwise but its motion around the
Sun is counterclockwise. The solar day on Venus is shorter than the sidereal
day.
From this it follows that the Earth rotates 360° to produce two successive
transits of a distant star; but it rotates more than 360° for two successive
transits, two noons of the Sun.
By comparison, if you need five moments to meet your partner waiting for you
at a place, you need more than five minutes to meet them if they are moving
away from you (Earth and Sun), and less than five minutes if they run towards
you (Venus and Sun).
What are the problems with the length of an apparent solar day?
The length of an apparent solar day, the duration between two solar noons
varies in time because of two main factors.
The orbit around the Sun is not circular, but elliptic, and the speed is not
constant either. Were it circular with constant speed, no other factors
interfering, the apparent movement of the Sun on the celestial sphere would
be constant, perfect for time measurement.
The second reason for the uneven movement is that the Earth’s axis of
rotation is tilted to the plane of its orbit around the Sun at angle ~ 66.5°.
Therefore, the plane of the celestial equator of the Earth (which is
perpendicular to the axis of rotation) and the plane of the ecliptic are at angle
(90 - 66.5)° = 23.5°.
During the apparent movement of the Sun on the ecliptic there are four
noteworthy positions: the two solstices when the Sun is farthest away from
the celestial equator (first picture below), and the two equinoxes when the
Sun crosses it (second picture below).
Figure 1.128. Ecliptic and celestial equator
At the solstices the direction of movement of the Sun is parallel with the
corresponding tangent of the celestial equator (the angle is zero). The
apparent movement of the Sun on the sky is faster than the average daily
shift. By contrast, at the equinoxes the Sun crosses the celestial equator. The
two tangents are at a maximal possible angle, and the apparent movement of
the Sun is slower than the average.
The situation reminds of the landing of an airplane. When it starts landing and
goes down at an angle to the ground, the movement appears slow as
compared to the objects on the ground. When the plane lands, its movement
becomes parallel with the tangent to the ground, and the trees and houses
appear as running fast backwards for the observer in the plane.
These effects makes the movement of the Sun uneven for the earthly
observer. However, for us earthlings the Sun is the most convenient object to
use for time measurement. But how can we eliminate the problems of uneven
motion?
Apparent solar time and mean solar time

We replace the real Sun with a theoretical Sun that goes on the same ecliptic
during the same duration of an entire day, but its speed, its angular velocity
observed from the Earth is constant. This theoretical Sun therefore provides
an uniform measurement of time. It follows that the time between two
transits of the imaginary Sun is also constant.
By comparison, the daily discharge of water in a river under a bridge is not

uniform during different seasons of the year. To determine the average daily
discharge, we take the total water discharge in a year and divide it with the
numbers of days of the year. In other words, we replace the real river with a
theoretical river, the annual water discharge of which is the same as that of
the real river, but the discharge is constant throughout the whole year. The
average daily discharge of water as calculated from the annual amount of
water corresponds to the duration of a mean solar day, as calculated from the
duration of a full solar year.
This second theoretical Sun is called a mean Sun, the day defined by its
movement is a mean solar day, and the time measured in this way is the mean
solar time.
The equation of time

The equation of time comes from ancient Babylonians. It shows the difference
between the movement of the apparent Sun and the theoretical mean Sun.
Figure 1.129. Reading the Dial in Old Court
Figure 1.130. Astronomical clock
Astronomical Clock (Zimmer Tower) from nearby, town of Lier, Province of

Brabant, Belgium.
The sine waves in the picture display the digression of the apparent solar day
from the mean solar day. The x-axis (the abscissa) shows the months, the y-
axis (the ordinate) the digression in minutes from the mean solar time on a
given day of the year.
As we saw above, the digression has two main reasons: the eccentricity of the
orbit together with the uneven speed of the Earth; and the obliquity of the
axis of revolution to the plane of the orbit.
Figure 1.131. Orbit of the Earth
The eccentricity causes less problems, because the shape of the orbit is not far
from a perfect circle. Therefore, the wave of eccentricity is less oscillating.
The other effect comes from the obliquity, the tilt of the axis of revolution to
the plane of the orbit, as seen on the second, more intensively oscillating
wave.
Adding up the corresponding values, we get the actual digression in minutes.

For example, around June 13th the two waves are both very close to the x-
axis, so their sum is very close to zero. The maximal deviations are: around
February 12th when the Sun is slow, back behind the mean time about 14
minutes; and around November 4th when the Sun is too fast, 16 minutes
ahead of the mean time.
Length of the mean solar year: leap years

The length of a mean solar year is approximately 365 + 1/4 mean solar days,
calendar days.
Fractions of days would be inconvenient to use, so we introduce leap years

with a leap day on 29th of February.
Which years are leap years?
Take all the years that CANNOT be evenly divided by 4. None of them is a
leap year. All of them have 365 days. The last day of February is 28th. (AD
2010, 2011, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2017,...)
Take all the years that CAN be evenly divided by 4. Call them four-divisible
years. (AD 4, 8,... 1992, 1996, 2000, 2004,..., 2020, 2024,...)
Among four-divisible years, those which are also evenly divided by 400 are
leap years with 366 days per year. The last day of February is 29th. (AD 1200,
1600, 2000, 2400, etc.)
Among four-divisible years, those which are divisible by 100 but NOT by 400
are NOT leap years with only 365 days per year. The last day of February is
28th. (AD 1400,1500,1700,1800,1900, 2100,...) So 2100 will not be a leap
year, watch out!
All other four-divisible years are leap years with 366 days per year. The last
day of February is 29th. (AD 1992, 1996, 2004,..., 2016, 2020, 2024,...)
Conversions of time to angle (arc) and visa versa

The theoretical Sun of mean solar time is imagined to travel along a great
circle on the celestial globe around the Earth. The length of a complete daily
travel can be given as 360° or 24 hours. This means that time can be
measured in degrees of angle (also called arcs, because angle can be measured
by an arc of a circle), or in mean solar hours. The time difference between two
geographic spots can be given in hours (and their fractions) or in degrees (and
their fractions) of the angle of the two longitudes belonging to the two
geographic spots.
The conversion can best be illustrated on the Equator.
Figure 1.132. Time differences
360° (the angle of one full rotation of the Earth around its axis, or a
complete travel along the Equator in degrees) =
= 24 hours = (24 x 60) minutes of time = 1440 minutes of time = (24 x 60 x
60) seconds of time = 86400 seconds of time
24 hours (the time of one full rotation of the Earth around its axis) = 360° =
(360 x 60) minutes of angle = 21600’ of angle = (360 x 60 x 60) seconds of
angle = 1296 000” of angle
1 hour of time = (360/24)° = 15° of angle
On this basis, conversion would be easy, were it not for some inconvenient
ambiguities.
You must be careful with the fractions of angle and fractions of time. Of
course, you can simply convert them with an online or printed converter, but
we try to explain the concept itself.
One problem is that we use the decimal system and fractions everywhere, but
the sexagesimal system and fractions are also in general use for measurement
of angle and time.
Also, the distinction between degrees of angle and hours of time is clear, but
the distinction between minutes of time and minutes of angle is much harder
to follow and much easier to confuse, just as with seconds of angle and
seconds of time.
With conversions, perhaps a better way is to go down to seconds of angle and

seconds of time, then build the conversion up from smaller to greater units:
• 360° of angle = 1296 000” of angle = 24 hours of time = 86 400 sec of time
• 1 sec of time = (1296 000/86400)” of angle = 15” of angle
• 1” of angle = (86 400/1296 000)” of angle = (1/15) sec of time
Let us have a look at some examples.
Example 1: Convert 137°36’ of angle (arc) to time:
137°36’ of angle = (137 x 60 x 60 + 36 x 60)” of angle = 495 360” of angle =

(495 360 -r 15) sec of time = 33 024 sec of time = (550 x 60 + 24) sec of time
= (550 min + 24 sec) of time = [(9 x 60) min + 10 min + 24 sec] of time = 9 h
10 min 24 sec of time
Follow step by step:

137°36’ of angle = (convert degrees and minutes of angle into seconds of
angle) = (137 x 60 x 60 + 36 x 60)” of angle = 495 360” of angle = (convert
seconds of angle into seconds of time by dividing by 15) = (495 360/15) sec of
time = 33 024 sec of time = (check how many minutes of time can be done
from seconds of time, and how many seconds of time left) = (550 x 60 +
24) sec of time = (550 min + 24 sec) of time = (check how many hours of time
can be done from minutes of time, and how many minutes of time left) = [(9 x
60) min + 10 min + 24 sec] of time = 9 h 10 min 24 sec of time
What does this mean from the point of view of time zones?
9 h 10 min 24 sec of time can be rounded off to 9 h. The conversion gives that
between two geographic spots whose longitudes are at angle 137°36’, the
difference of time is 9 hours.
Example 2: Convert 1.75 hours of time to angle (or arc):
1.75 hours of time = 60 minutes of time + [(75/100) x 60] minutes of time =

(60 + 45) minutes of time = 105 minutes of time = (105 x 60) seconds of time
= 6 300 seconds of time = (6 300 x 15) seconds of angle = 94 500 seconds of
angle = 94 500” of angle = (1575 x 60)” seconds of angle = 1575 minutes of
angle = 1575’ of angle = (26 x 60 + 15)’ of angle = 26°15’ of angle
Example 3: Convert 6 h 7 min 8 sec of time into degrees:
6 h 7 min 8 sec of time = (6 x 60 x 60 + 7 x 60 + 8) sec of time = 22 028 sec

of time = (22 028 x 15)’’ of angle = 330 420” of angle = (5 507 x 60 + 0 x 60)”
of angle = 5 507’ of angle = (91 x 60 + 47)’ of angle = 91°47’ of angle
6 h 7 min 8 sec of time = 91°47’ of angle.
1.3.2. Universal time coordinated (UTC)

The Local Mean Time (LMT) varies with the longitudes, so a universal time is
often inevitable, particularly in navigation, as for example in the GPS
navigation satellite system.
How to define a universal time for the whole globe?
Once we agreed on the Greenwich Meridian as Prime Meridian, it is

reasonable to choose the Greenwich Mean Time, the zone time in the
Greenwich Time Zone as the Universal Time Coordinated.
The Mean Time in any time zone is based on the rotation of the Earth around
its axis, and its wandering around the Sun. So is the Greenwich Mean Time.
The Mean Time is more reliable than the apparent daily movement of the Sun,
but still not accurate enough for more demanding requirements of
measurement of time.
Since antiquity, there have been continuous efforts to find methods more
reliable than the uneven movement of the Earth, such as the flow of water,
the time for an oil lamp to keep light or for a candle to burn down, and so on.
Twentieth-century physics brought new methods of time measurement based

on the atomic oscillation of caesium 133 and other chemical elements.
Although influenced by temperature and other factors, this phenomenon is
much more stable than the apparent movement of stars in the sky. Presently,
atomic oscillation is the basic principle of constructing atomic clocks which
serve to standardise time measurement globally. Atomic clocks define
Universal Time Coordinated.
With less strict requirements of accuracy, Universal Time and Greenwich

Mean Time can be considered as being the same.
The conversion between UTC and LMT, Universal Time Coordinated and Local
Mean Time, depends only on the difference of longitudes. Therefore, we can
convert time to angle of longitudes (also called arc between two longitudes)
and visa versa. However, as you will see right below, the actual boundaries of
the time zones do not always follow the longitude lines.
Theoretically, the longitudes in the Greenwich Time Zone are between

00075°W and 00075°E. Any location which is on (09000 ± 00750) longitude
is at a quarter of a full day, that is, 24/4 = 6 hours time difference in LMT,
Local Mean Time from UTC, Universal Time Coordinated, either to the east or
to the west.
Conversely, any location at a difference of 10 hours from UTC must be on

(15000 ± 00750) longitude either to the east or to the west.
1.3.3. Local mean time (LMT)

The 24-hour time zone division is a useful compromise between only one time
for the whole globe and continuously changing time from spot to spot.
The Local Mean Time for each time zone is defined by the apparent
movement of a theoretical Sun that travels on the ecliptic of the celestial
globe with a constant speed. The beginning of a local mean day at any location
is when the theoretical mean Sun is in transit with the antemeridian of the
given location. This is midnight or 0000 hours Local Mean Time (LMT) in the
given time zone.
When the mean Sun is in transit with the location’s meridian, the time
difference from midnight is half a day. So in this moment it is noon, 1200 Local
Mean Time (LMT) in the same zone.
The Local Mean time depends on the longitude of the location only. It follows
that at the Poles this definition of LMT does not apply, since all longitudes
meet at the Poles.
1.3.4. Standard times (STs)

The theoretical considerations on time zones were based on the division of
the globe into 24 equal slices or spherical biangles. However, practice is more
or less (rather more than less) different from theory. Economy, communication,
national and political interests and many other factors re-draw the picture.
Figure 1.133. Actual time zones
Note: The globe shows a rude draft of the borderlines of the actual time zones.
The time actually used in a country or part of a country is called the Standard
Time. It is determined by the government of the given country.
Some countries use daylight saving time (summer time) that means to set
clock ahead 1 hour (“We must get up one hour earlier.”) and set back 1 hour
half a year later (“We can sleep one hour longer.”).
Some countries digress from the rule of "universal minute", and introduce
30 min or 45 min difference from UTC. Conversion from UTC to Standard
Time (ST) and visa versa is usually done by extracts from the Air Almanac
published in appropriate documents.
When converting UTC to STs, we must take into account that Universal Time
does not observe any version of daylight saving time. The actual time in a
given geographic spot is given by Standard Time.
MORE INFO
Around the Poles, special provisions determine the Standard Time, as for
example the time zone in the country whose researchers most often visit the
given area.
1.3.5. Date line

As we discussed above, the theoretical date line is the 180° antemeridian of
the 0° Greenwich Prime Meridian. The Greenwich Meridian and the date line
Meridian together divide the globe into the Eastern and Western
Hemispheres.
Theoretically, if we cross the date line from the Eastern to the Western
Hemisphere, the Local Mean Time goes back 24 hours, one day. If we go from
the West to the East, the Local Mean Time goes forward 24 hours, one day.
The date line is the actual place where the change is made.
The actual date line does not exactly follow the 180° east-west meridian.
There are some slight divergences in order to avoid countries being divided by
the date line.
With the exception of the Antarctica, the line avoids cutting across dry lands
or countries. For example it crosses the Bering Strait at 169°W instead of
cutting off the eastern tip of Eurasia at longitude 180°.
Another example of digression from strict east-west division is Tonga which is

geographically in the Western Hemisphere, but still on the Eastern side of the
irregular date line. Nukualofa, the capital of Tonga, is at longitude 175°W;
Pago Pago, the capital of American Samoa, at longitude 170°W. They are at a
relatively small distance of 901 km = 554 NM from each other, but there is
always a 24-hour time difference between them. Wednesday noon in Pago
Pago always refers to Thursday noon in Nukualofa.
As compared with other time zones, American Samoa is always farthest back
in the past, and Tonga farthest ahead in the future. When you cross the date
line from East to West, you make a one day time travel to the past; from West
to East, to the future.
Figure 1.135. Date line
When calculating times, the date line is automatically taken into account by
doing all conversions via UTC/GMT - another advantage of defining a
Universal Time for the whole globe.
To illustrate the role of the date line in measuring differences of time, take
three cities: Iraklion (Greece), Tokyo (Japan), and Albuquerque (USA). All of
them lie at about the same latitude 35°N. The geographic distance between
Iraklion and Tokyo is about the same as between Tokyo and Albuquerque,
about 9 600 km = 6000 NM. By their geographic location we would expect
that the time difference is about the same between Iraklio and Tokyo as
between Tokyo and Albuquerque. The truth is that in this moment the time in
Iraklion is 23:15 Saturday, in Tokyo 05:15 Sunday, and in Albuquerque 14:15
Saturday. The time difference between Iraklion and Tokyo is +6 h for Tokyo,
and between Tokyo and Albuquerque +15 h, for Tokyo again. The reason is
that Iraklion ad Tokyo are on the eastern side of the date line, Albuquerque on
the western side. This shows how important it is to define a Universal Time
Coordinated that gives a reference point to all time conversions.
1.3.6. Sunrise, sunset, civil twilight

We could think, that sunrise, sunset and twilight are only important in order to
determine daylight and night periods, however, understanding these
phenomena provides other useful information.
Navigation:
• Spatial orientation - If you know the direction of sunrise or sunset, true

heading can be estimated.
• Determining position - If time of sunrise/sunset and longitude or latitude
are known, with the help of the sunrise/sunset table the other (latitude or
longitude) can be determined easily.
• Problems in VFR - Obviously, flying towards the sun results in many
difficulties:
o If the weather is misty, the visibility in front of you reduced greatly, you
have to search for fixes abeam you.
o Very difficult to see other traffic, obstacles, etc.
Meteorology
Since the light rays must pass a thicker layer of air during sunset or sunrise,
they suffer higher energy loss compared to daytime. This is why "the colour of
the sky" changes to orange.
If the moisture or dust level is high in the air, the energy loss is even higher, so
the colour will be red. High moisture level paired with instability, front, or any
other kind of lifting (e.g. orography, low pressure area) can easily lead to
formation of adverse weather such as thunderstorm.
As high dust concentration in the upper layers of air is possible if the weather
is really windy, red colour can also be the indication of strong winds.
Furthermore, the fact that sunrise is darker in colour is also caused by more
unstable, windy air during the day, than during the night.
Another example of sunrise/sunset influencing meteorology is the so called

anabatic or katabatic wind. During the day the sun warms up the mountain
side more in the moderate latitudes, since the sun rays incidence angle is
higher on an inclined surface, than on a flat land, resulting in wind flowing
from the valley up towards the top of the mountain (anabatic wind). After
sunset, the situation is the opposite, the wind blows from the top of the
mountain into the valley (katabatic wind).
Sun
Figure 1.136. Light rays distance in the atmosphere (not to scale!)

Figure 1.137. Sunset in windy weather (EGGW RWY 26)
Influencing factors of sunrise, sunset, civil

twilight
Celestial concepts
Since sunrise, sunset, twilight depend on the Sun’s position, it is of high

importance to review basic celestial definitions, phenomena. Firstly we have
to distinguish between two types of motion of celestial objects:
• Absolute
• Apparent
Since we - who are the observers on the Earth’s surface - are interested in
the position relative to us, apparent motion is more important in General
Navigation. Absolute motion should be referenced to an absolute reference,
which has not been found when talking about the Universe.
Consequently, our reference will be the Earth, or when deemed necessary,
reference is us, the observers. That is why it is useful to consider the Earth to
be the centre of the Universe and stars revolving about it at an infinite
distance.
Note: This is called geocentric concept and as far as we know, it was first proposed
by Ptolemy in 127 AD.
Based on the above, an artificial celestial sphere is established, as depicted in

the figure below.
Figure 1.138. Important elements of the celestial sphere
The most important elements are:
• NCP: North Celestial Pole (sometimes CNP: Celestial North Pole)

• SCP: South Celestial Pole (sometimes CSP: Celestial South Pole)
• Celestial equator: The projection of the Earth’s equator on the celestial
sphere (not to be confused with celestial horizon!)
• Declination: Basically the "height" of the body measured from the celestial
equator
• Celestial meridian: A celestial great circle with declination, position of the
celestial body is determined
• Hour circle: A celestial great circle similar to the celestial meridian, however,
it revolves 15°/h
• Zenith: Zenith is the point on the celestial sphere which is directly over
head the observer (opposing gravity).
• Nadir: Opposite point to Zenith, if a celestial body is in Nadir, it is directly
below the observer.
• Celestial horizon: The plane perpendicular to the Zenith-Nadir Axis.
Figure 1.139. The Celestial horizon
As you already know, stars move relative to the Earth about two axis, because
of:
• Earth’s rotation
• Earth’s orbit around the Sun
Earth’s rotation
It is known that Earth rotates counter-clockwise at the rate of approximately

15°/h if seen from the North Celestial Pole. Therefore, celestial bodies appear
to rise in the East and set in the West If the celestial equator coincides with
the Zenith-Nadir axis (or perpendicular to the celestial horizon) of the given
celestial body, the star seems to rise in the East at the same time at all
latitudes along the same meridian. Practically speaking, this happens at vernal
and autumnal equinox, if we talk about the Sun.
Figure 1.140. Sunrise/sunset at equinox
As is apparent from figure above, during vernal equinox or autumnal equinox,

the ecliptic plane coincides with the (celestial) equator. Consequently, the Sun
will rise and set in the east and west, respectively, and sunrise or sunset will
happen at the same moment along the meridian.
As can also be seen, daylight or darkness is the same on this day for all
latitudes, for app. 12 hours a day.
MORE INFO L"
It is also clear from the figure above that, if the Sun is not in the plane of the
celestial equator, the Sun rises and sets at different times along each meridian
influenced by latitude.
Earth’s orbit around the Sun
Orbiting around the Sun imposes two types of impact on the rising or setting
of celestial bodies:
• Variation of declination
• Path of revolution
Variation of declination
As you know since the plane of ecliptic has an angle of app. 23.5° (23°27’)
with the celestial equator, the Sun’s declination varies from app. S23.5° to
N23.5° periodically.
Note: In 2017 the exact values are N23°26.1’ and SN23°26.1’.
Basically this is the main reason of different duration daylight and night
throughout the year except at the equator.
Figure 1.141. The ecliptic
Note: This is why latitude also plays an important role in sunrise, sunset.
Before discussing the effect of latitude on sunrise and sunset, let us consider
the term circumpolar.
Figure 1.142. Circumpolar circle
Is the Sun circumpolar?
It depends on your position and the Earth’s position on the ecliptic. As you
can see in the figure above, the celestial horizon depends on the observer's
position since it is perpendicular to the Zenith-Nadir axis. As mentioned
above, the Sun’s declination depends on the position of the orbit. Let us
assume that it is Summer in the Northern Hemisphere, so the Sun’s
declination is 22° (an arbitrary value).
If the angle between the celestial pole and the body is smaller, than the
observer’s latitude, the celestial body is circumpolar, if greater, it is not. Based
on the above only, a single calculation is to be made:
90 9^sun — yôbs.req.
90° - 22° = 68
Figure 1.143. Is the Sun circumpolar?
From the figure above it is apparent that the observer’s latitude must be
greater, than the angle between the celestial pole and the body to be
circumpolar. Based on the above, you can see how important role latitude
plays, along the same meridian you can have darkness and daylight as well,
e.g. in June at 0:00 LMT it is daylight at latitude 75°N, while darkness at 10°N,
as depicted in the figure below.
4 NCP
Figure 1.144. Daylight-darkness as a function of Sun’s declination
There is another interesting fact shown in the figures above: along the
equator, sunrise/sunset happens at the same LMT (within 15 minutes)
irrespective of the Sun’s declination, consequently Sunrise happens at app.
06:00 LMT and sets 18:00 LMT.
MORE INFO L"
Path of revolution around the Sun
The Earth’s path around the Sun also influences the time of rising and setting
of distant celestial bodies. It is the easiest to understand this phenomenon, if
you imagine - just for the sake of understanding - that the Earth stopped
rotating. In this hypothetical case, the Sun would appear to complete a circle
around the Earth only once a year. It would move eastward app. l°/day
(covering 360° in 365 days). So if we come back to the present situation (Earth
is rotating), it will become obvious that the star constellations rise app. 4
minutes earlier each day.
Interestingly, sunrise and sunset are not influenced by this phenomenon (only
on minor scale), since the Earth takes app. 23 hours 56 minutes to have a
complete rotation with reference to a distant star. Therefore the Earth turns
more than 360° in 24 hours, which almost cancels this effect. However, based
on Kepler’s third law, the Earth’s velocity varies on the path around the Sun.
The velocity is the highest around the equinoxes and lowest at aphelion and
perihelion, therefore the difference is only an average, app. 1° per day, it
varies slightly.
As you saw, sunrise and sunset are basically caused by the Earth’s rotation and
the Earth’s path around the Sun, therefore the latitude and the date (where
the Earth is on its path) are the two most important determining factors. This
is why the sunrise/sunset/twilight table contains LMT of sunrise, sunset as a
function of date tabulated against latitude. Indeed, the table contains UTC for
the Greenwich meridian which is app. LMT for any other meridian. The error is
negligible. Consequently, it is possible to calculate sunrise/sunset without
having sunrise/sunset/twilight tables for any meridian on the latitude, where
you already know SS/SR/Twilight LMT for any meridian. The same applies to
start or end of morning or evening civil twilight (in case of same alt. and
atmospheric conditions).
Figure 1.145. Example sunrise/sunset tables
MORE INFO L"
It is also remarkable to notice that sunrise, sunset change few minutes (LMT)
per day only at a given moderate latitude. This is caused by two facts:
• the Sun’s declination changes a little each day;

• the daytime-darkness line (Figure 1.144) is perpendicular to the Sun’s
declination. Therefore, if the distance between the equator and the latitude
is small, the change is little, if it is high, the change is greater, as depicted in
the figure below.
At,: change of time of sunrise/sunset at high latitude
At^ change of time of sunrise/sunset at low latitude
Figure 1.146. Variations in time of sunrise/sunset
Definitions
In order to expand our knowledge on these phenomena and factors, let us
define these terms first.
Sunrise or sunset occurs when the Sun’s upper edge is on the observer’s
horizon. Obviously, during sunrise, the Sun is moving from the invisible
position towards the visible horizon, while the situation is vice-versa during
sunset.
Twilight is the period, when - although the sun is below the horizon - the
light is sufficient to distinguish between objects. Mainly three types of twilight
are used:
• Civil twilight begins when I lasts until the centre of the Sun is 6° below the
horizon during sunrise or sunset (morning or evening twilight).
• Nautical twilight begins when I lasts until the centre of the Sun is 12°
below the horizon during sunrise or sunset (morning or evening twilight).
Note: During nautical twilight it is possible to use stars for celestial navigation.
• Astronomical twilight begins when I lasts until the centre of the Sun is 18°
below the horizon during sunrise or sunset (morning or evening twilight).
At the end of evening astronomical twilight or at the beginning of morning
astronomical twilight, it is completely dark. As you can see, during
astronomical twilight, the Sun can be as much as 18° below the horizon.
This causes that basically there is no astronomical night even at moderate
latitudes during summer I summer solstice.
Let us take a look at the following two examples illustrated in the following
figure.
Figure 1.147. Astronomical night
From the figure above it is apparent that during summer solstice, the Sun is
only 19° below the celestial horizon, consequently only 1° below the
"required" 18°, whereas in Prague the Sun is 1.5° over the "required" 18°.
Therefore, Budapest is pretty much at the margin, however there is
astronomical night, while in Prague there is no astronomical night, all evening
is astronomical twilight.
From the figure above, we can also determine the length of twilight as a
function of latitude. As you can see from the figure above, if the observer is at
higher latitude (either N or S), the celestial horizon of the observer will be
closer to celestial equator, consequently, twilight will be longer. The deeper
reason behind it is that the Sun rises and sets at a smaller angle to the horizon,
which takes longer apparent distance (d^ or d2 see figure below), thus longer
time than e.g. at the Equator (lat = 0°), where the Sun rises and sets app.
perpendicular to the horizon.
Figure 1.148. Duration of twilight
Twilight is basically caused by total reflection and refraction. Although the Sun
is below the horizon, the light rays reflect from the water and dust
concentrate of the air. This is why it is not completely dark during twilight.
Influencing factors
So far, you have seen causes of sunrise, sunset, twilight. Now let us detail the
most important influencing factors.
Altitude
In the previous sections, the observer was always considered to stay on the
ground. This, however, is true only occasionally in the case of aviation.
Although altitude is extremely small compared to the Earth’s radius or the
Earth-Sun distance, its influence cannot be overlooked.
a : Sun's angle below the horizon of P( (depression)

p : Sun's angle above the horizon of P2
Figure 1.149. Altitude influencing sunrise/sunset
As is apparent from the figure above, if one is located in a higher position, the
horizon "dips", and the celestial body will thus appear earlier. Although the
scale is not correct (altitude of p2 is magnified for illustrative purposes), it can
be seen that the Sun is located p angle above the horizon for the observer at
altitude (p2) while for P! (at sea level) the Sun is a angle below the horizon.
The realistic values of dip are approximately:
Height [ft] Dip ['] (minutes of arc)

100 10
500 22
1000 31
2000 44
MORE INFO L"
Atmospheric refraction
As light rays pass from the nearly perfect vacuum of space into the
atmosphere, light rays bend. This phenomenon is the same as when a straight
rod is partially submerged into water, it appears to bend at the surface.
Figure 1.150. Refraction in water
Figure 1.151. Atmospheric refraction
From the figure above, it is apparent that the Sun’s (or any other celestial
body's) apparent position is higher than its true location. Therefore, sunrise
appears to be earlier, and sunset later.
MORE INFO L"
Determination of sunrise, sunset, civil twilight

Introduction
It will now be explained how one can determine the LMT, LST, and UTC of
sunrise, sunset, and the duration of civil twilight.
Fortunately, no complex calculations are involved in the process, as

astronomers have done it for you. What you have to use is
sunrise/sunset/twilight table from the Air Almanac, and the Equation of Time.
It must also be emphasised, that this method is only valid for assessing the
times at sea level.
The process of determining sunrise and sunset
The process of finding these times is not difficult at all, however you have to
pay attention to correct interpolation and sense of addition (or subtraction):
1. Find the correct table (find the date).
2. Find the line corresponding to the latitude (interpolate as necessary).
3. Convert the LMT time for UTC or LST, as necessary.
Let us see some examples.
Example 1: Find the times (UTC, LMT) of sunrise, on 04.18:
• Latitude: N65°17’
• Longitude: W35°15’
Figure 1.152. Sunrise table
You have to follow the process mentioned above:
1. Find the correct table (find the date): correct table is provided.
2. Find the line corresponding to the latitude (interpolate as necessary):

interpolation was necessary for both (date, latitude).
Firstly, we have done the interpolation for the latitude on the 17th
[65°17’ = 65.5° difference between the latitude: Acp = 2° (66° - 64°),
difference between the time At’ = 10 min (04:25 - 04:15), consequently
2° A io min —»1° = 5 min
Acp2 = 66° - 65.3° = 0.7°0.7° x 5 min/° = 3.5 min 04:12 + 00:03.5 =

04:15 (3.5 min was rounded down to 3 min)]. We have done the same
on 20th (result was 04:04). Then, interpolation between the two dates
were performed, which resulted in 04:12.
Conversion of LMT to UTC

Longitude: W35°15’
1° A 4 min
35°15’ = 32.25° At = 35.25° x 4 min/° = 141 min = 2 h 21 min

Time of sunrise: 04:12 LMT + 2:21 At = 06:33 UTC
Sunrise happened at 06:33 UTC!
"Equation of time" was used (1° corresponding to 4 min) resulting in 2 h

21 min difference.
Since longitude is west, in UTC, the time is higher. (Sunrise happened
earlier at the Greenwich Meridian, so when it rises at the west, it is later
at Greenwich Meridian.) Alternatively, you can use the mnemonic
"longitude west, UTC best".
Example 2: Find the times (UTC, LMT) of sunset with the previous conditions.
Figure 1.153. Sunset table
You have to follow the same process:
3. Convert the LMT time for UTC or LST, as necessary:
At = 2:21 (same as in the previous exercise)

Time of sunset: 19:49 LMT + 2:21 At = 22:10 UTC
The process of determining civil twilight
The process is the same as before with one exception: you have to find the
times of sunrise and civil morning twilight or that of sunset and evening civil
twilight. By subtracting the two corresponding times, the duration of twilight
is found.
Example 1: Let us imagine that you want to take a girl for a date in the sunset.
The location is lake Balaton (Balatonszepezd) on 20.06.2017, coordinates:
• Latitude: N46°48’
• Longitude: E17°39’
You want to amaze her from a boat on the lake by showing her the sunset.
However, you also have to get back to the port by the end of civil twilight.
Questions:
1. When do you have to be on the lake?
2. How much time do you have on water?
Question 1: You have to determine the time of sunset.

Figure 1.154. Sunrise/sunset tables
Note: As mentioned before, time of sunrise, sunset changes only a bit, except
at high latitudes.
You have the time in LMT However, you cannot tell LMT to the girl,
since she will not know when to come. Therefore, you have to convert
LMT -> LST.
Conversion
Firstly, LMT should be converted to UTC and then to LST:
At = 17°39’ x 4 min/° = 17.65 x 4 min/° = 70.6 min = 1 h 10.6 min
Time of sunset: 19:58 LMT- 1:10 At = 18:48 UTC

Negative sign: It happens earlier at E longitudes than in UTC!
In June LST is UTC + 2 in this timezone, so:
18:48 UTC +2:00 At = 20:48 LST
You have to be on the boat latest by 20:48 LST.
Question 2: You have to calculate evening civil twilight period.

Figure 1.155. Morning/evening civil twilight tables

Figure 1.155. Morning/evening civil twilight tables

Time of civil evening twilight:
20:31 (end of civil twilight) - 19:58 LMT = 0:33
Since longitude is the same, we can simply add this 33 minutes to LST of
sunset:
20:48 LST + 0:33 = 21:21 LST (end of civil evening twilight)
All in all you have time until 21:21 to get back to the coast!
Example 2: You are in the Sahara Desert on 08.10.2017, coordinates:
• Latitude: N30°
• Longitude: E21°
You want to know sunrise and morning civil twilight, but you do not have
SR/SS/Twilight table on you. However, you remember that close to Cairo
(N30° E31°), time of sunrise is 03:54 UTC and beginning of morning twilight is
03:30 UTC. Calculate sunrise and beginning of morning civil twilight at your
location!
This exercise is fairly simple. You only have to apply 1° = 4 min formula:
AX = 10° (change in longitude)

At = AX x 4 min/° = 40 min
Now we have to add 40 min to UTC, which results in 04:10 UTC for beginning
of m.c. twilight and 04:34 UTC for sunrise.
STUDY TEST
1.4. Directions
There is no need to explain to a pilot that directions are of vital importance in
navigation.
How to determine, then, the northern or the southern direction on the Earth?
At first sight, it is very simple. The Earth is rotating around its axis. The North
and South Poles are the two opposite points where the imaginary axis of
rotation pierces the surface of the Earth.
Note: It is to be decided which is which. For centuries, maps were designed with
South at the top and North at the bottom, just the reverse as we do it today.
However, there exists another option based on magnetism. The Earth behaves
like a huge magnet, with fixed points of magnetic poles. It is much easier to
navigate on the seas with the help of a magnetised compass that shows the
magnetic north-south direction.
The problem is that the rotational North-South Poles do not coincide with the
magnetic North-South Poles. Besides, the compass is practically useless in the
proximity of the Poles. Even worse, the magnetic Poles are wandering along
totally irregular lines. As a matter of fact, the rotational axis is not fixed either,
but its movement is much slower than that of the magnetic poles.
In this chapter, we study these two types of pole points and their roles in
determining directions on the globe.
1.4.1. True North

The axis of rotation of the Earth marks two opposite (antipodal) points on the
surface, the North and South Poles which determine the line of the Equator
halfway between the poles.
Figure 1.156. Earth and poles
The longitudes are all the meridians that connect the two Poles and run in
north-south direction. The True-North direction at any geographic point is
along the meridian through the point towards the geographic North Pole.
The true direction from any geographic spot to another is measured clockwise
as an angle in degrees from true north (TN).
Figure 1.157. True directions
In the Northern Hemisphere, the approximate true direction at point A from

Madrid to Munich is X = 41.6°; from Munich to Cracow at point B is Y = 52.4°.
In the Southern Hemisphere, the approximate true direction from Melbourne
to Brisbane is (W - 180)° = (214.7 - 180)° = 34.7°; from Brisbane to Nauru (V
-180)° = (210.4 - 180)° = 30.4°.
1.4.2. Terrestrial magnetism: magnetic

north, inclination and variation
The magnetised sphere (terrella)
On a rotating globe (such as the Earth), the axis of rotation determines two
opposite pole points and an equatorial great circle.
On a magnetised sphere we find two constant pole points and an equator in

any position of the magnet, regardless of whether it is moving or resting.
The magnet sphere attracts two cylinders of iron (two bolts on the pictures) at
two opposite pole points. The cylinders at the pole points are perpendicular to
the spherical surface. Halfway between the pole points at the equator, the
sphere also attracts the cylinders, but in a tangential position.
I
Figure 1.158. Magnetic attraction
Between the poles and the equator, the angle of the cylinder to the spherical
surface continuously changes from 90° at the poles (perpendicular position) to
0° at the equator (tangential position).
opposite pole points and an equatorial great circle.
On a magnetised sphere we find two constant pole points and an equator in

any position of the magnet, regardless of whether it is moving or resting.
The magnet sphere attracts two cylinders of iron (two bolts on the pictures) at
two opposite pole points. The cylinders at the pole points are perpendicular to
the spherical surface. Halfway between the pole points at the equator, the
sphere also attracts the cylinders, but in a tangential position.
Figure 1.158. Magnetic attraction
Between the poles and the equator, the angle of the cylinder to the spherical
surface continuously changes from 90° at the poles (perpendicular position) to
0° at the equator (tangential position).
Figure 1.159. Change in magnetic attraction
The illustrations above are taken from William Gilbert’s book "De Magnete",
published in 1600. He argued that the whole Earth was also a giant magnet.
For this reason, he called his magnetised sphere model a "terrella" ("small
Earth").
The compass
On the surface of the Earth, a magnetised needle that can move freely on a tip
turns into a fixed position determined by the magnetic field of the Earth.
Figure 1.159. Change in magnetic attraction
The illustrations above are taken from William Gilbert’s book "De Magnete",
published in 1600. He argued that the whole Earth was also a giant magnet.
For this reason, he called his magnetised sphere model a "terrella" ("small
Earth").
The compass
On the surface of the Earth, a magnetised needle that can move freely on a tip
turns into a fixed position determined by the magnetic field of the Earth.
Media 1.8. Simple compass needles
The video shows two compass needles that turn to the same direction. They
are at a distance from each other to avoid disturbing one another’s direction.
Close proximity to other magnetised objects causes deviation of the compass
from the original position.
A similar experiment can be conducted with a magnetic sphere and two pieces
of iron, as the sphere can freely revolve on the surface.
Media 1.9. Simple compass
Figure 1.160. Simple compass
It can also be observed that one of the cylinders dips down to the surface,
while the other one sticks out. The true measure of the dip at a given place
can be shown with a freely hung sphere, as shown in the pictures below.
Figure 1.160. Simple compass
It can also be observed that one of the cylinders dips down to the surface,
while the other one sticks out. The true measure of the dip at a given place
can be shown with a freely hung sphere, as shown in the pictures below.
Figure 1.161. Dip of the cylinders
The direction of the compass as a vector can be decomposed into a horizontal

and a vertical component. The direction of the horizontal component points to
the magnetic north (MN). The vertical component approximately shows to the
centre of the Earth.
We are tempted to think that the Earth’s geographic North at the axis of
rotation is the same as the magnetic north, so the compass needle points to
both of them. Unfortunately, this is not the case.
The magnetic north pole, magnetic south pole, and also something that may
be called the magnetic equator do exist, but do not coincide with the
geographic Poles and equator.
Even so, the magnetic north pole and the magnetic south pole do not
Figure 1.161. Dip of the cylinders
The direction of the compass as a vector can be decomposed into a horizontal

and a vertical component. The direction of the horizontal component points to
the magnetic north (MN). The vertical component approximately shows to the
centre of the Earth.
We are tempted to think that the Earth’s geographic North at the axis of
rotation is the same as the magnetic north, so the compass needle points to
both of them. Unfortunately, this is not the case.
The magnetic north pole, magnetic south pole, and also something that may
be called the magnetic equator do exist, but do not coincide with the
geographic Poles and equator.
Even so, the magnetic north pole and the magnetic south pole do not
represent opposite (antipodal) points on the Earth, nor does the magnetic
equator represent a great circle. The magnetic north pole is fairly close to the
geographic North Pole, but the magnetic south pole is far away from the
geographic South Pole, out of the southern polar circle. The magnetic axis
between the two magnetic poles resembles a rod broken in the middle.
Even more so, the magnetic poles are not fixed but continuously moving along
lines that were once thought to be circles; however, recent research has
refuted this assumption. At present, we cannot predict anything certain about
the future position of the magnetic poles or the equator. All we can say is that
their movement is probably caused by melted metal in the core of the Earth.
Geographic North is also called true north. The angular difference between
true north and magnetic north is known as the variation.
The variation itself varies in time because of the (hardly predictable) orbit of
the magnetic poles, including the movement of the magnetic north pole.
The magnetic dip

Figure 1.162. Magnetic compass dip
Note: The horizontal component of the magnetic field refers to magnetic north.
The angle between the horizontal component and the total vector of the
magnetic field is known as the magnetic dip or inclination. It is 0° at the
equator, and 90° at the poles. Between the two extremes, it continuously
changes from 0° to 90°.
The smaller the dip, the greater the horizontal component; the greater the dip,
the greater the vertical component. At the poles, the horizontal component is
zero, and the vertical component reaches its maximum.
Since the horizontal component indicates the direction on the Earth’s surface,
and the vertical component is useless from this point of view, the compass
cannot be used around the magnetic poles, within a distance of approximately
1000 NM. The horizontal component of the magnetic field is so weak in these
regions that the needle of the compass almost freely revolves in any direction.
Figure 1.163. Dip at magnetic equator
Magnetic dip at the equator
The compass stands parallel with the surface, with no dip in either direction.
The vertical component is zero, the horizontal component shows the magnetic
poles.
Figure 1.164. Dip at mid latitudes
Magnetic dip about halfway between the equator and the magnetic poles
One of the endpoints of the compass dips down, the other sticks out. Both
vertical and horizontal components are present. The horizontal component
shows the magnetic poles.
Figure 1.165. Dip at magnetic pole
Magnetic dip at the magnetic poles
The endpoint is downwards to the surface. The horizontal component is zero,

and the vertical component approximately shows the centre of the Earth. No
reliable information about geographic directions is provided.
The two pictures below (Figure 1.166) show two important types of lines
related to the Earth’s magnetic field.
The first type is the magnetic equator, along which the compass stands
parallel with the surface, with no dip in either direction. This line is not far
from the geographic equator, but it is an irregular curve, not a great circle, nor
even a small circle. It changes its place and shape in time. According to data
from 1540, it crossed the geographic equator at the middle of Africa, whilst
nowadays this crossing happens around the mouth of the Amazon River at the
western shore of the Atlantic.
The other type is the line of zero variation (agonic line) where the compass
needle points not only to the magnetic north pole, but also to the geographic
North Pole. There is no need to correct the compass direction towards the
geographic north anywhere along this line. The shape of lines of zero variation
(declination) are far from great or small spherical circles.
As is mentioned above, it is the horizontal component of the magnetic field

that shows the direction on the Earth. The measure of this component, the
reliability of the information depends on the location of the given geographic
spot.
Figure 1.166. Zero variation lines
Where:
Ng is geographic North
The other type is the line of zero variation (agonic line) where the compass
needle points not only to the magnetic north pole, but also to the geographic
North Pole. There is no need to correct the compass direction towards the
geographic north anywhere along this line. The shape of lines of zero variation
(declination) are far from great or small spherical circles.
As is mentioned above, it is the horizontal component of the magnetic field

that shows the direction on the Earth. The measure of this component, the
reliability of the information depends on the location of the given geographic
spot.
Figure 1.166. Zero variation lines
Where:
Ng is geographic North
• Nm is magnetic north
• SG is geographic South
• SM is magnetic south
Media 1.10. Zero variation
STUDY TEST
1.5. Distance
It is quite similar with the directions, there is no need to explain to a pilot that
distances are of vital importance in navigation since.
This short chapter shows how to determine distances, which kind of units are
used and not to forget to differentiate between vertical distances and
horizontal distances. Therefore, we also need to keep in mind that the
distances on the Earth does not refer to a plane but to a sphere, so the terms
longitude and latitude will be present quite often.
1.5.1. Units of distance and height used

in navigation: nautical miles, statute
miles, kilometres, metres, feet
Nautical miles vs. kilometres
Both nautical miles and kilometres were originally defined as certain fractions
of the Earth’s circumference. The nautical mile is connected to the
hexadecimal system, while the kilometre is based on the decimal system.
Suppose that the equator is a perfect great circle of 360 degrees = (360 x 60)’
= 21600 minutes. One nautical mile = 1 NM corresponds to 1 minute of the
equator. Therefore the length of the equator is 21600 NM.
Suppose that the equator is a perfect great circle of measure 40000 km. One
kilometre corresponds to an (l/40000)th long arc of the whole equator.
The conversion between nautical miles and kilometres is as follows:
• 21600 NM = 40000 km
• 1 NM = 1.852 km
• 1 km = 0.540 NM
Nautical miles and kilometres: Are they units of spherical distance along
spherical great circles, or Euclidean distance along planar straight lines?
While both systems of measurement were originally defined for spherical

distances, they have always been used to measure Euclidean distances as well.
If we state that the distance between Brisbane and Nauru is 3 374 km

(1807 NM), we think of the arc of a great circle between them. If we state
that the average distance between the Earth and the Moon is 384400 km =
207 576 NM, we think of the segment of the Euclidean straight line between
them.
In map/charts, the distance between two positions is measured along a

meridian at mean latitude, where 1 minute of latitude represents 1 NM.
When dealing with heights and altitudes, the unit used is metres or feet;
subject to the choice of individual states. There are three countries in the
world that do not officially use the metric system: Liberia, Myanmar, and the
United States of America.
1.5.2. Conversion from one unit to

another
There is a huge variety of units of distance used in different countries,
cultures, and professions. For example, in aviation distance is usually
measured in nautical miles, while visibility is mostly forecast in statute miles.
In navigation, the most frequently used units are nautical miles (NM), nautical
air miles (NAM), statute miles (SM), kilometres (km), metres (m), and feet (ft):
• 1 nautical mile (NM) = 1.151 statute mile (SM) = 1.852 kilometre (km) =
1852 metre (m) = 6 076 feet (ft)
• 1 statute mile (SM) = 0.869 nautical mile (NM) = 1.609 kilometre (km) =
1609 metre (m) = 5 280 feet (ft)
• 1 kilometre (km) = 0.540 nautical mile (NM) = 0.621 statute mile (SM) =
1000 metre (m) = 3 281 feet (ft)
• 1 metre (m) = 3.281 feet (ft)
• 1 foot (ft) = 0.305 metre (m)
• Air distance/ground distance = TAS/GS and TAS = air distance/time and
NAM = NM x TAS/GS
1.5.3. Relationship between nautical

miles and minutes of latitude and
minutes of longitude
Horizontal distances on the surface of the Earth are measured along arcs of
spherical straight lines; that is, spherical great circles. As such, they are
calculated in metres, kilometres, and nautical miles.
Spherical distance can also be measured in degrees. In the picture, angle a and
distance d can both be measured in degrees along the equatorial great circle
of the angle.
Seattle in the USA and Salzburg in Austria are approximately on the same
latitude (48°N). The shortest route distance along a great circle track between
them is 4629 NM = 8 572 km. What is the difference in longitudes between
these cities?
In Section 1.2, we dealt with the departure between Seattle and Salzburg
along the latitude line that connects the two cities. Here we have the shortest
distance, the great circle route between them.
Figure 1.168. Distance Seattle-Salzburg
The picture shows the connecting arc of the great circle, and also the
connecting arc of the latitude circle.
The spherical triangle with vertices of Seattle, Salzburg, and the North Pole is
an isosceles triangle. The two cities are both on latitude 48°N, so the length of
the two equal sides from the cities to the North Pole is (90 - lat)° = (90 - 48)°
= 42° respectively.
The great circle distance between Seattle and Salzburg is d = 4629 NM =

8 572 km. In order to apply spherical trigonometry, we convert distance into
degrees. It is easier to do this with nautical miles than kilometres, because
1 NM corresponds to 1’ = (1 + 60)°. Therefore 4629 NM =4629’ = (4629 4-
60)° = 77.15°.
To calculate the difference in longitude (angle a) we cut the Seattle-Salzburg-

North Pole triangle into two right-angled triangles, and calculate angle a/2.
We can directly use 42° from above but have to divide 77.15° by 2 to get
38.575°. By the sine law of spherical trigonometry, we have sin a/2 = sin
38.575/sin 42 = 0.932 ~ 69°. The difference in longitude between the two
cities is twice as much: (69 x 2)° = 138°.
1.5.4. Rhumb line tracks

A rhumb line track cuts the longitude meridians at the same angle.
Figure 1.169. Rhumb line (same angle)
Rhumb line, general case: the line cuts all meridians at the same angle a.
Figure 1.170. Rhumb line (longitude)
Rhumb line, special case: each longitude is a a rhumb line itself when the angle
a is equal to 0° or 180° or 360°.
Flying a rhumb-line true track of 0° or 180° or 360° and given an initial

geographical position, flight time, and ground speed, we calculate the new
geographic position by taking into account that the rhumb line track indicates
the same longitude for the initial and final positions.
Budapest is close to longitude 01900°E. Flight time is 13 h, ground speed

376 NM/h, rhumb line track 180°. What is the new geographic position?
(13 x 376) NM = 4888 NM, approximately at Cape Town.
Figure 1.171. Rhumb line (latitude)
Rhumb line, special case: each latitude is a a rhumb line itself when the angle
a is equal to 90° or 270°.
Flying a rhumb-line true track of 090° or 270° and given an initial

geographical position, flight time, and ground speed, we calculate the new
geographic position taking into account that the rhumb line track indicates the
same latitude for the initial and final positions.
Seattle is close to latitude 4800°N. Flight time is 12 h, ground speed

384 NM/h, rhumb line track 270°. What is the new geographic position?
(12 x 384) NM = 4608 NM, but the rhumb line track indicates that we arrive
at the same latitude. So the new geographic position is approximately at
Salzburg.
On maps/charts, the distance between two positions is measured along a

meridian at mean latitude, where 1 minute of latitude presents 1 NM.
Aircraft Magnetism
In General Navigation, only a general knowledge about direct reading compass
is necessary, the particular operational and design characteristics are detailed
in Instrumentation. However, in order to understand aircraft magnetism, the
basic principles of magnetism and magnetic materials must be known and
understood.
2.1. Basics of aircraft magnetism
Magnetic fields basically result from:
• Magnetic materials
• Electromagnetism
2.1.1. Magnetic materials

Magnetic materials can be categorised into three groups.
Ferromagnetic materials
Ferromagnetic materials can be magnetised so, that even if the magnetic field
is removed, they remain magnetic. Therefore, these are called permanent
magnets.
Note: Indeed, permanent magnets can be demagnetised by heating them over their
Curie-point, after which they become paramagnets. For example, the Curie-point
for iron is app. 770 °C.
Such materials include iron, nickel and cobalt.
Paramagnetic materials
These materials behave like magnets in the presence of a magnetic field.

However, in the absence of a magnetic field, their magnetic characteristics are
lost (the attractive force is essentially negligible).
Such materials include aluminium, lithium and magnesium.
Diamagnetic materials
Magnets do not have effect on them, they do not attract, nor repel them. (In
fact some small repel force exists, which is negligible.)
Such materials include mercury, gold, copper and silver.

Note: From a scientific point of view, categorisation is much more elaborate and
specific.
2.1.2. Electromagnetism
As discovered in the 19th century, the electronic field of any conductor
induces a magnetic field. Electromagnets are primarily used nowadays,
because of their high reliability and adjustability.
The strength of the field is described by empirical laws; it is called magnetic

flux density (or magnetic vector of induction) and is denoted by "B".
I : Electric Current [A]

I : Length of the Conductor [m]
B: Magnetic Flux Density [T]
Figure 2.1. Magnetic flux density
The force acting on the conductor can be calculated:
—
= I x B x x sina [N]
Where:
• a is angle between the conductor and B

• I is current [A]
• B is magnetic flux density

—
• I is length and direction of conductor
Magnetic flux density is determined at the position corresponding to Fmax:
N
B A x m
Note: T is called Tesla.
It is easiest to visualise the direction of B with the so-called right-hand rule

(depicted in the figure below).
Figure 2.2. Right-hand rule

2.2. The direct-reading compass
2.2.1. Working principle

Why is it important to know the content of the previous sub-chapter? The
reason is simple: the most important navigational instrument in VFR
navigation is the direct-reading (hereafter: magnetic) compass.
The working principle is simple: the magnetic element aligns with the
magnetic field, since - if aligned - the system is in rest (no moment acts on the
compass).
K=0 M=0
k :arm [m]
Fa attractive force [N]
M Moment [Nm]
Figure 2.3. Working principle of magnetic compass
2.2.2. Factors, influencing, accuracy

However, due to its simple working principle, there are a number of
drawbacks.
Deviation
The compass always aligns with the resultant magnetic field, which is the
"resultant" magnetic field of the Earth, the aircraft (and any other disturbing
factor, e.g. portable electronic devices). This direction is called compass north
(CN), which corresponds to a 000° o direction of the compass rose.
The flux density of the Earth is app. 20 - 70 pT (20 x 10'6 - 70 x 10’6 T),
whereas the flux density of the aircraft is comparable to that, because of
permanent magnets (e.g. iron alloys, which have been magnetised),
paramagnetic materials (e.g. aluminium) or electromagnets (i.e. electric current
in a wire; e.g. radio, spark plugs, lights, alternators, etc.).
MORE INFO L"
This is the reason that magnetic north and compass north are different. The
difference is known as deviation (DEV). More precisely, deviation is the angle
between magnetic north (MN) and compass north (CN).
Figure 2.4. Compass and magnetic headings
As can be seen in the figure above, if CN points west of MN, deviation is

called west or negative, if CN points east of MN, deviation is east or positive.
Since heading must be measured clockwise - by definition:
• if deviation is W (or negative), Compass Heading > Magnetic Heading

• if deviation is E (or positive), Compass Heading < Magnetic Heading
Alternatively, the following mnemonic can be used:
Deviation West, compass best (higher in value).

Deviation East, compass least.
Note: Deviation negative, compass positive. Deviation positive, compass negative.
Since deviation is caused by the aircraft’s magnetic field, deviation will be

different if either the aircraft’s magnetic field or the Earth’s magnetic field
changes. Because of the fact that magnetic flux density is a vector, deviation
alters with a change in the direction and/or magnitude, consequently:
• Heading
• Latitude (the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field changes)
These are depicted in the figure below.
Change is HDG
Change in LAT
(HDG remains the same)
Earth’s magnetic field

(flux density)
Aircraft's magnetic field
Resultant magnetic field
Figure 2.5. Change of deviation caused by HDG, LAT
Since deviation is significant, and changes with heading and latitude, compass
compensation is necessary. This is called compass swinging. With the
assistance of corrector magnets, a magnetic field is generated to oppose
aircraft magnetism. This could be done perfectly for one heading, but not for
all the headings. This is why "residual" deviation is recorded on a compass
deviation card, which is valid for that specific aircraft until a given date.
Figure 2.6. Compass deviation card example
Variation
Another factor which must be taken in consideration is the fact that the
position of magnetic poles is different to the geographic poles, and the
magnetic field is uneven on the Earth’s surface. As Earth is the reference of
navigation, not the magnetic field, this difference is also significant.
You might have figured out that the difference between magnetic north (MN)
and true (or geographical) north (TN) is called variation.
MORE INFO L"
Since variation is uneven on Earth, it is important to know the variation at the

given position. On most aeronautical charts, there are isogonal lines which
connect the positions of equal variation.
w w too- ire* i«r ifto* i«cr w yaar iw ior w xr ar ur to- 100*
Figure 2.7. Isogonic lines
Note: The special case of the isogonal is the agonic line, which connects points of 0
variation.
The direction of variation is defined similarly to deviation, i.e. if the magnetic

north is east of geographic (true) north, the variation is east; if magnetic north
is situated west of geographic (true) north, the variation is west, as illustrated
in the figure below.
Figure 2.8. Magnetic and true heading
From the figure above, it is possible to make sense of the calculations:
• if variation is west or negative, MN is W of true north, magnetic heading >

true heading
• if variation is east or positive, MN is E of true north, magnetic heading <
true heading
Alternatively, you can use the following mnemonic:
Variation West, magnetic best.

Variation negative, magnetic positive.
Variation East, magnetic least.
Variation positive, magnetic negative.
Calculations
Now, let us see in practice, what we just have learnt. Let us assume that on a
leg of a cross-country flight, you have to maintain true heading of 100°. What
should you see on the magnetic compass, if the variation is 4°E and the
deviation is 5°E on this heading?
It is best to sketch the directions.
Figure 2.9. Sketch of example
Therefore, the compass heading is 91°.

Alternatively, you can use +/- signs, since you know that variation East =
Variation +, deviation East = deviation +.
Consequently:
HDGt = HDGC + VAR + DEV —> HDGC = HDGT - VAR - DEV = 100° - 4° - 5° =
91°
As a third possibility, you can utilise the mnemonics:
Variation East, magnetic least.

Deviation East, compass least.
HDGC = 100° - 4° - 5° = 91°
EXAMPLE 2.1 L"
2.2.3. Serviceability
Since direct reading compasses are sensitive instruments, as magnetic field
can change easily, they must be checked before use. The check should
include:
• General condition
• Indication
Indication can be checked by comparing it with other references, e.g. runway

direction or another compass system. The check must be done when
transporting magnetic material or material with highly ferrous content.
If a large change happens in the magnetic field or position of the aircraft,

compass swing is necessary. This includes the following conditions:
• Aircraft being transferred to another base involving a large latitude change

• Major changes to the aircraft’s equipment
• Aircraft being struck by lightning
• Aircraft being parked in the same direction for a long time
• Fitting of a new compass
• When compass recorded deviation is suspected
• When specified in the maintenance schedule
BEFORE EXAM L"

Your compass shows 280°. Variation is 3°W, and deviation is 2°E at 270 °C and
4°E at 315 °C. What is your true heading?
Firstly, we have to determine the value of deviation. Linear interpolation is

sufficient.
315° - 270° = 45°

ADEV = 2°
DEV = AEEV~ x 10 + 2"

45
= ^7 + 2 « 2.44” « 2.4”E
45
Again, there are three ways to find the answer:
1. Drawing
Therefore the true heading is 279.4°.

Therefore the true heading is 279.4°.
2. Pure calculation
HDGt = HDGC + DEV - VAR

= 280° + 2.4° - 3° = 279.4°
3. Mnemonic
Deviation East, Compass least —» add DEV to get magnitude

HDGm = HDGC + DEV = 280° + 2.4° = 282.4°
Variation West, magnetic best —» subtract VAR to get true.

HDGt = HDGm - VAR = 282.4° - 3° = 279.4°
Note: Indeed this calculation really helps navigation. If you do not count with 5°
difference on a 60 NM long leg, it results in app. 5 NM (more accurately 5.24 NM)
position difference (1-60 rule, see later).
Charts
It is obvious that charts are essential for navigation. Since they are two-
dimensional presentations of a three-dimensional object, i.e. the Earth, it is
important to study palpable spheres and globes as well. They help to form a
reliable perception about measures of distance and area on the Earth, and the
location and movement of heavenly bodies in the universe. Only then can the
user correctly evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of different types of
maps and charts, and utilise them accordingly.
3.1. General properties of
miscellaneous types of
projections
3.1.1. The fundamental question of

map-making: How can geographic
shapes be depicted on a flat sheet of
paper?
The transformation from a sphere to a plane cannot be accomplished without
accepting distortions. Think about an apple which you would like to wrap with
some aluminium foil. It is not possible to get a smooth surface. The same is
true for the opposite - the surface of a sphere, or of a section of a sphere
cannot be transformed into a perfect flat or planar surface without any
distortions. There are different types of projections but each one has also
different advantages and disadvantages.
Figure 3.1. Cylinder
The paper towel CAN BE rolled from the carton cylinder onto the table
without crumpling.
Figure 3.2. Cone
The paper towel CAN BE rolled from the carton cone onto the table without
crumpling.
The foil CANNOT BE bent onto a chocolate ball without crumpling. If we

smooth the foil at one point, it gets crumpled at another place.
Were the Earth shaped like a cylinder or a cone, its geography would correctly
be depicted on a sheet of paper.
Since the shape of the Earth is close to a sphere, it is considered to be

perfectly spherical in this chapter. Flat maps necessarily distort the geographic
shapes of the Earth-globe. The question is: how much, and in what form, do
different types of projections distort different features of the original spherical
shape?
The distortion can be mathematically described with formulas, and/or visually

depicted as projections. Different chart projections are applied, depending on
the area of use involved.
3.1.2. Classification of sphere

projections
There are several types of classification of maps and charts. One type refers to
the surface onto which the sphere is projected. The most frequently used
projection surfaces are:
• Plane
• Cylindrical
• Conical
On each of these, many different types of projection exist with different

parameters and application areas.
3.1.3. Classification by preserving

angles: Conformal projections
Maps and charts are referred to as "conformal" if they preserve angles during
the projection. This means that a given angle on the original globe remains the
same on the projection surface. Right angles between latitudes and longitudes
in the graticule remain right angles during a conformal projection.
In a conformal projection the distortions (as a result of the projection) in east

west direction must be the same as in north-south direction at any point of
the chart. Any circle on the sphere remains a circle on the other surface, but
equal spherical circles do not necessarily remain equal circles on the
projection surface.
3.1.4. Scale of the chart

It shows the ratio of the given length on the flat chart compared to the Earth’s
distance that the given length on the chart represents.
This definition would be very handy, were it not for the spherical curvature of
Earth’s surface. To judge the reliability of the given scale, we must consider the
size of the region displayed on the chart, and the type of the projection
applied. A city map or the chart of a smaller country can be taken for "almost
flat" and accurate to metres, while the chart of a continent or the whole Earth
can only be trusted to kilometres or even tens or hundreds of kilometres.
Again, the type of projection is an important factor of accuracy.
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Figure 3.3. Melbourne - Brisbane
On the above map of Australia, the distance is about 137 millimetres between
Melbourne and Brisbane. The scale s 1:10000 000, so 137 mm corresponds
to (137 x 10) km = 1370 km, a very good estimate as compared to the correct
1376 km.
Figure 3.4. Helsinki - Sydney (world map)
On the world map the distance between Helsinki and Sydney is about
184 mm. Scale is 1:85 000 000, so 184 mm corresponds to (184 x 85) km =
15 640 km, still good estimate to the correct 15 218 km.
Figure 3.5. Helsinki - Sydney (time zone map)
On the time zone map with scale 1:190000 000 the distance between
Helsinki and Sydney is about 98 mm. It corresponds to (98 x 190) km =
18 620 km, a gross error as compared with the correct 15 218 km.
Conversely, given the actual distance between Berlin and Sydney as

16112 km, and measure 190 mm distance on the flat map, the scale can be
estimated as 1:85 000 000.
STUDY TEST
3.2. Some types of projections
from the spherical surface to the
flat plane
Put a sphere on a table or other flat surface. Call the deepest point on which it
stands the South Pole; the opposite point the North Pole; and the Euclidean
straight line through the two Poles perpendicular to the table is the main axis.
Note: For better visualisation we often use hemispheres instead of spheres.
Figure 3.6. Hemisphere
Take a spotlight and place it somewhere on the main axis. Draw different
figures on the surface of the sphere and project them with the spotlight on
the flat surface. How does the projection distort these figures?
We consider three positions:
a. The spotlight is very far away ("at infinity") from the sphere and the
table.
b. The spotlight is at the North Pole.
c. The spotlight is at the centre of the sphere.
Spherical figures to be projected onto the flat table:
Figure 3.7. Longitudes
Longitudes, meridians, spherical straight lines, great circles.

Figure 3.8. Small circles
Congruent spherical (small) circles of the same radius in each.

Figure 3.9. Longitudes and latitudes
Longitudes and latitudes of the Eastern or Western hemisphere. All angles at

the intersection of a latitude and longitude are perpendicular.
Figure 3.10. Hemisphere of the Earth
The hemisphere of the Earth is bordered by 90°E and 90°W longitudes.
The spotlight is very far away ("at infinity") from the sphere and the table.
(Orthogonal or perpendicular projection)
The rays of light are approximately perpendicular to the table.

Longitudes are distorted into curved lines on the plane. The closer the
longitude is to the deepest point on the sphere, the smaller the distortion.
Circles are distorted into ellipses on the plane, except those with centre at the
deepest point. The closer the circle is to the deepest point on the sphere, the
smaller the distortion.
Right angles are distorted into acute angles on the sphere, except the angle of
the prime meridian and the equator. The closer the angle is to the deepest
point on the sphere, the smaller the distortion.
The shape of dry land is distorted on the plane. The closer the land is to the
deepest point on the sphere, the smaller the distortion.
The spotlight is at the North Pole. (Stereographic projection)

Longitudes are distorted into curved lines on the plane. The closer the is
longitude to the deepest point on the sphere, the smaller the distortion from
the straight line.
Miraculously, almost all circles remain circles on the plane, except those
whose borderline goes through the north pole and become straight lines on
the plane. The planar circles may differ in size. The closer the circle is to the
deepest point on the sphere, the smaller the distortion in size.
Right angles remain right angles on the plane. Most of the spherical straight
lines become circles on the plane. The closer the line is to the deepest point
on the sphere, the smaller the distortion of angles.
deepest point on the sphere, the smaller the distortion in shape.
The spotlight is at the centre of the sphere. (Central or gnomonic projection)

Miraculously, spherical straight lines remain straight lines on the plane. The
longitudes in the picture are projected into parallel straight lines on the plane.
Circles become ellipses on the plane except those whose centre is the South
Pole where the plane touches the sphere. The closer the circle is to the
Longitudes become parallel straight lines, but most latitudes become curved
lines on the plane, except the equator. Angles are distorted. Most of the right
angles do not remain right angles on the plane.
None of these projections can simultaneously preserve right angles and

transform spherical latitudes and longitudes into straight lines on the plane.
3.3. Direct Mercator
How to find a projection that preserves right angles and transforms spherical
latitudes and longitudes into straight lines on the plane?
When projecting the sphere, other projection surfaces can be used besides
the plane. One of these is cylindrical projection, in which the sphere is
projected onto the inner surface of a cylinder, then the cylindrical drawing is
unrolled and networked into a flat sheet of paper.
The pictures below show a special type named the central cylindrical
projection and the resulting grid and shape on the inner surface of the
cylinder. The source of light is in the centre of the Earth-globe. If the cylinder
is unrolled into a flat sheet of paper, the latitudes and longitudes become
straight lines on the plane. Latitude lines intersect longitude lines at right
angles.
The parallel of origin (the line along which the cylinder touches the sphere) is
the equator. The convergence of the chart (the angle of the cylinder’s two
vertical lines corresponding to the longitudes on the globe) is 0°, because the
vertical lines are parallel with each other.
Figure 3.23. Simple cylindrical projection and graticule
Figure 3.24. Simple cylindrical projection shown on a hemispherical model
E9DE1D
Figure 3.25. Cylindrical projection
As can be seen in the above pictures, central cylindrical projection wildly

distorts spherical shapes with increasing distance from the equator,
approaching the North and South Poles.
If the distance between two longitudes or between two latitudes on the

spherical grid was constant (say 10° or 15°), the distance of two projected
longitudes on the plane is also constant, but between two projected latitudes
it grows very quickly from the equator in either direction, and disappears into
infinity at the Poles.
This means that the scale of the chart is the same along the same latitude, but
continuously changing along the same longitude between the equator and the
Poles.


Poles.
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Poles.
These disadvantages can be diminished (but never fully eliminated) by various
geometrical and mathematical procedures and tricks. For example, we move
the source of light from the centre of the sphere in other positions, or replace
straight lines of rays of the projecting light with mathematically constructed
curved lines.
In the 16th century, the great cartographer Mercator applied various

mathematical formulas to develop a less fallacious cylindrical projection.
On the "Direct Mercator" chart the scale is the same at each latitude, but
continuously changes along longitudes from the Equator to the poles by the
formula:
scale at any latitude = scale at the Equator x —:——

cosine latitude
The l/(cosine x) function is also called secant x function, and abbreviated to

sec x. So the above formula can also be written as:
scale at any latitude = scale at the Equator x —:————

cosine latitude
= scale at the Equator x sec x
Figure 3.26. Simple cylindrical projection
Simple cylindrical projection. Correct along the Equator, strongly distorted

towards the poles.
Figure 3.27. Mercator projection
Mercator projection. Correct along the Equator, but much less distorted
towards the Poles than the simple cylindrical projection.
The following table shows the change of scale between the Equator and the
North or South Pole.
Latitude a° 0° Equator 30° 60° 90° North or South Pole
Cosine latitude cos a° 1 0.866 0.5 0
Scale = 1/cos a° = sec a° 1/(cos 0°) = sec 0° = 1/(cos 30°) = sec 60° = 1/(cos 60°) = 1/(cos 90°) =
1/1 = 1 1/0.866 = 1.155 sec 60° = 1/0.5 = 2 sec 90° = 1/0 = ~
Figure 3.28. Cosine change with latitude
As the angle approaches 90°, the scale grows beyond any limit to infinity.
Let us now have a look at some examples.

Figure 3.29. Mercator map
The Mercator map shows the distance at a latitude of 60° between Oslo and
Saint Petersburg almost the same as between Fort Saint and Cairo at a
latitude of 30°, or between Libreville and Kampala at a latitude of 0° (the
Equator).
Figure 3.30. Real globe
Real globe shows the distance at a latitude of 60° between Oslo and St.
Petersburg about half as long as between Libreville and Kampala at a latitude
of 0° (the Equator). Why half? Because cos 60° = 0.5.
Between Fort Saint and Cairo at a latitude of 30° the real distance is about
0.866 x distance of Libreville-Kampala, because cos 30° = 0.866.
Example 1: Libreville, Gabon and Kampala, Uganda are both very close to
latitude 0° at the equator. Oslo, Norway and St. Petersburg, Russia are both
very close to latitude 60°N.
Libreville and Oslo are both close to longitude 10°E (with 2° difference).
Kampala and St. Petersburg are both very close to longitude 32°E. Therefore,
the distance between Libreville and Kampala is 2 570 km = 1387 NM.
As we measured on the Mercator map with a ruler on the screen, the distance
of Oslo-St. Petersburg was 1.75 cm, and Libreville-Kampala 1.50 cm. If the
ratio of distances between Oslo - St. Petersburg to Libreville - Kampala were
exactly 1/1 = 1 (not 1.50/1.75), every centimeter would give half as many
kilometres at latitude 60° as on the equator, because cos 60° = 0.5.
In other words: if, on the Mercator map, we found the distance of two cities
the same at the equator as of two other cities at latitude 60°, the connecting
arc of the great circle on the real globe is half as long at latitude 60° as on the
equator. The Mercator scale of distance at latitude 60° is twice as much as on
the equator: sec 60° = l/(cos 60°) = 2. In the present case, the distance
between Oslo and St. Petersburg would be (2 570 -j- 2) km = 1285 km =
693.5 NM.
However, we measured the ratio of distances between Oslo - St. Petersburg

to Libreville - Kampala to be 1.50/1.75, not exactly 1/1. Thus, the Oslo - St.
Petersburg distance is not half of Libreville - Kampala, but a little less than
that: (2 570 - 2) x (1.50 - 1.75) km = 1101 km = 595 NM. This is a relatively
good approximation to the correct 1087 km = 587 NM distance between
Oslo and St. Petersburg.
Example 2: The same logic helps us to calculate the distance between any two
cities at the same latitude on Mercator maps. For example, on the same map
where we measured 1.75 cm between Libreville and Kampala on the equator,
we measure 8.30 cm between Kampala and Quito, Ecuador. Quito is also on
the equator, so the scale is the same for Quito-Kampala as Libreville-Kampala.
We simply multiply the Libreville - Kampala distance in kilometres by the ratio
of Quito-Kampala to Libreville-Kampala distances in centimetres: 2 570 x
(8.30 -r 1.75) = 12189 km, reasonably close to the correct distance of
12352 km = 7675 NM.
Example 3: The distance between New Orleans, U.S.A, and Cairo, Egypt is
8.30 cm on the same Mercator map. Both cities are very close to latitude
30°N. We know that the distance between Libreville and Kampala is 2 570 km.
If New Orleans and Cairo were also on latitude 0° at the equator, we could
simply multiply 2 570 by (8.30/1.75), and get 12 189 km for the New Orleans-
Cairo distance. However, New Orleans and Cairo are at latitude 30°N, and the
real distance on the globe shrinks from the equator to latitude 30° by cos 30°
= 0.866. So we calculate the New Orleans-Cairo distance to be 12189 x
0.866 km = 10 556 km, which is reasonably close to the correct 10903 km =
6 775 NM.
Example 4: Given the Mercator scale at latitude 60° as sec 60° = l/(cos 60°) =
2. Suppose that on your Mercator map 5 cm distance on the equator
corresponded to, say, 5 000 km on the Earth-globe, then on latitude 30° the
scale is l/(cos 30°) = 1 4- 0.866 = 1.15, and 5 cm distance only equals to 5 000
x (1.15-2) km = 2 875 km.
Note: It does not matter whether 60°N or 60°S, or whether 30°N or 30°S. It is only
the distance of the latitude from the equator that matters.
For those who feel confused by these computations: no more mathematical

logic is needed here than for computing the price of three chocolate bars with
the price of each given on the price tag. If 1 cm corresponds to 500 km, then
3 cm corresponds to 3 x 500 km on the same scale on the same latitude. The
connection between different scales resembles changing currency. Given that
one Ducat is equal to two Florins, an item that costs ten Florins is worth five
Ducats. Given that on any Mercator chart 1 cm is always worth twice as much
along latitude 0° (the Equator) than 1 cm along latitude 60°. If the length of a
trip on Mercator chart is measured as 10 cm long at latitude 60°, a trip of the
same length is only 5 cm long at the equator on the same chart.
STUDY TEST
3.4. Lambert conformal conic
3.4.1. Simple conical projection

Place the globe on a flat sheet, and project the geographic shapes from the
globe to the sheet. The sheet touches the globe in a point. The closer we are
to the point of tangency, the more accurate the geographic image on the
sheet. The farther we are from the point, the less accurate the image on the
sheet.
Place the globe in a cylinder and project the geographic shapes from the globe
to the inner side of the cylinder. The cylinder touches the globe in a great
circle. The closer we are to the great circle of tangency, the more accurate the
geographic image on the cylinder. The farther we are from the great circle, the
less accurate the image on the cylinder.
In the first case, the accuracy is greatest around a point; in the second case,
around a great circle. What if we want the greatest accuracy on the chart
around a smaller circle, for example, a latitude line? In this case, we choose a
flat sheet bended so that it touches the globe along a latitude circle. We can
use a cone touching the globe along a latitude line, and project the geographic
network and shapes from the globe to the inner side of the cone. This is a
simple conical projection. The principle is shown in the figure and pictures
below.
Figure 3.31. Simple conical projection
Figure 3.32. Simple conical projection
The principle of simple conical projection with light source in centre of the
sphere (illustrated on a hemisphere). Circles on the hemisphere are evenly
distributed, but on the projection they become more and more scattered
moving off from the tip of cone.
Figure 3.33. Simple conical projection of the Earth-globe onto a cone
Figure 3.34. The Northern Hemisphere projected onto a cone
Figure 3.35. The Southern Hemisphere projected onto a cone
The models show truncated cones with a small cone cut off from the top.
Figure 3.36. The Earth-globe on a conical chart
The parallel of origin is the parallel of tangency where the projection surface
touches the surface of the reduced Earth. It is a latitude line around 60°N in
the first picture, 60°S in the second, and 40°N in the third picture.
In this projection, the longitudes are projected into Euclidean straight lines
that meet at the projection of the northern or southern pole point onto the
cone.
□□
Latitudes become concentric circles around the poles. Evenly-located latitude

circles on the globe are projected into unevenly-located circles on the surface
of the cone.
As can be seen in the pictures, from the parallel of tangency the scale expands
on either side. The distance between neighbouring circles grows in either
direction. The parallel of tangency is also called the parallel of origin or the
standard parallel in the simple conical projection. Just as with planar or
cylindrical projections, the scale is mathematically correct only along the
touching point or line, in the present case along the standard parallel. The
scale is more and more distorted as we move away from the standard parallel
in either direction.
□□
Latitudes become concentric circles around the poles. Evenly-located latitude

circles on the globe are projected into unevenly-located circles on the surface
of the cone.
As can be seen in the pictures, from the parallel of tangency the scale expands
on either side. The distance between neighbouring circles grows in either
direction. The parallel of tangency is also called the parallel of origin or the
standard parallel in the simple conical projection. Just as with planar or
cylindrical projections, the scale is mathematically correct only along the
touching point or line, in the present case along the standard parallel. The
scale is more and more distorted as we move away from the standard parallel
in either direction.
3.4.2. Lambert’s conformal conic
projection
The simple conical projection gives a reliable image on the sheet along the
parallel of tangency, but distorts geographical shapes rather quickly when
moving from this line either towards the apex or towards infinity on the
infinite surface of the cone. To improve the faults of the simple tangential
conical projection, Lambert’s idea was to make the cone cut the projected
sphere along two latitudes.
Instead of doing this: He did this:
Figure 3.38. Simple conic vs. Lambert projection
Simple tangential conical projection
The globe is inside the cone. The cone touches the globe along a latitude
circle of tangency around the Tropic of Cancer at 23.5°N in the picture.
Figure 3.39. Simple conic projection
Lambert’s cutting conical projection
The cone cuts the globe along two latitude circles, the standard parallels. The
northern (upper) standard parallel is around 75°N, the southern around 30°S.
Between them, the cone is inside the globe; off from them up or down the
globe is inside the cone (and for that reason, invisible in the picture).
Figure 3.40. Lambert’s projection
In this case, we have two cutting latitude lines, two Standard Parallels (in
contrast with one Parallel of Tangency in simple conical projection).
The illustrations show the principle of the two arrangements. For better
visualisation, the two Standard Parallels are much farther from each other
than they usually are on Lambert charts.
Why to replace a tangential cone with a doubly cutting cone? The explanation
is fairly simple. The mapping of the globe onto another surface is less
deceptive in regions where the two surfaces are relatively close to each other.
That is why the mapping of the globe on a flat sheet is more correct in the
immediate region around the point of tangency; or on a cylinder around the
two sides of the great circle of tangency; or on a cone around the latitude
circle of tangency.
By cutting the globe along two latitude circles with the cone, we find "very
close" regions not only outside the globe on the cone (as was the case with
the tangential cone), but also inside the globe on the cone, around both sides
of each standard parallel. The cutting method doubles "very close" regions as
compared with the touching method. We can choose the two standard
parallels close enough to ensure that the scale within the conical belt and its
direct neighbourhood is almost as correct on the Lambert chart as on the
original Earth-globe.
This structure cannot be demonstrated by projection of light from the centre

of the globe. The light reaches the part of the cone inside the globe first, and
only then does it cross the lines on the sphere.
Because of using two cutting standard parallels instead of one parallel of

tangency, this structure is harder to describe mathematically than the simple
conical projection. Further mathematical methods are also needed to ensure
another fundamental requirement on all charts, namely, latitudes must be
perpendicular to longitudes. Just as with Mercator map, the geometric idea is
mathematically reformulated for easier use in navigation.
The illustrations display the ideas behind the construction, but do not
correspond to the exact mathematical description of Lambert charts.
731
Figure 3.41. Principle of construction
Outside the conical belt between the two standard parallels the surface of the
globe is inside the cone (therefore invisible in the first picture).
Figure 3.42. Scale on the cone
The scale on the chart is correct at the two standard parallels, because the
standard parallels are the same on the globe as on the cone. If the conical belt
between the two standard parallels was relatively narrow, the parallel of origin
is close to the mean latitude between the standard parallels. Up to about 16°
difference between the two Standard Parallels, the scale on the globe differs
by less than 1 % from the scale on the Lambert chart.
The longitudes on the globe are projected into Euclidean straight lines on the
cone. At the parallel of origin Earth convergency is equal to chart
convergency: The angle of two given longitudes on the Earth-globe is the
same here as that of the two projections of longitudes on the cone.
One more advantage of Lambert’s conformal conic projection is that any great
circle on the real Earth approximates a straight line on the conformal conic. If
you look at Figure 3.41, it is apparent that a great circle drawn on the sphere
will be projected as a slightly curved line, except for the meridians. However,
this also depends on the constant of the cone or in other words the sine of the
parallel of origin (detailed in the next chapter). The closer this line is to the
parallel of origin, the straighter it is. Consequently, on a well-designed (or
properly used) Lambert's conformal conic chart, great circles are
approximately straight lines (for practical purposes).
It is worth mentioning that meridians are straight lines/rays originating from

the poles and rhumb lines are curved lines convex to the equator.
3.4.3. Constant of cone/convergency

factor
The constant of a cone shows how much the cone is pointed or flattened on a
scale between 0 and 1.
Figure 3.43. Constant of the cylinder

The constant of the cylinder is exactly 0. The constant of the pointed cone is
close to 0.
Figure 3.44. Constant of the cone
The constant of the flattened cone is close to 1. The constant of a flat disc is
exactly 1.
The constant of the cone can mathematically be defined in different ways, but
they lead to the same numerical value.
We consider two options of definition:
a. Take the ratio between the top angle of the unfolded cone and 360°.
b. Take the sine of the parallel of origin.
The first definition gives the ratio of the unfolded envelope of the cone to the
full 360° disc, as illustrated in the following picture.
Figure 3.45. Ratios
The three-dimensional cone is unfolded into a flat fraction of a circular disc.

One quarter of the disc is missing, three-quarters left. The top angle at the
centre of the circle is 270°. The angle at the centre of a full flat circular disc is
360°. The constant of the original cone is the ratio of the two angles: 270° -r
360° = 0.75.
To illustrate the second definition with the sine of the parallel of origin,
consider the construction in the picture below.
Figure 3.46. Sine of the parallel of origin
The northern (upper) standard parallel is around 75°N, the southern one
around 30°S. The parallel of origin is about halfway between them. To
determine its location, firstly determine the distance between the two
standard parallels. We add 30° to 75° (not subtract 30° from 75°), because the
two standard parallels are on different hemispheres: 75 + 30° = 105°. The
distance between the two parallels (latitudes) is 105°, so 105° 4- 2 = 52.5°.
The parallel of origin is at 52.5° distance from both standard parallels. 75° is
greater than 30°, so the parallel of origin must be in the Northern Hemisphere
at the distance of 75° - 52.5° = 22.5° from the equator. This means that the
parallel of origin is 22.5°N. The constant of cone or the convergence factor is
the sine of the parallel of origin: sin 22.5° = 0.38.
The mathematical reasoning is correct, but the arrangement of standard

parallels is unrealistic for two main reasons. The distance of the two standard
parallels is usually much less than 105°, because it would give highly distorted
shapes and scaling on the chart. Besides, the parallel of origin on the cone is
only approximately halfway between the standard parallels. The greater the
distance between the two parallels, the greater is the error.
The limit for 1 % tolerance of correctness (the difference between the original
shapes on the globe and the projected map on the flat sheet) is about 16°
distance between the two standard parallels. The 105° distance is far beyond
the acceptable limit of tolerance, but it is more suitable for illustrating the
basic idea behind the computation.
3.4.4. Chart convergency

Chart convergency is the angle of two meridians (longitudes) on the chart. The
formula reads:
Chart convergency = difference of longitude x constant of cone
Example 1: The constant of cone is 0.38 (as in the previous example). What is
the chart convergency between Melbourne and Brisbane?
Melbourne is at longitude 144.96°E, Brisbane 153.01°E.
Chart convergency = difference of longitude x constant of

cone = (153.01° - 144.96°) x 0.38 = 3.08
Whereas the Earth convergency (calculated in the first part) between those
two cities is 4.3°. As you can see, that the two values are relatively close to
each other.
Figure 3.47. Melbourne - Brisbane
Example 2: Can we choose the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn for
Standard Parallels of a Lambert projection?
Figure 3.48. Tropic of Cancer and of Capricorn
Yes. In this case, the cone transforms into a perfect cylinder. The constant of
cone is the constant of the cylinder which is 0.
Chart convergency = difference of longitude x constant of

cone = difference of longitude x 0 = 0
The parallel of origin is the equator. However, the distance of the two
Standard Parallels is 23.5°N + 23.5°S = 47°, far beyond 16° distance of 1 %
accuracy.
This is a cylindrical projection that cuts the sphere at two parallels of latitude.
It differs from Direct Mercator in the same manner as Lambert conical
projection differs from simple conical projection: It has two cutting parallels
with the sphere instead of one touching parallel.
Example 3: Can we choose the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle for
Standard Parallels of a Lambert projection?
Yes, but it is still out of the 1° tolerance. The parallel of tangency is close to
the Mean Latitude halfway between the Tropic of Cancer at 23.5°N and the
Arctic Circle at 66.5°N. Distance between the two Standard Parallels is 66.5° -
23.5° = 43.0°. Half of this distance is 43.0°/2 = 21.5°. The Mean Latitude
must be in the Northern Hemisphere in this case, so we add 21.5° to the
latitude of the Tropic of Cancer: 23.5°N + 21.5° = 45°N is the Mean Latitude.
This is the parallel of tangency, and its sine is the constant of Lambert cone:
sin 45° = 0.707.
Example 4: Melbourne is at 3780°S 14500°E, Durban (2986°S 03103°E).
Both are in the Eastern Hemisphere. The difference in latitudes is 7.94°, well
below 16° tolerance of 1 % accuracy. The difference in longitude is 14500 -
03103 = 11397°, that is, 114°. We know from other sources that chart
convergency between the two cities is 81.3. What is the parallel of origin?
We start from the equation:
Chart convergency 81.3 = Difference of longitude 114° x

Constant of cone
Rearrange to calculate the unknown Constant of cone:
Chart convergency 81.3 81,3

Constant of cone Difference of longitude 114° 114
Constant of cone = sin (Parallel of origin) = = 0.71
We must find the angle whose sine is 0.71. In mathematics this is written as
arcsin 0.71 = 45°, translated as “the arc whose sine is 0.71 is equal to 45°”.
This angle is approximately 45°. The parallel of origin is latitude 45°S.
Example 5: The parallel of origin on a Lambert chart is 50.65°N. Brussels at

latitude 50,45°N and Kiev at latitude 50.85°N are both very close to the
parallel of origin, so we can take both of them to be on this line. Great circle
track from Brussels to Kiev is 79.92°, and from Kiev to Brussels 280.08°.
What is the difference of longitudes between the two cities?
Figure 3.49. Difference in longitudes
At the parallel of origin the scale is the same on the chart as on the globe, so
Chart convergency is the same here as Earth convergency. Brussels and Kiev
are in the Northern Hemisphere. If great circle track from Brussels to Kiev was
79.92°, and from Kiev to Brussels 280.08°, then Kiev is eastward from
Brussels. Earth convergency between the two cities is 280.08° - 180° - 79.92°
= 20.16°.
We use the following equation:
Chart convergency = difference of longitude x constant of cone
Chart convergency is the same as Earth convergency: 20.16°. Constant of

cone is the sine of parallel of origin: sin 50.65° = 0.773. We can calculate the
difference of longitudes:
Chart convergency 20.16°

Difference of longitude = Constant of cone 0.773
= 26.08°
The difference of longitudes between Brussels and Kiev is approximately
26.08°.
In the above case, the parallel of origin and two positions were given, so we
could calculate the constant of the cone, chart convergency and difference of
longitudes between the two spots. Conversely, if chart convergency or
difference of longitudes is given, we can calculate the parallel of the origin and
the constant of the cone from the equations. Also, if convergency at the
parallel of origin is given, we can calculate conversion angle (= half of
convergency) which shows the difference between a great circle track and a
rhumb line track. This way, we can calculate the initial and final great circle
track and rhumb line track from appropriate data given.
Example 6: Given a Lambert chart, determine the parallel of origin, or constant

of cone.
Figure 3.50. Lambert chart
The constant of the cone can be calculated by measuring the top angle
between the two bordering longitudes of the chart. We measure it around
120° on the chart, so the constant of the cone is 120/360 = 1/3 ~ 0.33. The
parallel of tangency on the chart is at the densest scaling of latitude, around
23.5°N, the Tropic of Cancer.
Some remarks to assist orientation:
The chart depicts the whole Earth. The 0° latitude of the equator can be
recognised among the latitudes by the geographic spots it crosses: It follows
more or less the river Amazonas, and cuts Africa at the Gulf of Guinea into
halves. The two endpoints of any given latitude mark one and the same
geographic point, as can be seen on the Bering Strait. Opposite points (two
points farthest possible from each other on the globe) are shown by the
example of Paris, France and Wellington, New Zealand whose distance is near
to the maximal 10800 NM = 20000 km. Paris is close to the middle of the
map, Wellington to one of the borderlines. The North Pole is represented by
the tip of the cone, while the South Pole disappears into infinity.
Figure 3.51. Parallel of origin
STUDY TEST
3.5. Polar stereographic
Earlier in this chapter, we dealt with three types of projection from the sphere
onto the touching plane. In orthogonal projection, the projecting rays come
from an infinitely distant source of light, and are perpendicular to the plane of
projection. In stereographic projection, the source of light is opposite to the
point of tangency between the sphere and the plane. In gnomonic or central
projection, the source of light is at the centre of the sphere.
In the polar stereographic projection the sphere is the Earth-globe, the point
of tangency between the globe and the plane is one of the two Poles, and the
source of light is at the opposite Pole. The parallel of origin diminishes into
one of the Poles, the point of tangency.
Figure 3.52. Polar stereographic projection

3.5.1. Shape and distortion of the
projection
As with all stereographic projections, polar stereographic preserves
geographic and geometric shapes on the globe, but distorts their magnitude.
This can nicely be demonstrated by the stereographic projection of congruent
(equal-sized) spherical circles onto a plane. All spherical circles transform into
planar circles, but their size is increasing with increasing distance from the
Pole.

3.5.1. Shape and distortion of the
projection
As with all stereographic projections, polar stereographic preserves
geographic and geometric shapes on the globe, but distorts their magnitude.
This can nicely be demonstrated by the stereographic projection of congruent
(equal-sized) spherical circles onto a plane. All spherical circles transform into
planar circles, but their size is increasing with increasing distance from the
Pole.

Consequently, the scale is increasing with increasing distance from the Pole.
The concentric circles are evenly distributed on the sphere, but their
projections become unevenly distributed concentric circles on the plane.
Note: In the second picture, a hemisphere is projected onto the plane from the
imaginary north pole.
Consequently, the scale is increasing with increasing distance from the Pole.
The concentric circles are evenly distributed on the sphere, but their
projections become unevenly distributed concentric circles on the plane.
Note: In the second picture, a hemisphere is projected onto the plane from the
imaginary north pole.
On the graticule, longitudes are transformed into straight lines radiating from
the centre, and latitudes become concentric planar circles.
Note: In the picture, a hemisphere is projected onto the plane from the imaginary
north pole.
On the graticule, longitudes are transformed into straight lines radiating from
the centre, and latitudes become concentric planar circles.
Note: In the picture, a hemisphere is projected onto the plane from the imaginary
north pole.
Geographic shapes are also preserved in the Northern and Southern

hemisphere, but their size is distorted.
Geographic shapes are also preserved in the Northern and Southern

hemisphere, but their size is distorted.
Polar stereographic projection of northern hemisphere. Shapes are more or

less correct, but the relative area of continents is misleading. Antarctica
appears about the same area as Australia, but the real ratio is almost 2/1 for
Antarctica.
Polar stereographic projection of Southern Hemisphere. Shapes are more or

less correct, but the relative area of continents is misleading. Africa appears
much bigger than North America, but the real ratio is just 5/4 for Africa.
Figure 3.59. Mercator
Mercator world map. Dry lands are closest to correct area around the equator,
and are increasingly false towards the Poles. South America seems about the
same area as Greenland, but the real ratio is 9/1 for South America.
Figure 3.60. Lambert
Lambert world map. Dry lands are closest to correct area around the Parallel
of Origin where the latitudes are most dense (around 40°N on the map), and
are increasingly false in both directions from the Parallel of Origin. North
America seems smaller than Australia, but the real ratio is more than 3/1 for
North America.
3.5.2. Polar stereographic chart

convergency
Chart convergency is the angle of two meridians (longitudes) on the chart. It is
correct only at the Pole where the projected angle is the same as the original
angle on the Earth-globe.
90° POLS
a
60° LATITUDE
30° LATITUDE
0° EQUATOR
On the globe, the correct difference between two longitudes can only be
measured at the Poles, but on a Polar stereographic chart the projected
longitudes are planar straight lines, and keep the correct angle, whatever the
latitude. Therefore, the chart convergence is always exactly equivalent to the
change of longitude between two points, that is, the difference of longitude
without any correction factor. This is different from Mercator projection,
where all longitudes are parallel straight lines of 0° between them, or Lambert
projection where the difference of longitude is multiplied by the constant of
the cone.
In Polar stereographic charts:
Chart convergence = difference of longitude
Example 1: What is the initial straight-line track from A (75°N 65°W) to B

(75°N 65°E) on a polar stereographic chart?
Start by drawing a diagram of the situation.
Figure 3.62. Spherical triangle
The configuration on the sphere (as shown on a hemisphere). The two points
at 75°N 065°W and 75°N 065°E together with the North Pole give a spherical
isosceles triangle, because the distance of both points from the North Pole is
90° - 75° = 15°. The sum of angles in this spherical triangle is more than 180°,
just as in any other spherical triangle.
Figure 3.63. Projected from south pole
The spherical triangle is projected from the South Pole onto a sheet. This is a
polar stereographic projection.
Figure 3.64. Configuration on the plane
The configuration on the plane projected by polar Stereographic projection.

The projected longitudes between 75°N 065°W and the North Pole or
between 75°N 065°E and the North Pole are Euclidean straight lines on the
sheet, but the route between 75°N 065°W and 75°N 065°E is not an exact
Euclidean straight line. However, the difference is so small that we can take
the 75°N 065°W, 75°N 065°E, North Pole triangle a Euclidean planar triangle
with sum of angles 180°.
It can be proven mathematically that the longitudes from the points to the
Pole are projected into Euclidean straight lines on the sheet. The great circle
arc between two points which are not on the same longitude will never be
projected into an exact Euclidean straight line.
In the inside of the 70° latitude circle the difference between the projected
great circle arc and the Euclidean straight line is practically negligible, but
closer to the equator it is clearly visible. Rhumb lines are transformed into
circles or other curved lines. Great circles and rhumb lines are projected into
curves concave to the nearer Pole, as shown in the pictures below.
Figure 3.65. Projection at 75°N latitude
At 75°N latitude, the connecting line is practically indistinguishable from a

straight line.
At 25°N latitude, the projected great circle line on the plane is strongly
different from the planar (Euclidean) straight line along the straightedge.
At 25°N latitude, the projected rhumb line (the projection of 25°N latitude
circle in this case) is even more curved than the great circle arc.
At 25°N latitude, the projected great circle line on the plane is strongly
different from the planar (Euclidean) straight line along the straightedge.
At 25°N latitude, the projected rhumb line (the projection of 25°N latitude
circle in this case) is even more curved than the great circle arc.
Figure 3.67. Great circle and rhumb line
Polar stereographic projection of a great circle and a rhumb line, as compared

with the Euclidean straight line of a planar ruler.
135°W 180' 135°E
Figure 3.68. Great circle, rhumb lines, straight lines
The two points are well inside the 70° latitude, so we can take the triangle a
Euclidean planar triangle with sides of straight line. In contrast with the
original spherical triangle, the sum of angles in the Euclidean triangle is exactly
180°.
Figure 3.69. Euclidian planar triangle
One of the points is on longitude 65°W, the other at 65°E, so the angle
between them is 65° + 65° = 130°. From this we have for the sum of the other
two angles: 180° - 130° = 50°. In an isosceles triangle the other two angles
are equal, so we have 50°/2 = 25° for each.
If we fly from A (75°N 065°W) to B (75°N 065°E), the direction from A (or any
other point on the Earth’s surface, for that matter) to the North Pole is due
north, 000°(T). Therefore the direction from A to B is 025°(T).
We can also calculate the straight line track angle from B to A. In this case, the
direction from B to the North Pole is also 000°(T), also known as 360°(T)
(because travelling around a full circle we come back to the starting point),
and the direction from B to A is 25° left of 360°(T), so it must be 335°(T).
Example 2: At what longitude (not latitude) does the straight-line track from A
(70°N 40°W) to B (70°N 80°E) on a Polar stereographic chart reach its highest
latitude?
Figure 3.70. Diagram of the situation from spherical construction
The two points are on the same latitude, 70°N, so they are at the same
distance from the equator. It follows that they are at the same distance from
the North Pole (and for that matter, also from the South Pole - a peculiarity of
spherical geometry).
How is this construction projected on the Polar stereographic chart? The two
longitudes of 40°W and 80°E become planar (Euclidean) straight lines. The
route between the two points on the chart is not an exact straight line.
However, latitude 70°N is so close to the North Pole that the difference can
be neglected and the projected line can be taken for a planar (Euclidean)
straight line.
straight line.
straight line.
Therefore, it is not a serious mistake to take the triangle on the chart as a
planar (Euclidean) isosceles triangle. The highest latitude occurs at the
shortest distance from the Pole. The shortest distance from a point (the North
Pole) to a straight line (the route between the two points) can be measured on
the perpendicular drawn from the point to the line. In this case, the
perpendicular is the axis of symmetry of the isosceles triangle. This
perpendicular is the longitude 20°E, halfway between longitude 40°W and
longitude 80°E. The point on the route between A (70°N 40°W) and B (70°N
80°E) which is closest to the North Pole is the point of intersection between
the line of the route and longitude 20°E, as seen in the picture.
Figure 3.71. Construction and projection
Example 3: Connected to the previous example, we can also ask at what

latitude (not longitude) does the straight-line track from A (70°N 40°W) to B
Therefore, it is not a serious mistake to take the triangle on the chart as a
planar (Euclidean) isosceles triangle. The highest latitude occurs at the
shortest distance from the Pole. The shortest distance from a point (the North
Pole) to a straight line (the route between the two points) can be measured on
the perpendicular drawn from the point to the line. In this case, the
perpendicular is the axis of symmetry of the isosceles triangle. This
perpendicular is the longitude 20°E, halfway between longitude 40°W and
longitude 80°E. The point on the route between A (70°N 40°W) and B (70°N
80°E) which is closest to the North Pole is the point of intersection between
the line of the route and longitude 20°E, as seen in the picture.
Example 3: Connected to the previous example, we can also ask at what

latitude (not longitude) does the straight-line track from A (70°N 40°W) to B
(70°N 80°E) on a Polar stereographic chart reach its greatest latitude?
The precise answer needs spherical trigonometry, but the Polar stereographic
projection offers an easier way to follow for a good approximation. We are
close enough to the North Pole to take a planar (Euclidean) triangle on the
projection plane instead of the original spherical triangle on the globe.
The first picture shows a hemisphere with the spherical construction, while
the second is the Polar stereographic projection of the same drawing onto a
flat sheet. We suppose that within the 70°N latitude circle the two pictures
are so similar to each other that we can replace the spherical construction
with the plane projection, and the spherical triangle with the planar
(Euclidean) triangle.
(70°N 80°E) on a Polar stereographic chart reach its greatest latitude?
The precise answer needs spherical trigonometry, but the Polar stereographic
projection offers an easier way to follow for a good approximation. We are
close enough to the North Pole to take a planar (Euclidean) triangle on the
projection plane instead of the original spherical triangle on the globe.
The first picture shows a hemisphere with the spherical construction, while
the second is the Polar stereographic projection of the same drawing onto a
flat sheet. We suppose that within the 70°N latitude circle the two pictures
are so similar to each other that we can replace the spherical construction
with the plane projection, and the spherical triangle with the planar
(Euclidean) triangle.
Triangle ABP is an isosceles triangle with the angle at the North Pole 40° +
80° = 120°. (We add up the two longitudes because 40°W is west, 80°E east
from the Greenwich meridian.) We take this triangle for a Euclidean triangle,
so the sum of angles must be 180°. The sum of the other two angles is 180° -
120° = 60°, so we have 30° for each. This also gives that the great circle track
of the route from A (70°N 40°W) to B (70°N 80°E) is 030°(T) in this case.
To determine the highest latitude of the route, we calculate the distance from
the North Pole to the route. Relative distances on the real globe are not the
same as on the plane projection, but points A (70°N 40°W) and B (70°N 80°E)
are close enough to the North Pole to neglect the distortion of the plane
chart. We calculate the distance x = PS between the North Pole (P) and the
point of intersection (S) between the line of the route and longitude 20°E.
Triangle ABP is an isosceles triangle with the angle at the North Pole 40° +
80° = 120°. (We add up the two longitudes because 40°W is west, 80°E east
from the Greenwich meridian.) We take this triangle for a Euclidean triangle,
so the sum of angles must be 180°. The sum of the other two angles is 180° -
120° = 60°, so we have 30° for each. This also gives that the great circle track
of the route from A (70°N 40°W) to B (70°N 80°E) is 030°(T) in this case.
To determine the highest latitude of the route, we calculate the distance from
the North Pole to the route. Relative distances on the real globe are not the
same as on the plane projection, but points A (70°N 40°W) and B (70°N 80°E)
are close enough to the North Pole to neglect the distortion of the plane
chart. We calculate the distance x = PS between the North Pole (P) and the
point of intersection (S) between the line of the route and longitude 20°E.
Projection of spherical triangle APS projected from the sphere onto the plane.
Sides AP and SP are projected into Euclidean straight lines. Side AS is not an
exact Euclidean straight line, but the difference is so small that we take it as
such, and triangle APS a planar (Euclidean) right-angled triangle with a sum of
angles of 180°.
Latitude 70°N is 70° distance from the equator, so it is 90° - 70° = 20° unit
distance from the North Pole. Therefore side AP is 20° unit long, and the angle
at A is 30°, as we determined above. To calculate side x = PS, we need the sine
function: x = side PS = side AP x sin 30 = side AP x 0.5 = 20 x 0.5 = 10°. It is
the approximate distance from the North Pole, so the latitude is 80°. This can
be seen fairly well in the picture where the route is about touching the 80°N
latitude circle.
Example 4: How can we calculate and demonstrate the change of the chart
scale at different latitudes?
Note: The example describes the calculation and visualization ofchart scale by
Tissot indicatrix.
Figure 3.74. Change of scale
The first picture shows the graticule with evenly distributed latitudes and
longitudes. The second one shows the projection from the sphere onto the
plane. The third one shows the polar stereographic projection of the northern
hemisphere. Longitudes remain evenly distributed, but latitudes get more and
more scattered when moving off from the North Pole. The chart scale changes
with the changing distance between the latitudes.
It can be proven by spherical trigonometry that the chart scale at a given

latitude a° is expressed by the formula:
scale at latitude a scale at the Pole x
Note: Please, do not panic! It is much easier to familiarise oneself with spherical


trigonometry than it is to pilot an airplane.
For example, at latitude a° = 75° we have 90° - 75° = 15°; 15/2 = 7.5°; cos
7.5° = 0.991; (cos 7.5°)2 = cos2(7.5°) = 0.9912 = 0.982; 1/0.982 = 1.02.
The following table shows the chart scale at special values of latitude.
90°N 75°N 60°N 45°N 30°N 15°N 0°N/S 15°S 30°S 45°S 60°S 75°S 90°S
lat a° North Equator South
Pole Pole
scale 1 1.02 1.07 1.17 1.33 1.59 2 2.70 4 6.83 14.93 58.70 OO
at a°
Note: Projecting from the North Pole, the South Pole has scale 1 and the North has
scale oo.
The change of the chart scale can be best illustrated by congruent (equal
sized) circles on the sphere.
Figure 3.75. Congruent (equal-sized) circles on the sphere
Polar stereographic projection of congruent circles. The circular shape is

preserved, but the size becomes greater when moving off from the Pole.
The change of the chart scale is shown by the diameters of congruent circles
at different latitudes. We draw congruent (equal-sized) circles on the globe,
and project them onto a sheet by Polar stereographic projection. Suppose that
we measure 1 cm as the diameter of a projected circle around the Pole, as
shown in the picture. What is the diameter of another projected circle with its
centre at a different latitude? How does the scale change from one latitude to
another?
Figure 3.75. Congruent (equal-sized) circles on the sphere
Polar stereographic projection of congruent circles. The circular shape is

preserved, but the size becomes greater when moving off from the Pole.
The change of the chart scale is shown by the diameters of congruent circles
at different latitudes. We draw congruent (equal-sized) circles on the globe,
and project them onto a sheet by Polar stereographic projection. Suppose that
we measure 1 cm as the diameter of a projected circle around the Pole, as
shown in the picture. What is the diameter of another projected circle with its
centre at a different latitude? How does the scale change from one latitude to
another?
Figure 3.76. Scale change
The diameter of the circle changes with the chart scale. For example, the
green circles have their centres around latitude 65°. The above table shows
1.02 for the value of chart scale at latitude 75°, and 1.07 at latitude 60°. If the
central circle has a diameter of 1 cm, the diameter of a green circle is around
1.05 cm, which is fairly precisely shown in the pictures. The blue circles have
their centres around latitude 45°. The table shows 1.17 for scale at latitude
45°, so the diameter of a blue circle is around 1.17 cm. The picture gives
about 1.3 cm for the diameter of blue circles which is a fairly good
approximation. The big red circles have their centres between latitudes 15°
and 30°, so their diameters must be between 1.33 and 1.59, which is also
close to the 1.5 cm actually measured in the pictures.
It can be verified with the above trigonometric formula that the scale remains
Figure 3.76. Scale change
The diameter of the circle changes with the chart scale. For example, the
green circles have their centres around latitude 65°. The above table shows
1.02 for the value of chart scale at latitude 75°, and 1.07 at latitude 60°. If the
central circle has a diameter of 1 cm, the diameter of a green circle is around
1.05 cm, which is fairly precisely shown in the pictures. The blue circles have
their centres around latitude 45°. The table shows 1.17 for scale at latitude
45°, so the diameter of a blue circle is around 1.17 cm. The picture gives
about 1.3 cm for the diameter of blue circles which is a fairly good
approximation. The big red circles have their centres between latitudes 15°
and 30°, so their diameters must be between 1.33 and 1.59, which is also
close to the 1.5 cm actually measured in the pictures.
It can be verified with the above trigonometric formula that the scale remains
under 1.01 from the Pole at 90° to latitude 78°. This means that the distortion
is below 1 % inside the latitude circle 78°N.
Take the 1 % scale zone in the inside of latitude circle 78°N. The co-latitude of
78° is 90° - 78° = 12°. Therefore, the distance from the Pole to latitude 78° is
60 NM x 12 = 720 NM = 1330 km. If the aircraft is entering at one side and
leaving more or less on the opposite side of the circle, the total distance in the
1 % zone is twice the distance from the Pole, around 1400 NM = 2 660 km. A
typical jet-liner speeds of around 450 knots TAS, that is approximately 3 hours
flying time. A chart which can be considered constant scale and allows
measurement of distances with a ruler for over 3 hours flying is a very useful
projection.
STU DY TEST
3.6. The representation of
meridians, parallels, great circles
and rhumb lines
This is a summary of the main properties of the three projections (Mercator,
Lambert, and Polar stereographic) as previously detailed in this chapter.
3.6.1. Direct Mercator

Meridians (longitudes) are vertical straight lines. Parallels (latitudes) are
horizontal straight lines, parallel to the equator and perpendicular to vertical
meridians (longitudes).
Figure 3.77. Mercator map

The picture below shows central cylindrical projection. Mercator maps are a
mathematically-corrected version of cylindrical projection.
Figure 3.78. The principle of cylindrical projection
Meridians (longitudes)
Meridians are straight parallel lines, which cut parallels of latitudes at right
angles. Parallels of latitude are straight lines parallel to the Equator. Meridians
are straight parallel lines, evenly spaced. Parallels are straight parallel lines
with the space between them increasing with the secant of the latitude.
Figure 3.79. Meridians and their projection
Latitude circles (parallels)

Latitude circles are projected into horizontal parallel straight lines, which cut
the meridians at right angles on the flat sheet of the Mercator projection.

150 120 90 60 30 60 90 120 150
’Ik
>?■
150 120 90 60 30 0 30 60 90 120 150

Figure 3.80. Latitude circles and their projection
Rhumb lines
A rhumb line cuts all meridians (longitudes) on the graticule at equal angles.
Rhumb lines
Rhumb lines
Figure 3.81. Equator rhumb line (sphere/map)
The Equator is a rhumb line, because it cuts all of the meridians at right angles.
All meridians are projected into parallel straight lines on the Mercator chart.
The equator is projected into a planar straight line that cuts all parallel straight
lines at right angles.
Figure 3.81. Equator rhumb line (sphere/map)
The Equator is a rhumb line, because it cuts all of the meridians at right angles.
All meridians are projected into parallel straight lines on the Mercator chart.
The equator is projected into a planar straight line that cuts all parallel straight
lines at right angles.
Figure 3.82. Latitudes are rhumb lines (sphere/map)
All latitudes are rhumb lines, because each latitude cuts all of the meridians at
right angles. Each latitude is projected into a planar straight line that cuts all
parallel straight lines at right angles.
For any fixed angle a° on the plane, the line that cuts at angle a° all straight
lines parallel to a straight line are straight lines themselves.
Figure 3.82. Latitudes are rhumb lines (sphere/map)
All latitudes are rhumb lines, because each latitude cuts all of the meridians at
right angles. Each latitude is projected into a planar straight line that cuts all
parallel straight lines at right angles.
For any fixed angle a° on the plane, the line that cuts at angle a° all straight
lines parallel to a straight line are straight lines themselves.
Figure 3.83. Rhumb line (plane)
On the sphere, a rhumb line cuts all of the meridians at equal angles. Given an
angle a° between 0° and 90°, the rhumb line that cuts all meridians at a° is a
spherical spiral.
Figure 3.84. General rhumb line (sphere/map)
A rhumb line cuts all the meridians at equal angles. The meridians are
projected into parallel straight lines on the Mercator chart. Therefore, any
rhumb line is projected into a straight line. Conversely, each straight line is the
projection of a rhumb line.
Figure 3.84. General rhumb line (sphere/map)
A rhumb line cuts all the meridians at equal angles. The meridians are
projected into parallel straight lines on the Mercator chart. Therefore, any
rhumb line is projected into a straight line. Conversely, each straight line is the
projection of a rhumb line.
Figure 3.85. Rhumb line and great circle (sphere/map)
Between two points of the northern hemisphere, the arc of a great circle is
closer to the North Pole than the arc of a rhumb line. On the southern
hemisphere the position is reversed, and the great circle is closer to the South
Pole.
On the Mercator chart, the projection of the rhumb line is a planar straight
line. The projection of the great circle is still closer to the North Pole than the
projection of the rhumb line, but it is distorted into a curved line convex to the
North Pole. In the Southern Hemisphere the position is reversed, and the
curved line projection of the great circle is closer to the South Pole than the
straight line projection of the rhumb line.
Figure 3.85. Rhumb line and great circle (sphere/map)
Between two points of the northern hemisphere, the arc of a great circle is
closer to the North Pole than the arc of a rhumb line. On the southern
hemisphere the position is reversed, and the great circle is closer to the South
Pole.
On the Mercator chart, the projection of the rhumb line is a planar straight
line. The projection of the great circle is still closer to the North Pole than the
projection of the rhumb line, but it is distorted into a curved line convex to the
North Pole. In the Southern Hemisphere the position is reversed, and the
curved line projection of the great circle is closer to the South Pole than the
straight line projection of the rhumb line.
3.6.2. Lambert conformal conic
Figure 3.86. Equator on sphere and on Lambert chart
Meridians are projected into straight lines which cut the equator at right
angles on the Lambert chart.
3.6.2. Lambert conformal conic
Figure 3.86. Equator on sphere and on Lambert chart
Meridians are projected into straight lines which cut the equator at right
angles on the Lambert chart.
Figure 3.87. Latitude circle on sphere and on Lambert chart
Parallels of latitudes are projected into concentric circles which cut all
meridians at right angles. The equator itself is one of these concentric circles.
Figure 3.87. Latitude circle on sphere and on Lambert chart
Parallels of latitudes are projected into concentric circles which cut all
meridians at right angles. The equator itself is one of these concentric circles.
Figure 3.88. Important lines on sphere and on Lambert chart
The great circle is projected into a curved line which is concave to the parallel
of origin. For short distances the arc of the curved line is approximately an arc
of a great circle. In other words, for short distances, the arc of the curved line
can be replaced by the arc of a great circle.
Note: You can check the correctness of the blue projection by following the blue
line through the geographic spots on the original globe.
3.6.3. Polar stereographic

Figure 3.88. Important lines on sphere and on Lambert chart
The great circle is projected into a curved line which is concave to the parallel
of origin. For short distances the arc of the curved line is approximately an arc
of a great circle. In other words, for short distances, the arc of the curved line
can be replaced by the arc of a great circle.
Note: You can check the correctness of the blue projection by following the blue
line through the geographic spots on the original globe.
3.6.3. Polar stereographic

Figure 3.89. Sphere and projection
The equator is projected into a circle with its centre opposite to the source of
light.
Figure 3.89. Sphere and projection
The equator is projected into a circle with its centre opposite to the source of
light.
Figure 3.90. Projected meridians and latitude circles
Meridians are straight lines radiating from the Pole. Parallels of latitudes are
concentric circles including the equator.
Figure 3.90. Projected meridians and latitude circles
Meridians are straight lines radiating from the Pole. Parallels of latitudes are
concentric circles including the equator.
Figure 3.91. Angles between meridians and latitude circles
Parallels of latitude are concentric circles. Meridians cut parallels of latitudes

at right angles.
Figure 3.91. Angles between meridians and latitude circles
Parallels of latitude are concentric circles. Meridians cut parallels of latitudes

at right angles.
Figure 3.92. Projection and distance from centre
In this projection, the distance apart increases away from the Pole. This can be
visualised by congruent (equal-sized) circles on the sphere. They are projected
into planar circles, the radiuses of which increase away from the Pole.
Meridians are projected into exact straight lines on the plane. Any other great
circles which are not projections of meridians) are projected into curved lines
concave to the Pole.
Figure 3.94. Great circles
Great circles are approximately straight lines close to the Pole. In other words,
close to the Pole the concave projections of great circles can be replaced with
straight lines.
3.6.4. Conversion angle

It shows the difference between the tracks of two fundamental types of
spherical lines:
a. The great circle shows the track of the shortest distance between two
spherical points.
b. The rhumb line shows the track of a spherical line that has the same
angle with each meridian between two spherical points.
Draw the great circle track and a rhumb line track between two spherical
points. Measure the two equal angles between the great circle track and the
rhumb line track at the endpoints. These angles are known as conversion
angles.
Figure 3.95. Conversion angle
The exact trigonometric formula for calculating the conversion angle is not
simple, but it can be replaced by a much easier approximation over short
distances:
Conversion angle = %x difference of longitude x sin mean latitude
Note: Mean latitude lies halfway between the latitudes of the two geographic
spots.
For example, Brussels (5045°N 00435°W) and Kiev (5085°N 03042°E) are on
approximately the same latitude of 50°N. Latitude circles are perpendicular to
meridians, so the rhumb line track is approximately 90° between the two
cities.
The longitudes are also not far apart, so we can trust the mean latitude
formula:
Great circle track = 1/2 x (03042 — 00435) x sin ( 5045 * 5085
= i/2 x 26.07° x sin 50.65° 10.08°

MORE INFO L"
3.6.5. Polar stereographic chart

Gridlines, isogrives
Grid navigation was invented to overcome the difficulties of high latitude
navigation. There are two problems peculiar to polar areas:
• Unreliability of the magnetic compass

• "Strong" convergence of meridians
The combined effect of the two above mentioned factors makes the
navigation nearly impossible in polar areas.
Unreliability of magnetic compass At high latitudes, the magnetic compass

tends to react to the strong vertical component of the Earth’s magnetic field,
while the horizontal component - which is used for navigation - is too weak
to provide reliable magnetic direction (figure below). Furthermore, variation
and its change are so excessive, that it is really difficult to count with that.
Bv: Verical component
of the magnetic field
Bm: Horizontal component

of the magnetic field
NSP: South Magnetic Pole
NMP: North Magnetic Pole
Figure 3.96. Earth’s magnetic field
Since the magnetic compass is useless, we are left with one option: fly based
on true headings, provided by the heading indicator. This latter option is
unfortunately also very difficult, if not impossible, to use because of the strong
convergence of the meridians.
Convergence of Meridians The conventional heading indicator works on a

simple principle, the gyroscope maintains its rotational axis, unless a force not
parallel to its axis is acted on it. So if aircraft turns, the nose of the aircraft
points in a different direction, however the gyroscope points in the same
direction. This is how the change of heading is indicated.
Figure 3.97. Gyroscope and Earth
As you can see in the figure above, the gyroscope maintains axis to a distant
point in space, however, the surface of the Earth is curved. Therefore, the
more meridians are crossed, the higher is the difference between the true
heading and the indicated heading.
Note: This is called Earth transport wander and it causes the gyro spin axis to move
1° for each true meridian that is crossed in the horizontal plane.
In the absence of a reliable magnetic direction, heading indicator cannot be

adjusted to correct this effect.
Grid system
Basically, grid system or a graticule is an artificial direction "system" to
eliminate the problem of converging meridians. The graticule is a series of
(equally spaced) parallel lines drawn parallel to an arbitrary true meridian. This
latter meridian is called the reference (or datum) meridian.
4— True North
4— Grid North
a Grid Track at point A
p True Track at point A
y True Track at point B
5 Grid Track at point B
reference meridian
Figure 3.98. Example of grid direction on a North Polar stereographic chart
As you can see in the figure above, the direction of grid north (GN) is only true
at the reference meridian. However while the direction of true north (TN) is
changing all over the chart (in this example, a polar stereographic chart), GN is
constant everywhere on the chart.
So, for instance, if you want to fly from "A" to "B", the true track (TT) is
changing continuously (p * y), whereas grid track (GT) remains the same (a=6,
in our example app. 270°). It is also remarkable to mention, that only by
estimating true tracks (TT), we can say that at point 'A", true track is app.
315°, while at point "B", true track is app. 225°.
All in all, you can see that it is much easier (or possible) to navigate in polar
areas with this method.
However, since GN and TN are only equal along the reference meridian, you
have to learn how to convert grid track to True Track and vice versa.
Grid convergence
The angle between GN and TN is called grid convergence and - similarly to

variation or deviation - in degrees E or W (- or +):
• If true north is East of GN, grid convergence is E (+)

• If true north is West of GN, grid convergence is W (-)
Figure 3.99. Grid convergence
Based on the figure above, it is easy to conclude, that:
• If grid convergence is E (+), True Heading < Grid Heading

• If grid convergence is W (-), True Heading > Grid Heading
Alternatively, the well-known mnemonic can be used:
Grid convergence East, True least

Grid convergence West, True best
Later you will see, that in practice, it is relatively easy to convert TH to GH
and vice versa.
Grivation
Obviously, there is difference between magnetic north and grid north as well;
however, since variation (difference between MN and TN) changes irregularly
on the Earth’s surface, the difference between MN and GN also alters in an
irregular manner.
The angle between MN and GN is called grivation (grid variation) and

measured in degrees E (+) or W (-). Because of the uneven grivation (caused by
uneven magnetic field), normally isogrives are plotted on charts used for polar
navigation.
An isogriv is a line joining points, which have the same grivation.
Similarly to variation, if MN is east of GN, we talk about grivation E (+), if MN

is west of GN, grivation is W (-). Therefore:
• If grivation is E (+), magnetic heading < grid heading

• If grivation is W (-), magnetic heading > grid heading
Or you can use the following mnemonic:
Grivation East, magnetic least

Grivation West, magnetic best
Problems
What is the compass heading (CH), if:
• Grid heading (GH) is 299°

• Grid convergence is 50°W
• Variation is 40°W
• Deviation is 2°E
Again you can use multiple methods to solve the problem.

Figure 3.100. What is compass heading?
As you can see in the figure above, the reference (compass north) moved 88°
(40° + 50° - 2°) counter clockwise. Therefore, you have to add 88° to the
initial GH and - since the highest heading is 360° - subtract 360°. The result
is 27°. You can also conclude, that grivation is the sum of variation and grid
convergence.
Alternatively the mnemonics can be utilised:
Grid Convergence West, True best —> TH = GH + Grid Conv = 299° + 50° =
349°
Variation West, magnetic best —> MH = TH + Variation = 349° + 40° = 389° —>
over 360° so subtract 360° —> 389° - 360° = 29°
Deviation East, compass least —» CH = MH - Deviation = 29° - 2° = 27°
A route must be planned on a Polar stereographic chart from A (70°N 060°E)

to B (70°N 030°W). The grid is aligned with the Greenwich meridian. What is
the grid track and true track at A and B?
This task seems very difficult; however, you only have to make a sketch to
solve this problem.
o + p + y + Y = 180°
a = 30°
p = 60“
180°-(a + P) _
y =------ 2-------- = 45
6 = 360° - P + Y = 360° -105° = 2550
Figure 3.101. Sketch
This can be solved with pure basic mathematics. We have to know a few basic
principles:
• The sum of the inside angles of a triangle is 180°. this is why we can say
a+p+Y+Y=180°. Angle a is equal to longitude of "B" and p corresponds to
longitude of "A", since longitude is defined as the angle between the given
meridian and the Greenwich meridian. (If GN is aligned with a different
meridian, you have to subtract the reference meridian from the current.)
• The given triangle: (triangle BANJ is an isosceles triangle (sides BND and
ANd are equal), because 'A" and "B" are located on the same latitude.
• The angles of the base are equal of an isosceles triangle. This is the reason
why y = y (at vertex A and B). Consequently y can be calculated:
180° - (a+p)
= --------- 2---------
• Since we know y, we know the angle between TN and our track. Do not
forget, that track/heading must be measured clockwise from the
"appropriate" north.
Therefore, in our case, at point A, y must be subtracted from 360°. This results
in 315°. So TT at A is 315°.
At point B, y must be added to 180° (straight angle), which is equal to 225°.

Thus TT at Bis 225°.
• Last but not least, we can conclude, that <GNBNp = a and <GNANp = p,
since they are alternate angles. In a different way, we could say that a is the
angle between grid north and true north at "B" and p is the angle between
grid north and true north at "A".
Since a = 30° p = 60°, grid tracks can be calculated easily.
o At point A: GTA = TTA - p = 315° - 60° = 255°
o At point B: GTB = TTB + a = 225° + 30° = 255°
Because of the fact that GTA = GTB we already performed a check, as Grid
track should be the same at all points along the route. This is basically why
we introduced grid north and why we use grid navigation.
In the Southern Hemisphere, it works the same, just bear in mind that TN
points away from the South Pole and that heading or track is measured
clockwise (as always).
MORE INFOl"
3.6.6. The use of current aeronautical

charts
Introduction
In VFR, charts provide the basis of navigation. This means, that the flight is
planned on the charts (pre-flight plotting), this - among others - provides raw
data (holding/track, distance/time, etc.) which is recorded in the navigation
log. Then during the flight, the dead reckoning navigation (DR) is crosschecked
with the chart (if necessary in-flight plotting), in other words, the chart
provides fixes for navigation.
The big difference between IFR and VFR navigation is, that in VFR, we - pilots
- compare what we see outside with the chart to get a fix, while in IFR
navigation, different instruments (e.g. VOR/DME, NDB, etc.) readily give us a
fix.
This is why we have to be able to properly:
• interpret symbols on the chart;

• interpret with detail and objectivity what we see outside;
• plot, measure distances and angles on the chart;
• be aware of the limitation of each chart.
Conventional signs and symbols

Figure 3.102. ICAO chart symbols
Note: Contours are fairly easy to be interpreted with the help of the figures above.
However, it is worth to mention, that if contours are closer, it means that the slope
is steeper and vice versa.
Interpret what we see outside

Again, the punctuality depends on us. Try to be objective and self-critical. We
tend to confirm ourselves, because we do not want to accept that we made a
mistake and when we finally admit, it is frequently too late, we are lost. This is
a psychological issue, therefore obviously time needed varies from person to
person.
In order to prevent this, establish and try to confirm fixes from at least 3
Figure 3.102. ICAO chart symbols
Note: Contours are fairly easy to be interpreted with the help of the figures above.
However, it is worth to mention, that if contours are closer, it means that the slope
is steeper and vice versa.
Interpret what we see outside

Again, the punctuality depends on us. Try to be objective and self-critical. We
tend to confirm ourselves, because we do not want to accept that we made a
mistake and when we finally admit, it is frequently too late, we are lost. This is
a psychological issue, therefore obviously time needed varies from person to
person.
In order to prevent this, establish and try to confirm fixes from at least 3
different sources.
Chart limitations
Do not forget what you have learnt in this chapter! Each chart has a certain
limitation, e.g. chart convergence, scale, etc.
Chart scale can be determined in various ways:
• You can check the scale represented by a segment or ratio (e.g. 1:500000).
• You can calculate the length by measuring a segment on the chart and
calculating the real length:
o measuring the angle along a meridian and use l’=l NM;
o using DME distances.
But always bear in mind that scale can vary on the chart.
Direct Mercator Scale changes significantly as a function of latitude (1/cosA).
Lambert’s conformal conic Scale is fully correct along the standard parallels
only, but does not vary significantly.
Plotting and measuring on the chart

Basics of radio navigation
Since EASA requires you to select VOR radials and QDRs or QDMs in general
navigation, let us start with these basic terms.
VOR radial A radial is a ray having the endpoint in the VOR station. The
radials are numbered from 1 to 360, basically there is one radial corresponding
to each degree.
It is important that the radials correspond to magnetic degrees. The variation

is calculated at the VOR station.
Radial 360'
Figure 3.103. VOR radials
QDM - Magnetic bearing to the station

QDR - Magnetic bearing from the station
They are most commonly used with NDBs.
It is important to mention that variation at the position of the aircraft must be

taken into account, if NDB is used for navigation.
Plotting and deriving position
Position on the chart can be determined in several ways:
1. Geographical coordinates (Lat. Long.)
2. VOR radial - DME distance
3. VOR radial - VOR radial or QDM/QDR - QDM/QDR (2 NDBs)
4. DME distance - DME distance + "something else1

R045°
Figure 3.104. Determining position
Note: As you can see there are two possible points of intersection.
The question will require you to "convert" one position given in one way to
another (e.g. VOR radial - DME distance to Geographical Coordinates).
In the rest of the questions, directions and distance must be measured

accurately. Here are some tips, for accurate measurement:
• If VOR radials are already plotted on the chart, measure the angle between
the radial and required direction. Then, add or subtract the angle to/from
the plotted radial and direction will be given in °M. If needed, convert to °T.
• Read the questions carefully, and do not forget whether the result should
be given in magnetic or true direction.
• Do not forget about chart convergence. Measure the local direction from
local true north (local meridian).
• If the question asks for average track, measure the track at the start and
Practical Navigation
Finally, we reach the topic which requires the basics detailed beforehand in
this book. Moreover, you also need some knowledge from Principles of Flight.
As mentioned previously, navigation is performed by the means of dead

reckoning, and checked against fixes. Thus, the chapter will be divided into
two main parts:
• Dead reckoning navigation

• Fixing
Further subdivision is based on dimensions, i.e.:
• Navigation on the horizontal plane

• Navigation on the vertical plane
4.1. Dead reckoning navigation
4.1.1. Definition
Dead reckoning navigation (or DR), as its name suggests, means that flight
path (horizontal or vertical) is purely calculated without external sources.
We can categorise data based on the source:
• Aircraft related
• External
Since we are interested in the flight path vector compared to the Earth, the
following data is required:
On the horizontal plane (aircraft related, ground speed vector):
• Ground speed (magnitude)

• Direction (true)
Total Pressure (pt) and Static Pressure (ps)
Compass Heading
Mach Number or IAS
I needed ■ needed
needed
I instrument & deviation
▼ position error
TS(K]
CAS Magnetic Heading
(static temperature) Ml-] / I
► I B ("J (static pressure) variation
▼ EAS | |TS[K]
TAS TASv TAS True Heading
(magnitude of VT«)
(direction of VT*s)
wind direction and speed
wind direection and speed
▼
True Track
Ground Speed Vector (GS)

t[s]
time
Displacement Vector
(distance and direction
Ax=Vx At)
Figure 4.1. Determination of ground speed vector
Based on the figure above, the following external data is needed:
• Deviation (exception: aircraft related)

• Variation
• Time (for determination of distance)
• Total pressure
• Static pressure
• Wind direction, speed
• Total temperature (static temperature can only be calculated from total
temperature)
On the vertical plane (vertical flight path vector):
• Flight path angle

• Magnitude
Horizontal Horizontal
V6S - Ground Speed Vector (projection FPV - Flight Path Vector

in the vertial plane) y - flight path angle
vzgs _ Vertical Speed (compared to

the ground)
Figure 4.2. Flight path vector on the vertical plane
Note: Indeed flight path vector is a 3D vector, which has a projection on the
horizontal plane (known as ground speed vector) and on the vertical plane.
Measured pt and ps Measured ps and time
Pref * 1013.25 (hPa)
CAS Flight Level

Calculated Mach number
I needed
QNH [hPa]
I instrument &
needed ▼ position error Indicated Altitude
IAS
Calculated Ts [K]
Ps[Pa] Vertical Speed
Calculated TAS i
TAS
TS[U]
, r wind direction and speed

Elevation of
terrain [m]
ûp-downdrafts
Height/true altitude Vertical speed

GS (start point of the vector) compared to the
ground
Vertical flight path vector
Figure 4.3. Determination of flight path vector
External data is basically the same as in the horizontal plane, except for
deviation and variation. There are three new components: up- or downdrafts,
QNH (pressure measured at elevation and reduced to sea level with ISA;
basically atmospheric pressure at sea level), and deviation of terrain. As you
can see, if we knew all the above mentioned data, navigation would be
possible based on dead reckoning only.
However, due to measurement inaccuracies (lesser factor) and unreliability of

the predicted data (e.g. temperature, wind), it is not possible to fly a pre
planned route based on dead reckoning only.
The most "disturbing" factor is the wind. Although upper level winds can be
predicted with relatively high accuracy (except for extremes; e.g. crossing a jet
stream or mountain waves), lower level winds cannot be forecast with the
required accuracy due to the friction layer.
All in all dead reckoning navigation is really important (and every route is
planned based on its calculations), but fixing is also required (it can be VFR,
IFR, Celestial Navigation, etc.). If, however, no fix is available, DR is a reliable
source of navigation and the only opportunity not to get lost!
MORE INFO L"
4.1.2. Dead reckoning (horizontal plane)

This category (horizontal DR) can be subdivided into two phases:
a. Planning (or ground) phase
b. In-flight phase
In the planning phase, time and resources are much more available than in
flight, thus we can use two methods for calculations:
• Mathematical calculation
• Flight computer
In the following part, both methods will be used in parallel. First of all, let us
discuss some theory about the flight computer.
Theoretical background of the flight computer

There are two sides of this manual computer, calculator and wind side, as
depicted in the figure below.
Figure 4.4. Slide graphic computer
Calculator side
As its name suggests, this side is used to perform calculations including

multiplication, division, distance, speed, fuel consumption, etc.
The main part of the calculator side consists of three scales. The outer scale
(scale "A") is fixed, while the inner scales ("B" and "C") pivot in the centre of
the flight computer.
Figure 4.4. Slide graphic computer
Calculator side
As its name suggests, this side is used to perform calculations including

multiplication, division, distance, speed, fuel consumption, etc.
The main part of the calculator side consists of three scales. The outer scale
(scale "A") is fixed, while the inner scales ("B" and "C") pivot in the centre of
the flight computer.
Figure 4.5. Scale A, B, C
The scales are used to represent (among others):
• Scale A: distance, fuel, TAS

• Scale B: time (minutes), IAS, speed index arrow (usually black triangle)
• Scale C: time (hours, minutes), speed index arrow
The numbers on the calculator can represent their 10 x (x e Z) products, so for

example 12 can be used as 12,120, etc.
Wind side
As its name suggests, the wind side is used to solve wind problems, such as
wind correction angle (WCA), or drift, GS, and to determine unknown wind.
Figure 4.6. Wind side
As can be seen, the wind side contains a rotating disc graduated into 360° and
a rectangular grid (leaving two sides), which slides up and down. With the help
of this side, it is relatively easy to solve wind problems.
MORE INFOl"
Determination of the ground speed vector

In order to determine ground speed vector from basic "raw" data, we are going
to use the sequence detailed in Figure 4.1. Since the right column of the
above mentioned figure (heading calculations) is detailed in Chapter 2
(deviation, variation) and Chapter 3 (grid navigation), they will not be
discussed here.
Figure 4.6. Wind side
As can be seen, the wind side contains a rotating disc graduated into 360° and
a rectangular grid (leaving two sides), which slides up and down. With the help
of this side, it is relatively easy to solve wind problems.
MORE INFOl"
Determination of the ground speed vector

In order to determine ground speed vector from basic "raw" data, we are going
to use the sequence detailed in Figure 4.1. Since the right column of the
above mentioned figure (heading calculations) is detailed in Chapter 2
(deviation, variation) and Chapter 3 (grid navigation), they will not be
discussed here.
Therefore, let us begin with speed calculations.
Converting ps and pt to Mach number and CAS

This matter is explained in the Instrumentation subject and it is therefore not
required to detail here. However, the calculations can be found in the
Principles of Flight book.
Converting total temperature to static

temperature
Since only Tt (total air temperature, or TAT; or indicated outside air
temperature, or IOAT) can be measured, it must be converted to Ts (static air
temperature or SAT). The difference between them is called AT (ram rise),
caused by compressibility. The following equation and function can be used:
Tt = Ts x (1 + 0.2 M2) [K]
From which:
(4.1)
Ts = [K]
Where:
• M is Mach number
If airspeed is provided rather than Mach number:
Ts + Tj = Tt [K], where:
9
To = t[K1
Where:
• v is true airspeed [m/s]

• cp is specific heat (heat capacity) measured at constant pressure [J/kg-K]
Cp = 1005.3 [J/kg-K] for air
Therefore, static temperature is:

2
TS = Tt - [K]
Note: For more information on this topic and derivation, please refer to Principles
of Flight.
EXAMPLE 4.1 L"
EXAMPLE 4.2 L"
Converting Mach number to TAS

Calculation method
As we know, Mach number is the ratio of true airspeed (TAS) and local speed
of sound (a).
M =
a
Where:
• M is Mach number [-]
• vtas's true airspeed [m/s]
• a is local speed of sound [m/s]

a ~ 20.05V(Ts) [m/s] for air
Note: For more information on this topic and derivation, please refer to Principles
of Flight.
Thus:
(4.2)
vTas —M
= M x 20.05VT [f]
= M x 38. 97VT [kt]
If an aircraft is cruising with M = 0.778, Tt = -31 °C, what will be Ts?
Firstly convert temperature to get SI units:
Tt = - 31 °C = 242 K
Then, use:
Tt
TS = 1 + 0.2M2
242
1 + 0.2 x 0.7782
215.88 « 216 K
= -57 °C
A MEP aircraft is flying with 150 kt. What is Ts, if Tt = 10 °C?
Firstly we have to convert non-SI units to SI units.
v= 150 kt = 77.16 [m/s]

Tt = 10 °C = 283 K
Use:
rr^ V2
Td = 2^
= 283 - ~ 283 - 2. 96
= 280.04 « 280 K
= 7"C
As you can see, the difference is not negligible even at low speeds.
Flight computer method
As can be seen above, TAS can be calculated with the help of a simple
multiplication with a given number. Therefore, the flight computer is capable
of solving the task.
The method is simple, do the following steps:
1. Rotate the disc, until you align the Mach index with the static air
temperature (1 in the figure below).
2. Find Mach number on the B scale (90 corresponds to 0.9, 55 to 0.55,12

to 1.2 etc.).
3. Read TAS on the scale A opposite to your Mach number.
Figure 4.7. Determination of TAS from Mach number
Obviously you can use the flight computer to determine one unknown with
the help of the other data; i.e. you can determine:
• Mach number, if TAS and Ts are known.
• Ts if Mach number and TAS are known.
EXAMPLE 4.3 L"
Converting IAS to TAS

As is apparent from Figure 4.1, converting indicated airspeed (IAS) to TAS can
be done in multiple steps.
Firstly, position error and instrument error must be taken into consideration to
be able to calculate CAS (calibrated air speed). Since these errors are specific
to aircraft and instrument types, they cannot be handled in general. Thus, in
the following IAS = CAS assumption will be used.
Secondly, it must be decided, whether the effect of compressibility should be

taken into account or not. It solely depends on Mach number. At low-speed,
compressibility can be disregarded, but in the subsonic speed range,
compressibility leads to significant errors.
MORE INFO L"
EAS (equivalent airspeed) is corrected for the above-mentioned effect

compressibility. As in general navigation, it is not required to calculate
compressibility, the determination of EAS is not detailed. However, you might
be asked to work with compressibility factors, which is relatively
straightforward. Simply multiply CAS with the compressibility factor to obtain
EAS.
MORE INFO L"
After having EAS, true airspeed can be computed with the help of the
calculation method or flight computer method, as described below.
Based on the above-mentioned assumptions, if compressibility can be

neglected, IAS is directly converted to TAS.
Calculation method
Again you cruise with M = 0.778, Ts= -47 °C. What is your TAS?
Calculation method
Firstly, convert non-SI units to SI:
Ts = -47 °C = 226 K
Then use:
VtAS = M x 0- 05^/T
= 0. 778 x 20.05 x ^226 « 234. 5 [f ]
= 455. 8 [kt]
or, if you want a result in kt directly:
vtas = M x 38. 97\/T

= 0. 778 x 38. 97 x v'226 « 455. 8 [kt]
Firstly, align Mach index with -47 °C. Then, find M = 0.778 (77.8) on scale "A",
then read TAS on scale "B". Approximately 460 kt.
As you can see, our calculation is correct.
OIL LBS.
Step 1
This example was taken from real life, you can see in the figure below that vTAS =
456 kt (in the top left corner of the ND). Mach number is shown in green on the
PFD.
CRUISE
ENG
__ F. USEO __
390 1*2 360
750
KG
OIL
16.0 QT 16.0
0.3 VIB N1 — 0.3

0.1 N2 - 0.1
AIR LOG ELEV AUTO 500 FT

AP 4.4 PSI
CAB V/S
5nn ft/min
CKPT FUO AFT
C 23 23 | 23 •c CAB ALT
1700 FT
TAT 31 *C GU 61400 KG
SAT 57 *c 09 H 15
ISA 1 ’c
There are some rules of thumb, which can be used really well in flight,
however these are approximations and do not take temperature into account.
Nevertheless:
(4.3)
vTas = vias + vias x0.02 x Ah
= vias x (1 + 0.02 A h)
Where:
• vtas's true airspeed [m/s] or [kt]

• V|AS is indicated airspeed [m/s] or [kt]
• Ah is altitude in thousands of feet
It basically means that you have to add 2 % of the IAS per 1000 ft.
A more exact formula can be derived from the definition equation of TAS and
IAS:
(4.4)
2 Ph 2 Ph
vtas x y = viAS2 x
Where:
• p0 is density at altitude [kg/m3]
• p0 is standard density at sea level [kg/m3]

p0 = 1.225 [kg/m3] by ISA
If we rearrange Equation 4.4, we get the following:
(4.5)
We also know that:
y = R x Ts (Universal Gas Law)

(4.6)
_ Ps
P ~ R x Ts
Where:
• p is density [kg/m3]
• Ts is static temperature [K]
• ps is static pressure [Pa]
• R is specific gas constant [J/kg-K]

R = 287 [J/kg-K]
Let us substitute Equation 4.6 into Equation 4.51 (p will be substituted into p^
since p0 is considered to be constant):
(4.7)
vias
vtas [f ] or [kt]
Ps
PO X R x TSh
Obviously ps depends on altitude, and the formula is called barometric

formula:
(4.8)
g
. / Tso \ RL r-r-) ]
Ps = PsO x ( —
\ 1 Sh /
Pa
Where:
• ps0 is static pressure at sea level [Pa]
• Tso is temperature at sea level [K]
• TSh is temperature at altitude [K]
• g is gravitational acceleration [m/s2]

g ~ 9.81 [m/s2]
R = 287 [J/kg-K]
• L is temperature laps rate [K/m]
For simplification, we can use L = 0.0065 [K/m]
By substituting Equation 4.8 into Equation 4.7:
(4.9)
vias
vtas g
Tso RL
PsO x
TSh
PO x R X TSh
VIAS
9,81
101325 x
xso 287x 0.0065
TSh
1.225 x 287 xTg^
vias
/ / rp \ 5.26
x VO x Tsh[f] or [kt]
In case of non-standard atmosphere, use the actual lapse rate, thus instead of
5.26, 9.81/(287 La) shall be used, where La is the actual lapse rate [K/m]. In
case you use the real barometric data on ground, i.e. ps0, p0 the calculation
yields very precise data.
So TAS can be calculated more precisely:
(4.10)
I —
vias
vtas 16.97
X X TSh [f] or [kt]
y \ i sh / L s J
This formula is valid for ISA conditions only. For non-ISA conditions, refer to
the extra content above.
It is also relatively simple to calculate TAS from IAS (CAS) with the help of the
flight computer. As in the formula, TAS is basically the function of static
temperature, altitude and of course IAS (CAS).
1. Rotate the disk of the calculator side until you align the static air
temperature with pressure altitude.
Note: By setting temperature and pressure altitude, you can easily read
density altitude in the density altitude window. If temperature at altitude is
ISA temperature (e.g. 15 °C at sea level, -5 °C at 10000 ft, etc.), it is enough
to set altitude in the density altitude window thereby saving time.
2. Find your IAS (CAS) on scale "B".
3. Read TAS on the scale 'A" opposite to your IAS (CAS).
Figure 4.8. Determination of TAS from IAS (CAS)
Again, any of the four variables (Ts, h, TAS, IAS) can be calculated if the other
three are known. Furthermore, if IAS and TAS are given, you can even
calculate density at altitude with Equation 4.4.
EXAMPLE 4.4
An airliner is in cruise with 260 kt IAS (M = 0.785, thus EAS = 242 kt) at 36000 ft.
Static air temperature is -57 °C, static air temperature on the ground is 0 °C. What
is the TAS?
Calculation method
Firstly, convert °C into K and feet into m!
Tsh = -57 °C = 216 K and Tso = 4 °C = 277 K

h = 36 000 ft - 10972 m
—L = —Tsi, + Tso = 0.00556

h
Power:
Then use Equation 4.10:
_ VIAS
TAS 16.97
_ 242
— 16.97
= 450.34 kt « 450 kt
Now let us use the rule of thumb (Equation 4.3)!
Note: h in 1000 ft now.
vtas — vias x (1 + 0.02 Ah)

— 1- 72vias
= 447 kt
As you can see, the rule of thumb is not particularly accurate, and just gives an
approximation!
Firstly align static temperature (= -57 °C) with pressure altitude (36000 ft — "36").
Tn ^1 C A C _ 0/10 1x4- r-J k\\ / 0/1 O ”D m 11\ / /4 TA C
As you can see, the rule of thumb is not particularly accurate, and just gives an
approximation!
Firstly align static temperature (= -57 °C) with pressure altitude (36000 ft — "36").
Secondly, find EAS = 242 kt (represented by 24.2 on scale "B"). Finally, read TAS
on scale "A", approximately 440 (difference due to inaccuracy of mechanical
computer at high speeds and altitudes)
In the figure below, the result is represented by an A320. It is apparent, that TAS is
equal to 450 kt.
In the figure below, the result is represented by an A320. It is apparent, that TAS is
equal to 450 kt.
CRUISE
ENG
F. USEO
390 1*2 360
750
KG
OIL
16.0 QT 16.0
0.3 VIB N1 0.3

0.1 N2 0.1
AIR LOG ELEV AUTO 500 FT

AP 4.4 PSI
CAB V/S
J3 500 FT/niN
CKPT FUO AFT
23 23 1 23 *c CAB ALT
1700 FT
TAT ’C GU 61400 KG
1 SAT 09 H 15
As you can see, we reached the last but one step in Figure 4.1. As TAS is
calculated, either "manually" or with the , the last step is to correct it with wind.
Before proceeding, however, we need the true heading as well. You already know
how to do this, but for the sake of revision, solve an example!
Converting CH to TH (reminder)
Let us have an example: Compass heading is 270°. Deviation is 5°E, variation
is 10°W, grid convergence 20°E; what is the grid heading?
CH = 270°
MH = CH + DEV (E)
= 270° + 5° = 275°
TH = MH - VAR (W)
= 275° - 10° = 265°
Just to revise, let us calculate GH:
GH = TH + Grid C. (E)
= 265° + 20° = 285°
Now all the necessary data that must be corrected for the wind are calculated
to get GS . But before continuing with wind problems, check some other
useful features of the calculator side.
Conversions
Conversions between units can be done in the conventional way (calculation)
or with the flight computer as well.
Since conversions between different units are performed with the help of
simple multiplication or division, the Flight Computer is capable of solving
such problems.
In order to convert one unit to another, you have to align the proper arrows
on scale "A" and "B". For example, if you want to know the equivalent of
120 NM in kilometres, align arrow "NAUT" on scale "A" and "KM" on scale "B".
Now, nm is displayed on scale "A" and km is represented by scale "B". So, find
12 on scale "A", (12 represents 12 x 101 now so 120). Opposite to that, read
the value in km: app. 22.2 representing 222 km (see figure below).
Figure 4.9. Conversions
Obviously, km —> NM conversion can be accomplished by finding the required

value in km on the scale "B" and reading the value in nm on scale "A".
Despite the fact that many units are available to be converted, it is important
to know the conversion numbers in order to exclude pairs of units which
cannot be converted with the flight computer (e.g. m - NM, m - km). The
following conversions are possible:
Scale B <■-► Scale B
[m] - [ft] 1 [ft] = 0.3048 [m]
[km] ♦-► [NM] 1 [NM] = 1.852 [km]
*[km] <■-► [SM] 1 [SM] = 1.61 [km]
*[impGal] <--► [USGal] 1 [impGal] = 1.2 [USGal]
*[l] ■+• [impGal] 1 [impGal] = 4.55 [I]

*[l] -> [USGal] 1 [USGal] = 3.79 [I]
[kg] ► [lbs] 1 [kg] = 0.454 [lbs]

Fuel [USGal] ► Fuel [lbs] 1 [USGal] = 6 [lb] AVGAS is assumed (p = 720 [kg/m3])
Fuel [impGal] <-i► Fuel [lbs] 1 [impGal] = 7.2 [lbs]
Oil [USGal] ► Oil [lbs] 1 [USGal] = 7.5 [lbs] is assumed
Oil [impGal] ► Oil [lbs] 1 [impGal] = 9 [lbs]
★indicates both are located on both scales
Figure 4.10. Conversion table
EXAMPLE 4.5 L"
Speed, time, distance

Calculation method
If the ground speed is already known, or you have fixes from which you want
to calculate it, you can use the very-well known basic formula:
V = g [f ] [m/s]
Where:
• is velocity vector [m/s]
• Ax is displacement vector [m]

• At is elapsed time [s]
Do not be disconcerted by vector signs: these are vectorial units. However,

here, we are only interested in their magnitudes. By rearranging the equation,
you can calculate all three variables by knowing the other two.

Given Answer
145 [km] [nm] and [sm] = 78.3 [NM] and 90 [sm]
540 [NM] [km] and [sm] = 1000 [km] and 620 [sm]
700 [m] [ft] = 2 300 [ft] (2 396.6 ft)
900 [I] [impGal] and [USGal] = 240 [USGal] and 200 [impGal]
240 [kg] [lbs] 530 [lbs]
200 [USGal] [lbs] Fuel 1200 [lbs]
As speed, time, distance calculations involve simple multiplication or division
only, the is capable of solving this task. The designers of the FC helped you a
lot by creating the speed index (solid triangle).
MORE INFOl"
In order to solve problems involving velocity, distance, and time, imagine that
scale "A" represents speed and distance, whereas time is shown by scale "B" in
minutes and "C" (in hours).
If you want to calculate time elapsed or distance, the steps are as follows:
1. Adjust the speed index with the speed on scale "A".
If you want to get time:
2. Find distance on scale "A"
3. Read time on scale "B" opposite to the distance in minutes or on scale

"C" in hours.
If you want to get distance:
2. Find time on scale "B"
3. Read distance on scale "A" opposite to time.
If speed is in question:
2. Find and adjust time and distance on scale "B" (or "C") and 'A",
respectively.
3. Read velocity under the speed index.
Note: Arguments can be entered in a/l units, but then the result is the proper unit.
Velocity Distance Time

kt NM hour
km/h km hour
m/s m s
mph sm hour
fpm feet minute
Example 1: You fly with 380 kt. When do you reach a point located 55 NM
from you?
Calculation method:
|At| =
55
380
0.1447 [h]
= 8. 68 [min]
Flight computer method:
1. Align speed index with 38 (representing 380).
2. Find 55 on scale "A".
3. Read 8.7 (minutes) on scale "B".

Figure 4.11. Example 1
Example 2: You pass two landmarks 35 km from each other. The time needed
was 9 min. What is your ground speed?
Calculation method:
Ax
At
35
60
| x 60
km
= 233.3
h
Flight computer method:
1. Align 90 (representing 9 minutes) on scale "B" with 35 (rep. 35 km) on

scale "A".
2. Read the value under the speed index, app. 234 km/h.
Figure 4.12. Example 2
MORE INFOl"
Fuel consumption
Calculation method
Again, a fairly simple calculation can be performed if the values of both fuel
flow (fuel consumption per unit of time) and total fuel on board are known.
mf
msec — a
max = [h]
lxlsec
Where:
• mf is fuel on board [kg]
• msec's fuel fl°w [kg/h] (fuel consumption)

• tmax is max time in the air [h]
11 idA *■ J
Note: Different units can also be used, but the unit of the result also changes.
If GS is known, maximum flight distance can also be calculated:
dmax — tmax X Vqs [NM]
Where:
• dmay is max distance flown [NM]

I I IdA J
• vqs is average ground speed [kt]
Note: Again, it is possible to use different units.
As is explained above, definition of fuel flow is similar to velocity in the sense

that a given unit is divided by elapsed time.
Therefore, calculation of fuel consumption is really similar to velocity

determination:
• Speed index points to fuel flow (fuel consumption) - speed

• Fuel quantity on scale "A" - distance
• Time can be read on scale "B" and "C" - time
Let us solve an example:
Fuel flow of a twin engine jet is 1050 [kg/h] per engine. Usable fuel on board
is 3090 [kg]. What theoretical distance can be flown with engines running, if
vqs = 456 kt?
msec = 2100 [kg/h] for the two engines:
1. Set speed index to 21 representing 2100 [kg/h].
2. Find 30.90 on scale "A" rep. 3 090 [kg].
3. Read time on scale "B" or "C" opposite to 30.9 ~ 88.0 min or 1:28 [h].
Now max time is known. With this and speed, determine distance.
4. Move speed index to 45.6 rep. 456 kt.
5. Read distance opposite to tmax (87.5 min) —> 67.0 rep. 670 NM.
There are many other useful functions of the calculator side of the flight
computer, e.g. multiplying, dividing, even tan function for small angles, you
can refer to the manual of your flight computer.
Wind correction
Believe it or not we reached the last step in the process of determination of
the ground speed vector. As we know vtas (TAS and direction - TH are
known), it is the wind we must take into account in order to nail down vqs-
Calculation method
Note that the basics of the calculations refer to arithmetic. If you feel
uncertain about this topic, about vectors and trigonometry, please have a look
at chapter Mathematics in our Principles of Flight ebook.
To begin with, let us assume that we know wind vector (direction and speed).
Wind direction is (mainly) given in true directions.
Figure 4.13. Wind triangle for wind correction angle calculation
It is apparent from the figure above, that wind vector can be divided into
two components, one parallel to TT (which can be headwind or tailwind
component) vpw, one perpendicular to TT, which is called crosswind
x >
component, vcw-
Since >DAC = > BCA (5=6, alternate angles), these components can be
determined with simple trigonometric calculations.
Triangle ABC is a right triangle, therefore:
(4.11)
—>
sin£ = vcw vw • sin£ [™] or [kt]
(4.12)
True airspeed
Ground speed
Wind speed
Figure 4.13. Wind triangle for wind correction angle calculation
It is apparent from the figure above, that wind vector can be divided into
two components, one parallel to TT (which can be headwind or tailwind
component) vpw, one perpendicular to TT, which is called crosswind
x >
component, vcw-
Since >DAC = > BCA (5=6, alternate angles), these components can be
determined with simple trigonometric calculations.
Triangle ABC is a right triangle, therefore:
(4.11)
—>
sin£ = vcw vw • sin£ [™] or [kt]
(4.12)
Vpw --- >
cos6 = Vpw vw • cos£ [™] or [kt]
Single triangle OBA is also a right triangle:
(4.13)
vcw
sina =
vtas
Thus, wind correction angle a is the following:
• vcw r r°i
a = arcsm -----
vtas l
rad or
j l j
Now let us substitute Equation 4.11 into Equation 4.13:
(4.14)
• ( Vw ■ sin<5
a = arcsm --------- [rad] or [°]
\ vtas
As you can see, with this simple formula, you can calculate wind correction
angle.
Now calculate ground speed (vGS):
Obviously to calculate vGS, firstly we have to find the magnitude of v and

vpw- V is smaller, than vtas, the difference depends on a. In other words:
vgs = v ± vpw [y] or [kt]
• positive if vPW is tailwind
• negative if vPW is headwind
From triangle OAB:
cosa = v = vtas • cosa [™] or [kt]
From triangle ABC:
cos£ = —> vpw = vw • cos£ [™] or [kt]
Thus, vGS is:

(4.15)
VGS = V ± Vpw
— vtas ’ cosa ± vw • cos<5 [y] or [kt]
It is also apparent, that vGS (ground speed) can also be calculated in a

relatively simple way.
More precise solution:
Figure 4.13 depicts the wind triangle for the purpose of determining the
required wind correction angle in order to maintain a certain track. It is
apparent that the ground speed vector (vGs) is the vectorial sum of the true
airspeed vector (vtas) and the wind vector (v\v). At the first sight we can
easily conclude that this wind triangle is not necessarily a right triangle, which
imposes some difficulties for the solution. The easiest way to overcome with
this issue is to use the Law of Sines, i.e.:
a __ b __ c
sinct sin/3 siiry
Where:
• a is the angle opposite to side "a"

• p is the angle opposite to side "b"
• y is the angle opposite to side "c"
The above-mentioned law is valid for all scalene triangles. For our wind
triangle, we can set up two equations using Law of Sines:
I V TAS |
sin (180° — 6)
arc sin (180° — J)
Where:
• a is the wind correction angle [° or rad]

• 6 is the wind angle [° or rad]
Having obtained the wind correction angle a, it is possible to calculate the

third angle of the triangle, named s.
a + 180° - 8 + e = 180°
e=8 — a
With the help of e, ground speed can be calculated using the Law of Sines:
lvwl
sin a
--- > sin e
VGS
Where:
• vtas's TAS (vector) of the aircraft, direction is the true heading [kt]
• vw is wind vector (direction and speed) [kt]
• vqs is ground speed vector of the aircraft
Ground speed vector (drift angle)

Figure 4.14. Wind triangle for VGS calculation
Note: (3 is drift angle [°].
It is apparent from the figure above that the calculation of p and vqs differs
compared to the previous case, as vqs is now the hypotenuse of a triangle,
not a leg.
Thus, the first action to do is to calculate vqs in order to create a right triangle
(OBA) from which a and vqs can easily be nailed down.
(4.16)
---- >
v’gs = v’GS = vTas ± vpw [7] or [kt]
• + if tailwind
• -if headwind
Since vPW is the same, given by Equation 4.12:

(4.17)
v’gs = vtas ± vw x cos<5 [™] or [kt]
Now, from triangle OBA, it is fairly simple to determine a and vGS:
(4.18)
vcw vw x sin<y
tan/3 =
v’gs v’gs
Since:
(4.19)
vcw — vw x sin6
Thus, drift angle is:
(4.20)
vw x sinJ \
/3 = arctan
v’gs /
vw x sind
= arctan [rad] or
vTas ± Vw x cos5
Therefore, vqs — vqs can be calculated with using Equation 4.17:
v’gs
VGS =
vtas ± vw x cos5
cos/3
vtas i vw x cos<y
vw x sin<5
cos arctan
X VGS 7 .
vtas ± vw x cos<£
[f ] or M
vw x sin<5
cos arctan
VTAS VW x cos^
It would be interesting to compare wind correction angle, drifting angle and

ground speed in the two cases (wind correction or drift).
VGS1 = VTAS X C0Sa ± VW X C0S5
a = arcsin
vw x Sin6 \ VVGS VVTAS 1± VvW x cosS

P = arctan VTAS ± vw * cos6 I
v =------ = -------------------
GS2 cosp cosp
Thus, if there is headwind, p > a; if tailwind blows p < a Thus, if wind is not parallel (P * 0°) vGS2 > vGS1
Figure 4.15. Determination of unknown wind
Since you know how to calculate vGS and wind correction angle (or drift
angle), let us try to find how to determine unknown wind, if we know: track,
wind correction angle (a)’ true airspeed (vTAS) and ground speed (vGS).
Finding unknown wind

This means that we are interested in vw (v^ and 6).
Let us rearrange Equation 4.14 and Equation 4.15:
• ( vw x sin<y
a \
arcsm
VTAS
---------
[rad] or [°]
vtas x sina = vw x sin£

VGS — vtas x cosa ± vw x cos<5
vw x cos£ = ± (vGs — vtas x cosa)
Now, divide Equation 4.16 with Equation 4.17:
vw x sin£ = vtas x sina

vw x cos£ = ± (vqs — vtas x cosa)
vtas x since
tan6 = vgs - vtas x cosa
(4.21)
vtas x since
arctan vgs - vtas x cosa
[rad] or [°]
Now, 5 (difference between TT and wind direction) is known.

Substitute Equation 4.18 into Equation 4.16.
vw x sin£ = vtas x sina
(4.22)
vtas x since
VW = sin5
vTas x since
vTASxs*na I
( ±----------------- I
vGS-vTASxcoso / -
Although the formulae are a little bit more complicated, they can be used
really well in practice.
The flight computer, as mentioned before in this chapter, provides a graphical

solution to wind problems. If you want to know its working principle, please
see Section 4.1.2 (Wind side).
In order to be able to cope with both low airspeeds and higher speeds
precisely, the rectangular grid represents both on a separate side. It is
necessary to choose the correct side of the slide with the appropriate speed
range speed range.
Finding ground speed and wind correction angle

The first thing to do is to choose the appropriate side of the rectangular grid.
The following steps should then be taken:
1. Place the wind direction under the true index.
2. Mark wind velocity upwards from the centre. It can be done from
arbitrary positions, only magnitude is important (e.g. vw = 20 kt if centre
is on position 200, mark wind on 220, if centre is on 150 mark wind on
170).
Note: Now wind vector is determined.

3. Rotate the disc until your true course (or true track) is under the true
index.
4. Slide the grid up or down until the wind track (dot) reaches TAS arc (e.g.
160, etc.).
5. Ground speed is indicated by the centre of the rotating disc (e.g. 144 kt).
6. Read wind correction angle between the centre line and wind mark (e.g.
4°).
Figure 4.16. Flight computer method (wind correction angle)
Finding ground speed vector (drift angle, ground

speed)
3. Rotate the disc until your true course (or true track) is under the true
index.
4. Slide the grid up or down until the wind track (dot) reaches TAS arc (e.g.
160, etc.).
5. Ground speed is indicated by the centre of the rotating disc (e.g. 144 kt).
6. Read wind correction angle between the centre line and wind mark (e.g.
4°).
Figure 4.16. Flight computer method (wind correction angle)
Finding ground speed vector (drift angle, ground

speed)
This is even simpler than finding the wind correction angle. The steps are as
follows:
1. Place the centre of disk on your TAS.
2. Place your true heading under the true index.
3. Mark wind velocity downwards from centre.
4. Place wind direction under the true index.
5. Read drift angle and ground speed under the wind mark.
Note: Drift angle will be to the opposite side, then marked on the flight
computer.
Figure 4.17. Flight computer method ground speed vector (drift angle)
This is even simpler than finding the wind correction angle. The steps are as
follows:
1. Place the centre of disk on your TAS.
2. Place your true heading under the true index.
3. Mark wind velocity downwards from centre.
4. Place wind direction under the true index.
Note: Drift angle will be to the opposite side, then marked on the flight
computer.
Figure 4.17. Flight computer method ground speed vector (drift angle)
As we have managed to reach our goal (set in Figure 4,1), the ground speed
vector is now known! However, in order to expand our knowledge, let us find
unknown wind with the help of the flight computer.
Finding unknown wind

As mentioned in the calculation part of this chapter, four variables must be
known:
• Track (true)
• Heading (true)
• TAS
• GS
Follow the steps detailed below in order to find unknown wind:
1. Place true track (course) under the true index.
2. Place the centre of the rotating disk on the value representing ground
speed.
3. Determine wind correction angle by simply subtracting track from

heading (- left + right. About "N", e.g. heading 0100, track 350°
difference is -340°, but right WC is still applied. In this case, add 360°;
then the rule will be valid).
4. Place a (pencil) mark at the intersection of the arc representing your TAS
and wind correction angle (left or right).
5. Rotate the disk (azimuth) until the mark is located on the centreline.
6. Read wind speed (dif. between centre and mark on the centreline) and
direction (under the true index).
Figure 4.18. Flight computer method finding unknown wind
By this point, you should have learnt two methods by which to determine
ground speed vector from raw data, which provide either a backup or the
possibility to check your result.
There is even a third method to solve wind problems, which is much easier
than the two above-mentioned methods. The only problem is that it is a bit
more time consuming. If you are interested in this method, see the following
more info box.
MORE INFO L"
Now, let us solve some examples.

Figure 4.18. Flight computer method finding unknown wind
By this point, you should have learnt two methods by which to determine
ground speed vector from raw data, which provide either a backup or the
possibility to check your result.
There is even a third method to solve wind problems, which is much easier
than the two above-mentioned methods. The only problem is that it is a bit
more time consuming. If you are interested in this method, see the following
more info box.
MORE INFO L"
Now, let us solve some examples.

EXAMPLE 4.6 L"
EXAMPLE 4.7 L"
EXAMPLE 4.8 L"
As shown above, navigation in the horizontal plane is finished, as we managed

to find the ground speed vector. Ground speed vector multiplied by the
elapsed time results in the displacement vector compared to Earth. Now we
are able to navigate without having any other data, provided that all sources
used are completely reliable.
It is also apparent that this process is quite time consuming, and would thus
be extremely difficult to do in flight during single-pilot operations.
Consequently, a simplified process is used for in-flight navigation, sometimes

known as rules of thumb. The accuracy will obviously be degraded, but only
down to a useable level. A number of useful tricks which can alleviate the
need to apply mental arithmetic will now be detailed.
In-flight phase
The following equations/rules can be used providing degraded accuracy, but
down to a useable level. The aim here is to provide simplified equations that
can be used even with the help of mental arithmetic.
Converting Tt (TAT) to Ts (SAT)
Ts«Tt-30x M [°C]
Where:
• Ts is static temperature [°C]
• Tt is total temperature [°C]
Let us solve an example:

Determine WCA (a), and ground speed (vGS) if the true track (TT) is 075°, the wind
is (vw) 003°/115 kt, vTAS = 396 kt!
Calculation method
Firstly, calculate angle 6 (difference between course and wind):
5 = 75° -3° =72°
Secondly, we use:
a— sin sin (180° — J)
= arc sin —
XUn • sin (108°)
x 7 « 16°
Obviously a must be applied to the left, so:
TH = TT - a = 075° - 16° = 059°

Finally, calculate vGS with the help of Equation 4.17:
VGS = • sin £
115
sin 16°
• sin 56°
= 346 kt
1. Place the wind direction under the true index - 003° (first figure below).
2. Mark wind velocity upwards from the centre. It can be done from arbitrary
positions, only magnitude is important - 115 kt (centre 400 kt, wind dot
515 kt).
3. Rotate the disc until your true course (or true track) is under the true index -
075°.
4. Slide the grid up or down until the wind track (dot) reaches TAS arc (e.g. 160,
etc.) - 396 kt.
1. Place the wind direction under the true index - 003° (first figure below).
2. Mark wind velocity upwards from the centre. It can be done from arbitrary
positions, only magnitude is important - 115 kt (centre 400 kt, wind dot
515 kt).
3. Rotate the disc until your true course (or true track) is under the true index -
075°.
4. Slide the grid up or down until the wind track (dot) reaches TAS arc (e.g. 160,
etc.) - 396 kt.
5. Ground speed is indicated by the centre of the rotating disc ~ 343 kt
6. Read wind correction angle between the centre line and wind mark ~ 16°.
As you can see, this is more or less the maximum capability of this F.C. (WCA lies
slightly out of the rectangular grid).
Vectographical method
Let us assume that 1 cm = 30 kt, thus:
Vtas = 396 — 13.2 cm

vw = 115 kt — 3.8 cm
Now, prepare the vector triangle:
1. Draw v" and v^. Since you do not know the length of v, just draw a long
ray.
2. Divide into two, vc^ and vP^. Measure vP^-.
3. From point "O", draw an arc with radius of vTas — 13.2 cm. The point where
it intersects v , it will be the start of v.
4. Subtract vPW from v to get ground speed.

Let us assume that 1 cm = 30 kt, thus:
Vtas — 396 — 13.2 cm

vw = 115 kt — 3.8 cm
Now, prepare the vector triangle:
1. Draw V and v^. Since you do not know the length of v, just draw a long
ray.
2. Divide into two, vc^ and vPVJ. Measure vP^.
3. From point "O", draw an arc with radius of vTas — 13.2 cm. The point where
it intersects V, it will be the start of V.
4. Subtract vPW from v to get ground speed.
Wind correction angle: a = 16°

Ground speed: vGS = 11.5 cm = 345 kt
5. Finally, convert the length units to speed with the constant determined in
the beginning.
It is apparent that all three methods give approximately the same result, which
means that our calculation is most probably correct.
But to be sure, see the figure below, which depicts the original situation of this
example. Wind data are shown in the top left corner of the ND.
Note: The only difference is that in reality, every direction is shown referenced to
Magnetic North.
Determine ground speed vector: if true heading is 279°, vTAS = 449 kt, wind:
222°/88 kt.
Calculation method
Again, calculate 6 first:
6 = 279° - 222° = 57°

vw = 88 kt
Then, Equation 4.17 is used to calculate v’GS (headwind —»(-)):
v’gs = vTAs - vw x cosJ

= 449 - 88 x cos 57°
« 401 kt
To determine drift angle, utilise Equation 4.20:
q ( vw x sinJ \
p = arctan —-------
\ v’gs /
= arctan ( 88 x în57~ )
= 10.4°
Finally,
v gs 401 no 14-
VGS — --- o
cos/3
~
cos 10.4
~ 408 kt
1. Place the centre of disk on your TAS (449 kt).
2. Place your true heading under the true index (279°).
3. Mark wind velocity downwards from centre (449 - 88 = 361 kt).
4. Place wind direction under the true index (222°).
Note: Drift angle will be to the opposite side, then marked on the flight computer.
Vectorial solution
Assume that 1 cm = 30 kt, thus:
VTAS = 449 kt — 15 cm
vw = 88 kt — 2.9 cm
Wind correction angle: p = 10.5°

Solution in steps:
1. Draw vTAs and v^. The angle between them is 6 = 57°.
2. Draw the resultant vector vGg.
3. Finally measure the length of vGg and the angle between vTAg and vG| (p).
As you can see again, similar answers are obtained with all three methods. Now,
confirm the answer in the figure below.
Wind correction angle: p = 10.5°
Solution in steps:
1. Draw vTAs and v^. The angle between them is 6 = 57°.
2. Draw the resultant vector vGg.
3. Finally measure the length of vGg and the angle between vTAg and vGg (p).
As you can see again, similar answers are obtained with all three methods. Now,
confirm the answer in the figure below.
What is wind direction and speed, if TH = 140°, vTAS = 451 kt, TT = 133° and vGS
= 500 kt?
Calculation method
Firstly, determine wind correction angle (WCA - a):
a = TH - TT
= 140° - 133°
= 7° (to the right)
You also know that there is tailwind, since vGS > vTAS.
Use Equation 4.21 to find 6!
<5= arctan (+ VTASXSina

\ vgs—vtas x coset
451 x sin 7°
= arctan + 500-451 xcos 7°
+ 46.4° « +46°
In order to calculate wind speed, use Equation 4.22:
_ vTas x sinct
sin<S
451 x sin 7"
sin 46.4°
76 kt
Since we know that tailwind blows, 5 must be subtracted from the reciprocal of
the track (133° + 180° = 313°), which results in 313° - 46° = 267°.
All in all, the wind is 267°/76 kt.
1. Place true track (course) under true index (133°).
2. Place the centre of the rotating disk on the value representing ground speed
(500 kt).
3. Determine wind correction angle by simply subtracting track from heading

(a = 7°).
1. Place true track (course) under true index (133°).
2. Place the centre of the rotating disk on the value representing ground speed
(500 kt).
3. Determine wind correction angle by simply subtracting track from heading

(a = 7°).
4. Place a mark at the intersection of the arc representing your TAS and wind
correction angle (7° right and 451 kt).
5. Rotate the disk (azimuth) until the mark is located on the centreline.
6. Read wind speed (diff. between centre and mark on the centreline) and
direction (under the true index). Solution is: 265°/75 kt (approx. 267°/76 kt).
Vectorial method
The solution is quite simple, you only have to draw two vectors, vTAg and vGg.
Let us assume that:
1 cm = 30 kt
VTAS - 15 cm
vGS = 16.67 cm
1. Draw vTAs and vGg. The angle between them is 7°, as calculated before
(140° - 133° = 7°).
2. Since vGg is the resultant vector, draw a third vector between vTAg and vGg
. This is the wind vector .
3. Measure the angle between wind vector j and vTAs and vGg. In the
Figure below, the angle between and vGs is measured, this is app. 46°.
So wind direction is 133° + 180° - 46° = 267°.
X X46°
Tt>133’
\
^T\VW Vcw£2.6cm
*" a = 7°
VGS
(Vgs±16.6 cm) vTAS
I (VTAS^15cm)
4. Finally measure length of vw - 2.6 cm. Therefore vw = 2.6 x 30 = 78 kt.
So the wind is 267°/76 kt.
Now, let us see how precisely the wind is calculated by the Airbus FMGS.
VGS
(Vgs±16.6 cm)
Vtas
(VTAS=15cm)
4. Finally measure length of vw - 2.6 cm. Therefore vw = 2.6 x 30 = 78 kt.
So the wind is 267°/76 kt.
Now, let us see how precisely the wind is calculated by the Airbus FMGS.
The wind can be read by in the top left corner of the ND, 269/78 kt.
If M = 0.778, Tt = -31 [°C] what is Ts?
Ts ~ -31 [°C] - 30 x 0.778 = -54 [°C], whereas Equation 4.1 gives -57 [°C],
which is fairly close.
Converting Mach number to TAS
For moderate Mach numbers and temperatures (it basically assumes -36 [°C]):
vtas ~ M x 600 [kt]
Where:
Now, let us solve an example:
M = 0.78, Ts = -55 [°C] = 218 K, what is TAS?
VTAS ~ M x 600 = 468 kt, whereas Equation 4.2 gives:
vtas = 38.97-^/T x M ~ 448 kt
Converting IAS to TAS
As previously mentioned, Equation 4.3 can be used:
(4.23)
vtas — vias + M]
Where:
• FL is flight level [hundreds of feet]
Let us solve an example, given:
Altitude: 34000’
VIAS = 250 kt
T = -31 [°C]
Equation 4.3 gives:

vtas 250 + 250 x 0.02 x 34 = 420 kt
Equation 4. gives:
vtas ~ 250 + 170 = 420 kt
The real answer based on Equation 4.10 is app. 455 kt. The error is below
10 %, so the rules of thumb can be used.
l-in-60 rule
This rule simplifies trigonometric calculations. It can be applied instead of tan
or sin functions.
Figure 4.19. Determination of l-in-60 rule
Firstly, let us determine the length of arc AB. The length of the arc can be
calculated, thus:
2R,7t
j_____
QAB
___
— 360° x a
Where:
• R is radius [m]
• a is centre angle [°]
• ÂB’s of the arc
Now, let us consider that the radius is equal to 1 unit. This way, the equation
above becomes:
j __ 2% 6.283 a
CL'77^
AB
— ------ -
360
X a 360
X a 60
Note: Only approximation.
Since segment BC is nearly equal to AB, we can say that:
BC ~ d— ~ —
tana ~ 1 ~ QAB ~ 60
R
(dCA is negligible); or
BC ~ d— ~ —
sina = = 1 ~ QAB ~ 60
R
Thus, arcsin and arctan are obtained by multiplying by 60. Consequently, the
tangent or sine of a small angle can be calculated by dividing it by 60.
For example: What is tangent and sine of 3°, 8°, 1°, 15°, 20°, 30°, 45°?
simplified way precise calculation
tan sine tan sine

3° 0.05 i k 0.05 j k 0.0524 0.0523 [
8° 0.13 0.13 0.1405 0.1392 |
— --------------- 1
12° 0.20 0.20 0.2126 0.2079 !
_________ I
15- 0.25 0.25 useable 0.2679 0.2588 ■
i
20° 0.33 1 F 0.33 r 0.364 0.342 i
J ■“ ■
more than i L 0.5773
30° 0.50 L 0.50 0.5
10 % error
0.75 0.75 , 1 0.7071 J
■ i
50° ____ _ _r 0.83
— 0.766 i
55’ I
__ not useable _ i.
60° i
i
Figure 4.20. Tangent and sine
As is apparent from the figure above, 1-60 tangent can be used until app. 20°,
but l-in-60 sine even until 50° with acceptable level of accuracy. The reason
for that is, that with increasing angle R » OE deteriorating the accuracy of
tangent, but not the sine.
Another interpretation of the l-in-60 rule is, that over a 60 unit (can be NM,
km, m, ft, etc.) distance 1° tilt results in 1 NM difference, as depicted in the
figure below.
1 NM 1 NM
60 NM 30 NM
Figure 4.21. l-in-60 rule
This application is especially useful, when calculating cross-track error and its
correction.
Wind correction, speed factor

Speed factor
Let us start with speed factor. This term covers common-sense method only,
which helps a lot with mental calculations.
Since you are mainly interested in calculating arrival time in minutes, not in
hours, the velocity shall be divided by 60 in order to obtain [NM/min] or
[km/min] velocity. This is called speed factor.
For example, if your ground speed is 240 kt (which means 240 [NM/h]), your
speed factor is:
240 [NM] I- nm ’
Vqf = -------------- = 4 -----
° 60 [min] |_ min _
As you can see, calculation is much easier with vSp, since you only have to
operate with 4 instead of 240 and you get the result with accuracy of less
than a minute.
This trick can be used in other fields of life, of course. For instance, if you are
driving on a highway with 120 [km/h], your speed factor is VcF = —° =2
60 [min]
. Consequently, the estimated arrival time is obtained by dividing the
number of kilometres to go by 2.
Should you speed with 150 [km/h], vSF2 = 2.5 [km/min]. Thus, you can quickly
calculate mentally, how much time you can save by speeding. Let us assume
that distance to go is 100 km, so:
100 100
VSF 1 2
50 min
100 100
VSF2 2.5
40 min
As you can see, you only save 10 minutes and you drive over the speed limit
(normally) reducing the level of safety.
Speed factor is also extremely useful if you want to calculate wind correction
mentally.
Wind correction
Figure 4.22. Wind correction angle
The figure above should be familiar; it is a simplified version of Figure 4.13. It

is apparent, that the wind correction angle can be calculated:
• VCW vcw
sma = ---- a arcsm ----
[°] or [rad]
VTAS vtas
Use l-in-60 rule:
Vcw vcw Vcw

a arcsm ---- x 60 VTAS
vtas vtas
vtas .
Since speed factor is vsf = 60 '
(4.24)
Vcw
a vsf
As can be seen, a can be obtained very easily, simply by dividing the cross
wind component by the speed factor.
Crosswind component (vcw) is 84 kt. Your TAS is vTAS = 420 kt. What should
be the wind correction angle (a)?
Firstly, calculate VSf:
vtas __ 420 NM
60 ~ 60 min
Then, use Equation 4.24:
Vcw 84
a VSF 7
12 [°]
Therefore, app. 12° WCA should be applied. By calculating it "properly", we

get:
VCW 84 _, 1 1 r A o
a = arcsm----
vtas
= arcsm• —420
— ~ 11. 54
The error is therefore negligible.
We can go even further, since we know that vcw — vcw x sin#:
(4.25)
Vcw _, vcw
a = arcsm--------- ~ x 60
vtas vtas
vw x sin<5
= —------- x 60
vtas
x 60
vtas x 60
__ Vw X 6 rol
vtas
While this formula is useful, it is limited to 6max = 50° (as discussed in l-in-60
rule section).
EXAMPLE 4.9 L"
EXAMPLE 4.10 L"
Determination of wind components

Only a virtuoso mathematician would be able to mentally calculate wind
components quickly and accurately, as this task includes trigonometric
functions.
Wind is 010°/62 kt, your TT is 42° and vTAS is 380 kt What is the wind correction
angle (a)?
Firstly, 6 should be calculated:
8 = 42° - 10° = 32°
Thereafter, use Equation 4.25:
VwX<^ _ 62x32 _
vtas 380
With "proper" calculation (Equation 4.14) yields:
vw x sinJ
a = arcsin vtas
= 4.96°
The difference is negligible.

What is WCA (a), if TT = 075°, wind 003°/115 kt, vTAS = 396 kt?
6 = 72 50
Use Equation 4.25:
a~ = 11^2 = 20 9
vtas 356
However, Equation 4.19 yields:
a — 16
As you can see, difference is nearly 5° which is well above tolerance.
However, with certain assumptions a relatively easy method can also be used
which yields a correct approximation.
Figure 4.23. Calculation of wind components
In the first part of the figure above, a familiar vector triangle is depicted. It is
apparent that vcw (crosswind component) can be calculated with sine of 6
(angle between track and wind), vPW with cosine of 6. However, cos6 can be
replaced by sin(90° - 6), as you can see. The advantage is that l-in-60 rule can
also be utilised for vPW calculation. Consequently from 6 = 0° to 6 = 50° l-in-
60 rule can be used to calculate vcw, and from 6 = 40° to 6 = 90° vPW can be
determined from l-in-60 rule (see the second part of the figure).
This means that 6 should be divided by 60, and then multiplied by the wind
value to determine crosswind or head/tailwind.
In summary:
vcw = 'f:
0° < 6 < 50°; or
130° < 6 < 180°
vw x 8 . r
vpw = —lf:
40° < 6 < 140°
In regions where the l-in-60 rule cannot be utilised, you should learn some
values and interpolate linearly. These values are the boxed figures of the figure
above. These two figures should be easily memorised.
The "hour" method

Alternatively, the hour method can be used, which is significantly less
accurate, yet easier to calculate with mental arithmetic.
Imagine a clock, in which one hour is divided into four parts. The positions of
15, 30, 45 and 60 minutes correspond to 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 and 1 hour
respectively. Think of the minutes as degrees and read the corresponding
value. This factor multiplied with the wind speed will give you the crosswind
component.
The working principle of this method is simple. If you divide the angles by 60
(e.g. 15°/60 = 25'), you get the tangent or sine of the angles (approximately) as
detailed in the section above. Therefore, multiplying the sine of the angle with
the total wind speed gives the crosswind component. Nevertheless, this
method is prone to error, as over 30° the accuracy is lost.
Example: Our track direction is 360°T and the wind is from 030°T/36 kt.
What is the crosswind component?
Answer: Multiply 36 kt with the ratio from the table below, i.e. 0.5, thus the
crosswind component is roughly 18 kt.
Wind angle_______ 15°_______ 30°_______ 45°_______ 60°

Corresponding ratio 1/4 1/2 3/4 1
Crosswind
component
expressed as 25 % 50 % 75 % 100 %
percentage of the
total wind sped
This concludes navigation in the horizontal plane. Now, let us move to the
vertical plane.
4.1.3. Dead reckoning (vertical plane)

Similarly to horizontal navigation, vertical navigation is done during the
planning phase but also during the in-flight phase.
Limitations
Before discussing the determination of flight path vector in the vertical plane,
let us start with the limitations of vertical navigation.
Beyond obstacle clearance, we have to be aware of another limitation: max.

cruise altitude. This limitation can be determined with the help of POH/AFM
of the aircraft.
Maximum cruise altitude/level is the lowest of:
• Max. aerodynamic altitude. With increasing altitude low-speed stall speed

increases, whereas high-speed stall speed reduces. We must have a
significant margin not to reach coffin-corner. (For more information, refer to
Principles of Flight.)
• Max. altitude sustainable with engine performance. With increasing
altitude, density reduces, reducing power/thrust (For more information refer
to Engines.)
• Max. altitude without oxygen for unpressurized aircraft. (For more
information refer to OPS.)
• Max. altitude given by maximum permissible Ap (pressure difference
between outside and inside pressure) for pressurized aircraft. (For more
information refer to Airframes.)
• Max. altitude influenced by passenger oxygen (time for emergency descent).
• Max altitude below RVSM lower limit, if not RVSM capable.
• Max. altitude influenced by any failure/malfunction affecting the above-
mentioned points.
Determination of vertical flight path vector

A couple of pages ago, the flow of determination of vertical flight path vector
was discussed. Let us review it quickly.
Measured pt and ps Measured ps and time

Pref * 1013.25 (hPa)
CAS Flight Level

Calculated Mach number
I needed
QNH [hPa]
I instrument &
needed ▼ position error Indicated Altitude
Ts [K] IAS
Calculated
PUPa] Ts [K] Vertical Speed
Calculated TAS i
TAS
TS[UJ
, r wind direction and speed

Elevation of
terrain [m]
ûp-downdrafts
Height/true altitude Vertical speed

GS (start point of the vector) compared to the
ground
Figure 4.24. Determination of flight path vector
Determination of ground speed

The left-hand side of the figure should be familiar to you, since it was
discussed in detail and used to explain how to determine ground speed.
However, as you know from Principles of Flight and Meteorology, pressure,

temperature, density and wind alter as a function of altitude, which influences
average TAS and GS calculation. Precisely, average TAS and GS can only be
determined with integral calculus.
Nevertheless, if you wish to avoid calculus, the following simplifications can

be used:
• Average vTAS is calculated at 2/3 of the cruising altitude in climb.
• Average vTAS is calculated at 1/2 of the cruising altitude in descent.
• Average wind is the wind at 2/3 of the cruising altitude in climb.

• Average wind is the wind at 1/2 of the cruising altitude in descent.
EXAMPLE 4.11 L"
EXAMPLE 4.12 L"
Now, let us proceed with the right-hand side of Figure 4.24.
Note: The following subchapters about altimetry and altitudes are not relevant for
your EASA General Navigation exams, but for understanding the whole concept
and background, it is very helpful to study its content. By the way, this content
appears in other subjects so you have to learn it anyway. If you want to skip for
now, you can directly jump to the section called "Determination of flight path
vector (in the vertical plane)".
Altimetry
Since our goal is to determine our vertical flight path vector, with reference to
the ground (Earth), it is inevitable to find out our true height (vertical distance
from the ground) or in other words, our absolute altitude.
The problem is that the altimeter only indicates the numerical distance
between two pressure levels, one called reference pressure, the other is the
actual (sensed) pressure. The reference pressure level hardly ever coincides
with the ground unfortunately, this is the reason we have to discuss altimetry
and corrections in detail.
The following data were given by atmospheric soundings in Szeged (Station 12982):
Height [ft] Dir. [°] Magnitude [kt] Temp. [°C]

Ground level 002 8 1
1000 020 10 -1
5 000 025 2 -4
10000 125 14 -10
15 000 150 17 -21
20000 200 35 -30
25 000 195 51 -43
30000 215 72 -57
35 000 210 51 -54
Note: At 30 000' indication of a possible jet-stream can be seen. As you can also see wind turns
clockwise and intensifying generally, as you learnt from Meteorology.
What wind should you calculate with in climb and descent respectively, if cruise "height" is
35 000 ft?
Wind in climb:
| x 35000’ ss 23333.33 ft
Thus, you have to interpolate: Average wind is app. 197°/45 kt.
Wind in descent:
| x 35000’ = 17500 ft
Again, interpolation is necessary: Average wind is 175°/26 kt.

What is the average ground speed in climb and descent if True track is 150° and
VCAS = 280 kt (vEAS = 262) is maintained until 30000 ft and from there M = 0.76?
Average vTAS must be calculated first.
Similarly to the wind average vTAS in climb must be calculated at 2/3 of the
cruising altitude (23 333 ft), and for descent average vTAS is determined at % of
35 000 ft, which is 17 500 ft.
Average vTAS in climb:
Tsh = -39 °C = 234 K

Tso = 1 °C = 274 K
H = 23333 ft
Use your flight computer or Equation 4.10:
~ VEAS Tsh A6'1

TAS ~ 16.97 Tso / SH
274 \ 6’1
262
16.97 1) x 234
382 kt
Then correct for the wind with one of the known methods. Here, Equation 4.14
and Equation 4.15 will be used.
6 = 47°
vw x sin<5
a arcsin vtas
0
VGS = VTAS x cosa — VW x cos^
350 kt
So, the average ground speed in climb is app. 350 kt.
Now, let us cope with average ground speed during descent.
Tsh = 25.5 °C = 26 °C = 247 K

1 °( A. I/
,T VEAS
TAS ~ 16.97
262
16.97
382 kt
Then correct for the wind with one of the known methods. Here, Equation 4.14
and Equation 4.15 will be used.
6 = 47°
vw x sin<5
a arcsm 5
vtas
VGS = VTAS x cosa — VW x cos^
350 kt
So, the average ground speed in climb is app. 350 kt.
Now, let us cope with average ground speed during descent.
Tsh = 25.5 °C - 26 °C = 247 K

Tso = 1 °C = 274 K
H = 17 500 ft
Wind: 175°/26 kt
Use your flight computer to find out vTAS.
VTAS ~ 364 kt
Again, Equation 4.14 and Equation 4.15 are utilised (6 = 25°):
vw x sin<5
a arcsm vtas
1.8°
VGS=VTAS x cosa — VW x cos^
« 340 kt
Average ground speed is thus 340 kt in descent.

Let us review our knowledge about altimetry in order to understand
corrections required to be applied to obtain true height.
Figure 4.25. Altimetry, QNH < 1013.25 hPa

Temp Temp Temp Temp
Figure 4.26. Altimetry QNH > 1013.25 hPa
Ref. Pressure 1013.25 hPa (QNE):
• ApPA (Ap corresponding to pressure altitude, in other words flight level):

The altimeter is calibrated according to ISA Temp. Lapse Rate, thus if
temperature is different, flight level/pressure altitude * Adensity.
• Adensity (density altitude): This is pressure altitude/flight level corrected for

different than ISA temperature.
Ref. Pressure QNH:
• Ap|A (Ap corresponding to indicated altitude): This is the "everyday altitude"

you are used to. The altimeter is calibrated according to ISA temp, lapse
rate, thus if temperature is different, indicated altitude * Atrue.
• Atrue (true altitude): This is indicated altitude corrected for non-standard

temperature. It basically shows your true altitude over main sea level (the
distance between you and main sea level).
Ref. Pressure QFE or reference altitude ± elevation of terrain (normally):
• ApH (Ap corresponding to height): Height * Htrue in case of non-standard

lapse rate.
• Htrue (true height): True height is height corrected for non-standard
temperature. This shows your vertical distance over the ground (airfield,
terrain).
Note 1: Sometimes at the official CAA Exams, when true altitude is asked, they
want to know True Height over airport/terrain.
Note 2: Temperature correction can only be applied to the column of air between
the aircraft and the ground or pressure level, whichever is higher. (Thus, there is no
sense of calculating Atrue if you are not over the sea.)
One of the above figures depicts a situation when QNH < 1013.25 hPa,
whereas the other (see figure below) illustrates high-pressure atmospheric
conditions, i.e. QNH > 1013.25 hPa. The rest is the same.
From these figures it is relatively simple to determine true height from any
altimeter setting (QNE - flight level, QNH - altitude, QFE - height), but since
the process is the longest starting from flight level, we are starting from here.
The process is illustrated in the following picture.
Temp. Corr.
Density Alt. 4----------------------- Flight Level
I
Pressure
Correction
Temp. Corr. *
True Alt. 4----------------------- Altitude
Elevation
Height
Temperature
Correction
True Height
Figure 4.27. Determination of true height
Converting flight level to altitude

As you can see, flight level is given by an arbitrary reference value
(1013.25 hPa), which has nothing in common with a "real" altitude (a kind of
distance to the ground).
This can be allowed, because at high levels, there is no danger of colliding with
ground. However, a common reference is needed over large area in order to
separate aircraft from each other. When descending below a given level
(transition level), changeover to QNH reference is needed to provide more-or-
less correct terrain clearance (depending on temperature).
In order to convert level to indicated altitude (Ap)A), the pressure difference

between QNE (1013.25 hPa) and QNH must be known; then this pressure
difference must be converted to distance. This should be done with the
barometric formula, however, EASA allows us to use 1 hPa = 27 ft
approximation for small pressure differences.
(4.26)
Ad = Ap x 27 [ft]
Where:
• Ad is distance difference between two alt. settings

• Ap is pressure difference between two alt. settings [hPa]
IA = (QNH - 1013) x 27 + FL x 100 [ft]
Where:
• QNH is in [hPa]
• FL is flight level [thousands of ft]
For example, you are cruising at FL280. What is your indicated altitude, if:
a. QNH = 1027 hPa
It is apparent that QNH > 1013.25 hPa, consequently the pressure level
corresponding to QNH is lower than 1013 hPa level (Figure 4.26).
Thus, indicated altitude > flight level.
Use the following equation:
IA = (QNH - 1013) x 27 + FL x 100 [ft]

= (1027 - 1013) x 27 + 28000
= 28378 [ft]
b. QNH = 1000 hPa
Indicated altitude < flight level (Figure 4.25)
Again the equation above can be used:

IA = (QNH - 1013) x 27 + FL x 100 [ft]
= (1000 - 1013) x 27 + 28000
= 27649 [ft]
As you can see, if QNH < 1013.25 hPa, there is a potential possibility of a level
bust/altitude lost in case of a late selection of QNE/QNH. During climb, a late
selection of QNE (later than transition altitude) results in level bust, as flight
level > indicated altitude.
During descent, a late selection of QNH (later than transition level) can lead to
descending lower than the assigned altitude, since indicated altitude < flight
level. Therefore, if QNH « 1013, ATC increases the apparent transition layer
in order to have at least 1000 ft "net".
Calculating height from altitude

This part is relatively simple, since you only need to subtract the elevation of
the given place.
H = IA - Elev. [ft]
Where:
• H is height [ft]
• IA is indicated altitude [ft]
• Elev. is elevation [ft]
Should the elevation be given in pressure (QFE), the only thing you need to do
is to assume 1 hPa difference between QFE and QNH is 27 ft. Consequently:
Elev. = (QNH - QFE) x 27 [ft]

EXAMPLE 4.13 L"
Converting height to true height

We have reached the last step, which is to apply temperature correction. This
can be done by:
What is your height, if IA = 8000 [ft], QNH = 1002 [hPa] and QFE = 995 [hPa]?
Firstly, calculate the elevation:
Elev = (QNH - QFE) x 27

= 7 x 27 = 189 [ft]
Secondly subtract elevation from IA:
H = IA - Elev
= 8000 - 189 = 7811 [ft]
Your height is 7 811 ft.

• Calculation
• Flight computer
Calculation method
As a simple solution, you can use 0.4 % correction for 1 °C deviation from ISA.
In order to decide which way this correction should be applied, you ought to
remember: if temperature is higher, isobars are spaced more far away, if
temperature is colder, isobars are closer.
Consequently, if temperature is higher than ISA, True Height > Height. If

temperature is lower than ISA, True Height < Height. Basically, this means that
if temperature is colder, your obstacle clearance is reduced.
Pl=P2=P3
T* ISA
l
Ap =p - pQ> const.
Pl
P3
T<T|sa I
IA = const., but
di d2 d3
d3< d! < d2
d: distance
Po p: pressure
Figure 4.28. Temperature correction
In the figure above, the same pressure levels (p^ = p2 = P3) are depicted in
different atmospheric conditions. Since Ap is the same, your altimeter shows
the same indicated altitude. However, isobars are spaced less close, if T > T|SA
(warmer) —»true altitude > indicated altitude and isobars are spaced closer, if
T < T|SA (colder) —> true altitude < indicated altitude. (Here altitudes were used
instead of heights for better understanding.) Therefore we apply the following
equation:
(4.27)
TH = H x (1 + ATjsa x 0.004 [^1) [ft]
Where:
• TH is true height [ft]

• AT|SA is temperature difference from ISA.
If warmer, AT > 0, if colder AT < 0 [°C].
(4.28)
ATisa = Ts - TSisa
= TS - (15 'C + A + Lo)
Where:
• A is altitude/height [ft]
• Lo is standard adiabatic laps rate
Lo ~-2 [°C/(1000 ft)]
MORE INFOl"
This method is quite simple. You have to use the left window of the flight
computer "For Altitude Computations". In order to get true height, use the
following steps:
1. Set Ts over your height (H = IA - Elev.)
2. Find your height on scale "B".

3. Opposite to your height on scale "B", read your true height on scale "A".
Figure 4.29. Determination of TH/TA
EXAMPLE 4.14 L"
Now let us see how to determine the "directions" of the flow in Figure 4.27,
i.e. density altitude and true altitude. Since temperature correction must be
applied to both above mentioned altitudes, the process is in fact similar, if not
identical of that of true height just the "starting point" is different.
Determination of density altitude

Density altitude is significant in performance calculations; thus, you will
encounter it a lot in the Performance subject. As density altitude is basically
flight level corrected for temperature variations (pressure reference is not
aligned with any ground level), the exact calculation would be relatively long.
Therefore, we only discuss flight computer method, which in turn is simple
What is your TH, if IA = 8000 ft, QNH = 1002, QFE = 1002, Ts = -11 °C?
Calculation method
With example before, determine height:

H = 7811ft
Then, apply the corrections with Equation 4.27 and Equation 4.28 to calculate AT.
^tisa — Ts - TSisa
°c
TSisa = 15°C - 7.811 x 2
1000 ft
- 1 °C
Note: -2 [°C/(1 000 ft)] is assumed as standard adiabatic laps rate.
AT1sa = - 11 + 1 = - 10 °C
Now, Equation 4.27 can be applied:
TH = H x (1 + ATisa x 0.004 i-J-l)
= 7811 x [1 + (-10 x 0.004)]

ss 7499 [ft]
More precise result:
TH = H x TSISA
* 7811 x ||
ss 7496 [ft]
1. Set Ts over your height (H = IA - Elev.) (-11 °C over 7 800 ft)
2. Find your height on scale "B". (~ 7 800 ft)
3. Opposite to your height on scale "B", read your true height on scale "A", (app.
7450 ft)
With example before, determine height:
H = 7811ft
Then, apply the corrections with Equation 4.27 and Equation 4.28 to calculate AT.
AT1sa — Ts - TSisa
°c
TSisa = 15°C - 7.811 x 2 1000 ft
- 1 °C
Note: -2 [°C/(1 000 ft)] is assumed as standard adiabatic laps rate.
AT1sa = - 11 + 1 = - 10 °C
Now, Equation 4.27 can be applied:
TH =H x (1 + ATisa x 0.004
= 7811 x [1 + (-10 x 0.004)]

« 7499 [ft]
More precise result:
TH = H x TSISA
«78H x
« 7496 [ft]
1. Set Ts over your height (H = IA - Elev.) (-11 °C over 7 800 ft)
2. Find your height on scale "B". 7 800 ft)
3. Opposite to your height on scale "B", read your true height on scale "A", (app.
7450 ft)
As you can see, we obtained similar results, which means the results are correct.
Moreover, we managed to find TH which was our primary task.
and fast.
However, as a rule of thumb, you can apply 120 ft correction for 1 °C

deviation from ISA. If temperature is colder than ISA, density altitude is lower
than pressure altitude and vice versa.
(4.29)
DA = PA + 120 x A TSisa [ft]
Where:
• DA is density altitude [ft]

• PA is pressure altitude [ft]
• ATS|SA is temperature deviation from ISA
The steps for the flight computer method are:
1. Align Ts with pressure altitude (window: "for true airspeed and density
altitude")
2. Read density altitude in the window labelled "density altitude".
EXAMPLE 4.15 L"
As previously mentioned, density altitude generally affects aircraft

performance, including take-off calculations. Thus, what is pressure altitude at
LHBP 31L (elevation 448 ft), if Ts = 35 °C and QNH = 1001 hPa?
Firstly, you have to calculate pressure altitude, than apply temperature

correction. Since QNH < 1013.25 hPa, refer to Figure 4.25. It is evident that
to obtain pressure altitude of the runway, you have to add the altitude
difference between QNH and QNE (1013.25 hPa) to the elevation of the
runway. According to Equation 4.26, this difference is:
Ad = A p x 27
« (1013 - 1001) x 27
= 12 x 17 = 324 ft
Your pressure altitude is PA = FL55, QNH = 998 [hPa], Ts = +30 °C, what is the
density altitude?
Rule of thumb
QNH is not a necessary piece of information, it has been put there to disturb you.
Firstly calculate ATS|SA:
ATsba = Ts - TSisa
= 30 - (15 - 5.5 x 2)
= 26 °C
TSisa = 15°C + PA x Lo
Where:
• Lo is T laps rate-2 [°C/1000 ft]
Thereafter, utilise Equation 4.29.
DA « PA + 120 x 26
= 5500 + 3120
= 8620 ft
Density altitude is thus 8 260 ft.
1. Align+30 °C with 5 500 ft.
2. Read the answer, app. 8 500 ft (see figure below).

Where:
• Lo is T laps rate-2 [°C/1000 ft]
Thereafter, utilise Equation 4.29.
DA « PA + 120 x 26
= 5500 + 3120
= 8620 ft
Density altitude is thus 8 260 ft.
1. Align+30 °C with 5 500 ft.
2. Read the answer, app. 8 500 ft (see figure below).

Consequently:
PA = Elev. + A d
= 448 + 324 = 772 [ft]
Finally, correct for the temperature:
Rule of thumb
ATSlsa = Ts - TSisa
= 35 - (15 - 0.448 x 2)
= 35 - 14 = 21 °C
DA = PA + 120 x A TSisa
= 772 + 120 x 21
= 772 + 2520 = 3292 « 3300 ft
With the known steps: DA = 3 300 ft
The results are truly interesting. As you can see, in high temperature I low
pressure conditions, performance is degraded as much as if you were at an
airport with an elevation of app. 3 300 ft with ISA.
Determination of true altitude

Calculation of true altitude is (completely) identical with that of True Height,
except for the reference level. Here the reference is not the ground, but the
sea level. This basically means that you do not need to take elevation into
consideration (refer to Figure 4.26).
Based on the above, determination of true altitude will not be discussed here.
Determination of flight path vector (in the

vertical plane)
Having obtained both ground speed and true altitude (height) as start point of
the vector, the only action left is to combine these two with vertical speed.
Moreover, if true altitude/height is known, obstacle clearance can be
determined. With the help of the obstacle clearance, it can be assessed
whether to start descent or not.
Vertical velocities
As we are interested in vertical speed compared to ground (vzgs) , we need
to obtain vertical speed and correct it for up - or downdrafts.
Vertical speed is indicated by the Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) by comparing

present static pressure with the "previous" static pressure. This is
accomplished by fitting a capillary, through which the pressure equalisation is
slow (this is the "previous" static pressure - for more refer to Instrumentation).
Consequently, the VSI suffers from a significant lag in indication (few seconds).
Based on this, it is not really possible to follow an accurate profile. Therefore,
instantaneous VSIs have been developed, which correct this lag by sensing
acceleration (either mechanically or with help of IRS).
Based on the above, up - and downdrafts will be neglected in the following,

, ---- z" ------------, . . I
thus vz = vzgs assumption is made.
The units of vertical speed are [m/s] or [ft/min]. It is important to remember,

that 1 [m/s] ~ 200 [ft/min]. Furthermore, it is also essential to know the
relationship between [ft/min] and [kt].
NM 6080 [ft]
1 [kt] = 1 h 60 [min]
ft ft
= 101.3 min
100 min
Note: For mental calculation.
Now all the data are available with which the vertical flight path vector can be
determined.
Descent
Figure 4.30. FPV in climb and descent
Based on the data, let us take a look at the computation.
Climb gradient, descent gradient

tan7' = vGS
Where:
• vzGS's vertical speed (ref. ground) [kt]
• y is flight path angle [°]
This can be expanded by unit of time:

vzGS
tarry =
VGS Xh
Figure 4.30. FPV in climb and descent
Based on the data, let us take a look at the computation.
Climb gradient, descent gradient

tan7' = vGS
Where:
This can be expanded by unit of time:

vzGS
tarry =
VGS Xh
Where:
• xz is vertical distance [NM]
• xh is horizontal distance [NM]
However, as previously mentioned, the standard unit of vertical speed is either

[m/s] or [ft/min]. Therefore, let us convert kt —> ft/min.
(4.30)
VzGS [kt]
tarry =
vGS [kt]
VzGS
101.3vgs
xz
6080 x Xh
Where:
• vzGS's vertical speed [ft/min]
• VGS is ground speed [kt]
• xz is vertical distance [ft]
• xh is horizontal distance [NM]
tarry = ——— = ——---- is called climb/decent gradient and is normally

expressed in %.
For example, you are cleared for RETSU IB departure from Alicante (LEAL).
What minimum vertical speed must be maintained in order to comply with the
gradient, if your average ground speed is 250 kt?
Figure 4.31. PINAR 1R
From the description, you can see the minimum gradient 5 %. So:
VzGS
5%
101.3vgs
vzGS ~ 0.05 X 101.3vgs

ft
= 0.05 x 101.3 x 250 « 1270 min
So 1270 [ft/min] must be maintained at least to comply with the gradient.
You might have noticed that the error would be negligible, if we consider the
constant "100" instead of 101.3. Therefore:
Equation 4.3( becomes:
VzGS Xz
tarry
IOOvgs 6000 x Xh
VzGS ~ 100vGs x tarry

— vgs x Grad
Where:
• grad is descent/climb gradient expressed in percentage [%]
What this means is that you only need to multiply the necessary
climb/descent gradient with the ground speed in order to obtain the required
vertical speed.
For example, let us assume that you have to climb 12 000 [ft] in 20 [NM], your
average TAS is 300 [kt]. What minimum V/S you have to keep?
Firstly, calculate tany (or gradient):
+ a T-l Xz 12000 Q 1
tan7 — 6000 x — 120000 — 0.1
Thus, grad = 10 [%].
Now, multiply grad with vGS:
vzGS = 10 x 300 = 3000 [ft/min]
Therefore, the necessary vertical speed is 3 000 [ft/min] at least
Flight path angle

Flight path angle y is to be calculated with arctan function. Consequently,
Equation 4.3( becomes:
vzGS
7 = arctan 101.3vgs
X2
= arctan 6080 x Xh
Where:
• vzGS's 'n [ft/min]

• vGS is in [kt]
• xz is in [ft]
• xh is in [NM]
Yet again, calculation of y can be simplified (using
vzGS ~ IOOvqs x tan7 = vgs x Grad), keeping the result relatively
accurate. Furthermore - if you remember - tan or arctan can be approximated
with the l-in-60 rule up to the necessary angles (up to 20°).
Therefore the above-mentioned equation yields:

VzGS
tarry
IOOvgs
vzgs ~ IOOgs x tarry
(Applying l-in-60 rule:)
(4.31)
~ 100
VzGS ~ TiTVGS x
= |vGS X 7 ft
min
Where:
• vgs's ground speed [kt]
Since = vsf (speed factor), if you remember:
vzGS = 7^VGS x 7
ft
= 100 x vsf x 7
min
As you can notice, if you descend along a standard 3° glideslope of an ILS

System, the necessary vertical speed to maintain will be:
VzGS — |VGS X 3
ft
= 5 x vGs min
This is a very important equation to bear in mind to avoid chasing the

glideslope up and down while flying an ILS approach. The above equation is
even more relevant, when flying a non-precision approach. Since no vertical
guidance is provided, you have to "imagine" the descent rate, which you can
calculate with the equation above quickly.
EXAMPLE 4.16 L"
When do you have to start the descent, if you have to fly such NDB
approach?
The solution is quite simple: use the equation above. But do not forget that xz
is the platform height, which sometimes differs greatly from platform altitude
in case of high airport elevation. Runway 18C at Amsterdam is more or less at
sea level (-12 ft) and the threshold crossing height (TCH) is 50 ft. Therefore
the approach is calculated from 2000 ft down to 50 ft above the runway
threshold:
xz = 2000 - (-)12 - 50 = 1962 [ft]

xh = 1962/320 = 6.13125 = 6.1 [NM]
On the chart the same is printed, descent point is D6.1 SPL, thus our
calculation is correct.
Moreover, you might have noticed, that distance versus altitude table is
located on top of the vertical profile view. Observe, that the altitude
difference is exactly 320 ft between the altitudes corresponding to 5, 4 (not
shown in table), 3 and 2, miles.
Descent management
The purpose of descent management is to maintain a safe obstacle clearance
on the one hand and to optimise descent profile on the other. Here, descent
profile optimisation will be discussed briefly.
The question is when (or where) to start the descent; and what descent angle
should be maintained.
The best fuel consumption is achieved, if thrust idle profile is maintained.

However, this is not advantageous for piston engines, which can "overcool"
during a long idle descent. If go-around has to be initiated with a cold engine,
You fly an ILS approach in Tromso (ENTC). Please find the chart attached. What
vertical speed should be maintained, if your vGS = 140 kt?
Reproduced with permission of Jeppesen Sanderson, Inc. NOT FOR NAVIGATION USE.
©Jeppesen Sanderson. Inc. 2022
As you can see, the angle is 4°, so use Equation 4.31:

5
VzGS = 3 VGS X 7
ft
I x 4 x 140 « 930 min
Based on the above, it is helpful to remember, that on a 4° path, vertical speed is:
K
vzGS — J x 4 X VGS
ft
7 x vGS min
Another useful application of vertical flight path angle is to calculate when to start
descent, where is the final approach point/fmal approach fix in a 3° glide?
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CIRCLE-TOLAND
ILS IOC (GS out)
Missed apch climb gradient mim 4.0% Mined apch climb gradient mlm 3.0% Not authorized
A:352'(325'| C:385'|358'| West of airport
B: 372(345 ; D:402';375‘| pA|Mj 75O';723'|
FULL. Limited _____ ALS out ~I AlS Qjt .Kt*_____ MDA/H) .VIS_____
RVR 800m 100 8 4 0'(808'1 1500m
RVR 1500m RVR 1500m
133 850' (818') 1600m
RVR 900m
RVR 1600m 180 2660'2628') 2400m fl
CMV 2700m CMV 3400m
RVR 1000m RVR 1700m 205 29 60'2928 ) 3600m
fl After LOC (GS out): VIS 3400m.
NOT FOR NAVIGATIONAL USE. © JEPPESEN, 20CC. 2016. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
Based on the above, it is helpful to remember, that on a 4° path, vertical speed is:
K
vzGS — J x 4 X VGS
ft
7 x vGS
min
Another useful application of vertical flight path angle is to calculate when to start
descent, where is the final approach point/fmal approach fix in a 3° glide?
This is fairly simple to be determined with the help of Equation 4.30.
tan7 = ——---- / x Xitan7
xh = lNMl
Where:
• xz is vertical distance, in this case platform height [ft]

xz = Apiatform " Elev, where Ap|atforrn is platform altitude
• y is flight path angle
Consequently, for a 3° path:
xh = ^7 « [NM]
This basically means that 1 NM distance passed corresponds to 320 ft height loss.
This is exceptionally useful when flying a non-precision approach, as you have to
crosscheck distance versus altitude. Should you start the approach more far away,
than illustrated on the chart, you must calculate these data quickly mentally in
order to check yourself.
EH AM/AMS gsprm
-wjeppesen AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS
SCHIPHOL 18 AUG 17 J 6-2 NDB Rwy 18C
D-ATIS Arrival SCHIPHOl Approach
__________ |R|
_________ SCHIPHOL Arrival (APP/R.I
____ SCHIPHOL Tower Ground
108.4 132.980 119.055 121.205 118.405 131-155 118.105 119.230 119.905121.905
Lctr Final Minimum Alt Apt Elev -11'
DA/MDA(H)
OA Apch Cr* D6.2 ZWA
690'(702') Rwy -12'
395 183° 2000 '(2012*) I BELOW SEA LEVEL)
missed apch: Climb on track 183° to 2000'. Inform ATC

immediately.
Alt Sot: hPa Rwy Elev: 0 hPa Tran* level: By ATC Trant alt: 3000;
1. DME * VOR required. 2. ILS DME reads zero at rwy 18C thresh.___________________ MSA SPL VOR
469
52-30
A453' L
ADâ <<‘
w
EH626 108.4 SPL ,495

MAX 160 KT
113.95 AMS *495'

-52-20
Hazard
Bwcon
11$ DME
109.5 ZWA I HOLDING
MIM FL 70 683'
a"’’
52-10
04-20 04-40 0450
SPL OME_________________ 2.0 5.0

685'___________________________ 1005'
ALTITUDE Tois7
o Do not descend SPL VOR 3000' L1[_am327' Start
below descent profile. FL 70 | 001 turn at
caoiiG’
DD66.?ir 1 Min
DO.O zwa 2000' ^=0
R-263 SPL EHOTO^X — --------ZTT83 Lc»r
TCH 50' 'RW.,8C’
»—"ifyio' EH6M
M
Rwy-12' 2.1 2.3
Gnd speed-Kts 70 90 100 120 140 160 HtALS-ll

Dvtcvnf Angle 3.00* 372 478 531 637 743 849 2000',1
pap:H a 183°
MAP at DO.O ZWA/R-263 SPL
CIRCLE-TO-LANDD
CDFA
DA/MDAiH) 6 9 0'(702'1
I ALS out MDA’H VIS
100 700' <711') 1500m
RVR 1500m
135 780'(791') 1600m
<z>
180 880' (89i'> 2400m
RVR 2400m
D 205 890'(901') 3600m
n To rwy I8L and 36L not permilted, except in case of emergency.

NOT FOR NAVIGATIONAL USE. © JEPPESEN. 2001. 2017. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
1 Sanderson, Inc. NOT FOR NAVIGATION USE

• xz is vertical distance, in this case platform height [ft]
xz = ^platform " Elev, where Ap|atform is platform altitude
• y is flight path angle
Consequently, for a 3° path:
—
6000 tarry
[NM1J
320 L
This basically means that 1 NM distance passed corresponds to 320 ft height loss.
This is exceptionally useful when flying a non-precision approach, as you have to
crosscheck distance versus altitude. Should you start the approach more far away,
than illustrated on the chart, you must calculate these data quickly mentally in
order to check yourself.
In the figure above, NDB 18C EHAM is depicted.

the thermal shock can easily lead to engine block crack. In this latter cause,
constant thrust is the best to be maintained to minimise fuel consumption
(avoid large-scale variations).
Descend/climb rates are highly influenced by TAS. But since either CAS/M is
maintained, TAS changes (for more information refer to Principles of Flight).
The total distance consists of two parts: distance required for descent and
deceleration distance.
Distance required for descent

This represents the aircraft’s potential energy (Epot = m x g x xz). There are
two possibilities (graphical method and calculation method) to accomplish
that.
Graphical method
Aircraft manufacturers provide descent/climb tables or nomograms with the

help of which, distance/time/fuel consumption required for descent can be
calculated quickly.
DESCENT • M.78 300KT 250KT
IDLE THRUST ISA
NORMAL AIR CONDITION NG CG-33 0% MAXIMUM CABIN RATE OF DESCENT 350FT1MI
ANTFICNGCFF
WEIGHT
(1000KG) 60 80
TIME FUEL DIST. EPR TIME FUEL DIST EPR IAS
FL (MIN) (KG) (NM) (MIN) (KG) (NM) (KT)
390 16.7 173 100 IDLE 241
370 15.9 166 95 IDLE 18.0 186 •C8 IDLE 252
350 15.2 159 90 IDLE 17.3 179 100 IDLE 264
330 14.6 153 85 IDLE 16.6 173 98 IDLE 277
310 14.0 148 81 IDLE 16.0 167 93 IDLE 289
290 13.5 143 76 IDLE 15.3 161 88 IDLE 300
270 12.8 137 71 IDLE 14 5 154 81 IDLE 300
250 12.1 131 66 IDLE 13.6 146 75 IDLE 300
240 11.7 127 63 IDLE 13.2 143 72 IDLE 300
220 11.0 121 58 IDLE 12.3 135 66 IDLE 300
200 10.2 114 53 IDLE 115 127 60 IDLE 300
180 9.5 108 48 IDLE 10.5 119 64 IDLE 300
160 87 100 43 IDLE 9.6 110 48 IDLE 300
140 7.9 93 39 IDLE 8.7 101 42 IDLE 300
120 7.1 85 34 IDLE 7.7 92 37 OLE 300
100 6.3 76 29 IDLE 6.7 81 31 IDLE 300
50 24 30 10 IDLE 25 32 11 IDLE 250
15 .0 0 0 IDLE .0 0 0 IDLE 250

CORRECTIONS ECON AIR ENGINE TOTAL PER V ABOVE ISA
CONOTIOMNG ANTI ICE ON ANTI ICE ON
TIME - ♦ 1 mn • 3 inn -
FUEL -2% ♦ 17% *90% ♦ 0.7%
DISTANCE - ♦ 4% ♦ 20% ♦ 0.4%
Figure 4.32. Descent tables
Calculation method
Firstly, the angle of descent of your specific aircraft has to be determined. This
_T\
is done with equation sirry « e —
w'
7 arcsm e [°] or Ml
Where:
• y is flight path angle [°] or [rad]

• 8 is lift to drag ratio
8 = cD/cL [-] for a given speed
• T is thrust [N]
• W is weight [N]
Or with the help of a descent polar (if provided). For more on this topic, refer
to Principles of Flight
MORE INFOl"
Xz
Having y flight path angle, the only action to do is to utilise Xh =
6000 tarry'
xz
Xh 6080 tarry
Where:
• xz is vertical distance [ft]
• Xh is horizontal distance [NM]
Distance required for deceleration

This part represents kinetic energy of the aircraft (E^n = x v2qs).
Consequently, it depends on your ground speed and mass of the airplane.
Where should you start descent:
a. with an A320, if 8 = 19, thrust idle is maintained, xz = 37 000 ft and

Ddecel = 7 NM?
Since thrust idle is maintained: y = arcsin 8 ~ 3°, then xi, = —

6000 tarry
should be used:
__ Xz
Xh “ 6080 tan 3
— 2Ee_
— 320
= 1^0 x ^NM]
Basically, this means that true height (over the aerodrome) must be
divided by 1000 and multiplied by 3.1 or 3 in case of quick mental
calculations.
In this example:
Dtotal — "T • Djecei
37000
X 3. 1 + 7
100
= 121.7 [NM]
Consequently, if you start the descent at app. 122 nm, you will be able
to follow a thrust idle profile until configuration.
b. with a Zlin Z-142, if 8 = 6, T = 660 N, W = 10000 N, xz = 7000 ft and

Ddecel = 0.1 NM?
T
Firstly, we use equation sirry « e — —:
T
7 = arcsm I e
W
660
arcsinf 7 10000
\ 6
5.8
Secondly:
■z
Xh — 6080 tan 5.8
_ xz xz
618 ~ 1000
x 1.6[NM]
In this example:
Dtotal — "T • Ddecel

7000
x 1.6 + 0.1
100
= 11.3 [NM]
Consequently, if you start the descent at app. 11.3 NM, you will be able
to maintain this thrust until configuration to approach the aerodrome on
an optimum profile.
Determination of climb/descent rates, distances

Another practical problem is to determine, what vertical speed you should
keep in order to adhere to a certain climb or descent constraint. The method is
basically common sense, since the unit of vertical speed is [ft/min], you should
divide the altitude to go with the time.
(4.32)
Axz
z At
Axz vgs
Xh 60
Axz
Xh
vsf
by substituting At = min and vsf =

60
Where:
• Axz is vertical distance [ft]
• Xh is horizontal distance [NM]
• Vgp is speed factor [nm/min]
• vgs's ground speed [kt]
• At is time to go [min]
By rearranging the equation, the other variables (xh, vSF, Axz) can be
calculated as well.
Example 1: You are cruising at FL370 and all of a sudden you receive the
following message from ATC: “Descend FL280 be level at GORLO”. Your
average ground speed is 360 kt in descent and GORLO is located 25 NM from
your position. What rate should be maintained to accomplish that?
Quickly calculate vSF, Axz:
vgs 360 a F NM
VSF ~ 60 ~ 60 ~ 6 [min
Axz = 37000 - 28000 = 9000 [ft]
Then, apply Equation 4.32:

Axz
X VSF
_ 9000
25
X 6
ft
= 2160 « 2200 min
Therefore, you have to maintain app. 2 200 [ft/min] vertical speed.
Example 2: You are in a climb with vGSw = 270 [kt] and just passing FL1OO.
You receive the following message from ATC: “Climb FL220, 2000 [ft/min] or
greater”. Where will you reach FL220, if you maintain exactly 2 000 [ft/min]?
Again, calculate vSF, Axz:
Axz = 22000 - 10000 = 12000 [ft]
VSF = Zas = 270 = 4 5 Fnm]

60 60 [min_
Then, Equation 4.32 can be utilised:
Axz
Xh = — x VSF
vz
__ 12000 y a r
~ 2000 X
= 27 [NM]
So, you will be level in 27 NM.
This concludes vertical navigation, as well as dead reckoning navigation.
BEFORE EXAM L"
STU DY TEST
Practical Navigation
As mentioned previously in this chapter, navigation should be performed
based on dead reckoning, and checked against fixes. Consequently, if the
result of the performed check is correct, no action is required. However, in the
case of any discrepancy, revision of data is necessary. Based on this, the check
and recognition of fixes will first be discussed, followed by revision.
5.1. Fixing
5.1.1. Recognition of fixes

Introduction
In Chapter 3, chart symbols and map-reading are outlined. As mentioned, one
of the most significant differences between IFR and VFR navigation is that the
pilot should process and interpret information from outside and compare it
with the chart, and vice versa. Basically, this is map-reading. More accurately,
map-reading is the determination or confirmation of the aircraft’s position by
comparing natural or built-up features (landmarks) with the chart.
Naturally, a clear knowledge of chart symbols and limitations is inevitable.

Beyond that, the degree of accuracy is greatly influenced by the proficiency of
one's interpretation of the information obtained by looking outside.
Consequently, in the following section, map readings and its influencing

factors will be discussed in detail.
Map reading
As the basic function of map-reading is to choose and identify checkpoints,
this will be covered first.
Visual checkpoints and fixes
A visual checkpoint is a landmark (natural or man-made) used to confirm the

position of the aircraft. The appropriate selection and positive identification of
such points are vital. Fixes are basically the same, but include position lines
and coordinates as well.
Theoretically you should arrive exactly over the checkpoint at the estimated
arrival time calculated solely by dead reckoning. However, most of the time,
either position and/or time differs from the calculated. In this case, you have
to revise track and or ground speed (normally estimated wind differs from the
actual). This way you can refine accuracy of navigation.
An ideal checkpoint stands out from the background, and is possible to

identify easily. These include: villages, towns, natural landmarks (e.g. lakes,
hills, etc.), road intersections, and so on in open areas. However, over densely-
populated areas an exact "building" should be used, for example a bridge,
tower, monument, etc.
Figure 5.1. Ideal checkpoints
In the first figure above, an appropriate fix/checkpoint (Nagycserkesz) is

depicted with a clearly distinguishable "L" shape. In the second figure, a large
city (Nyiregyhaza) is illustrated, where a "building" needs to be chosen (e.g. red
area corresponds to the University of Nyiregyhaza Campus, the green to a
stadion).


stadion).


stadion).


stadion).
In the third and fourth figures, clearly-identifiable landmarks are illustrated.
Do not rely solely on one feature (e.g. shape) in identification. Rather, try to
confirm the checkpoint/fix from at least three different sources. These
include:
• The shape of a group of villages/towns

• The shape of a selected village/town
• The number/type of churches
• Roads going in/out
• Railways going in/out
• Natural landmarks nearby (hills, rivers, lakes, etc.)
Figure 5.2. Identification - Tiszavasvari

In the third and fourth figures, clearly-identifiable landmarks are illustrated.
Do not rely solely on one feature (e.g. shape) in identification. Rather, try to
confirm the checkpoint/fix from at least three different sources. These
include:
• The shape of a group of villages/towns

• The shape of a selected village/town
• The number/type of churches
• Roads going in/out
• Railways going in/out
• Natural landmarks nearby (hills, rivers, lakes, etc.)
Figure 5.2. Identification - Tiszavasvari

Based on the figure above, let us try to find three sources of confirmation:
• The shape of the town

• The road going into the town
• The lake on the N side of the road
• The small village on the S side of the road
In reality, it is much easier to find other landmarks of confirmation, as you will

have a much larger angle of view.
Another possibility for obtaining fixes is to use position lines. These are
basically rays, originating in well identifiable landmarks or radio navigation
stations. In both situations, the angle between your true heading (the aircraft’s
nose) and the landmark/station must be measured and plotted on the chart.
One position line is sufficient to check flight progress; at least two are needed
to obtain a fix, but it is better yet to have three for confirmation.
Reality
Figure 5.3. Fix obtained from lines of position

The determination is depicted in the figure above. At first, TH must be drawn
from the landmarks on the chart. Afterwards, the angles should be
constructed thereby obtaining position lines. The position is indicated by the
intersection.
As mentioned earlier, it is better if three position lines are available. The real
position is somewhere in the cocked hat.
th
Figure 5.4. Cocked hat
The angles can be estimated with the help of the aircraft structure. The wing
is approximately perpendicular to the fuselage, except for sweep. Should you
have a sextant, the angles are determined much more accurately.
Due to aircraft velocity, aircraft position changes during measurement. This

error can be reduced by selecting distant places (to have low angular speed
referenced to the landmarks).
Tips and tricks

Always select a turning point over an easily-identifiable landmark. If you
choose villages/towns, proceed and plan over a building which stands out; for
example, a church. Churches can provide extra sources of confirmation (their
location, number of steeples, etc.).
Should there be no possibility of identifying a landmark/checkpoint at the

scheduled turning point, resolve the problem with fixes (from distant
landmarks or radio navigational aids). However, be aware that the level of
redundancy is reduced.
As a general advice, always align the chart north with the TN (in reality), select
landmarks on the chart based on the DR position, and then seek them on the
ground. The first point might seem obvious, but this saves you from
unnecessary work. High workload, exhaustion, and stress can easily lead to
make a mistake (left-right) leading to being lost.
Distance measurement
Distance can be estimated quite well by measuring angles, either by using

successive bearings or by utilising sighting angles:
• Successive bearings
Type I Type II Type III
X, = VgsxAT
Vgs^T vgsxaTi X, _ X2 _ X3
tan a a siny sin a sin 0
AT2: time in minutes
Figure 5.5. Method of successive bearings
The figure above clearly illustrates the method for determining distance
from a landmark. Three types are presented from left to right, starting with
the simplest on the left:
• Type I.: Start timing when you see the landmark under 45° (relative
bearing 45° or 315°), and stop when you are abeam.
• Type II.: Start timing at an arbitrary position and stop abeam.
• Type III .: Start and stop timing at arbitrary positions.
All units correspond to each other (NM - h, km - h, m - s), with the
exception of type III. (At2 is in minutes, At^ in hours).
• Sighting angle from altitude

The basis of this method is to estimate the angle between the horizon and
the line of sight. Since humans are not used to estimating angles in vertical
plane, it is prone to large-scale errors. Therefore, the use of a tool is strongly
recommended.
tan 60° = TH/x,
Precise Quick
x, = TH/(tan 60°) = 0.557 x TH [ft] or x, - 0.95 x (TH/1000) [NM] or x. ~ 0.01 x (TH/1000)
x, = TH/(tan 45°) - TH [ft] or x, ~ TH/6080 [NM] or x2 = TH/6000
x3 = TH/(tan 30c) ~ 1.732 x TH [ft] or xa « 0.285 x (TH/1000) [NM] or x3 » 0.3 x (TH/1000)
x„ = TH/(tan y°) or xn =TH /(6080 x tan y°) [NM]
Figure 5.6. Angle of sight on the vertical plane
From the figure above, it is apparent that one can also calculate at other
angles, and then interpolate to save time during flight. This line of sight
generates a cone, the intersection of which with the ground results in a
circle of equal distance, as depicted in the figure below.
Figure 5.7. Circle of equal distance
It is also advantageous to measure these angles on the ground and

memorise the corresponding aircraft structural feature (e.g. rivets on the
wing, strut, bolts, etc.), thereby sparing time and reducing workload during
the flight.
Measuring angles
In the absence of an appropriate tool (e.g. sextant), it is problematic to

estimate angles. However, your own body can help you a lot:
• If you extend your arm with a clenched fist, the angular distance is app. 2-
2.57joint.
• If you put your arm in front of you in a way that the lower arm is parallel to
your body and your fist is exactly in front of your head, your elbow points
out an app. 45° angle.
Influencing factors
Altitude
Both low and high altitudes impose difficulties in navigation. If you fly at a low
altitude (0-1500 ft AGL), the following problems are encountered:
• Circle of visibility is generally reduced. Therefore, you cannot really navigate

from town to town only; you need to pay particular attention to details,
such as railways, roads, power cables, canals, bridges, buildings, etc. In order
to accomplish this, a well-detailed chart is required.
• Obstacles: At low altitude, the vertical separation is much lower - or even 0
- from hills, radio masts, etc. Most of the time, such obstacles must be
avoided horizontally.
Figure 5.8. Chimneys
When flying below 1000 ft AGL, inhabited areas must be avoided

(depending on relevant regulations), thereby increasing the difficulty of
navigation.
• The angular velocity of the aircraft is much higher than at high altitude
(checkpoints and landmarks pass more quickly). This is why greater
emphasis must be placed on flight planning and preparations.
• Aircraft handling: Much more accurate piloting is needed, as skidding or
slipping can easily have fatal consequences when close to the ground.
Figure 5.9. Low altitude navigation
The following problems are often encountered when flying at high altitude:
• Although circle of visibility is outstanding, fewer details are visible, such as

villages, towns, lakes, railways, etc. Consequently, the variety of landmarks
is greatly reduced, and basically only cities, large lakes, mountains, and
coastlines can be used.
• Weather: It is rare to have such weather conditions that do not restrict
visibility from high altitudes (clouds, haze, mist, etc.)
Figure 5.10. The same village (Olaszliszka) from high, normal and low altitude
Chart
If the chart does not contain enough details, navigation becomes extremely
difficult. This is also the case if the chart depicts too many details.
Weather
Naturally, weather has a great influence. Clouds, fog, mist, haze, precipitation,
strong winds, gusty winds, and snow are unfavourable conditions. Should
snow and/or ice cover the area from horizon to horizon with a uniform layer of
clouds, the horizon disappears, causing the Earth and sky to blend.
Chart
Weather
Chart
Weather
Chart
Weather
Figure 5.11. Snow
Flying towards the Sun (at sunrise or sunset) imposes difficulties as well, as
visibility can be dangerously reduced and details in the shade cannot be seen
at all.
Terrain
Terrain can cause problems, as well, like finding an appropriate area for an
emergency landing in a mountainous region or missing landmarks in large and
even territories.
Mountainous region
If you fly in area of high terrain, obstacle clearance must be assured.

Navigation is more difficult, as less inhabited areas are present and they pass
quickly from view, since they are located in the valleys.
Figure 5.12. Village in the mountains
The wind cannot be forecast with acceptable accuracy, which also makes
planning more difficult. Moreover, rotors can cause severe turbulence.
It is also worth mentioning that navigation with single engine aircraft must be
performed in such a way, that in the case of any engine failure, forced landing
is possible on a suitable field. In mountainous regions, this is obviously
somewhat difficult.
In mountainous areas, you can rely on the elevation of terrain quite well.
Normally, relief is illustrated with the help of contour lines on a chart, or with
so-called layer tinting.
Figure 5.13. Contours and "layer tinting"
Contour lines are the intersections of a hill/mountain with horizontal planes

situated at different elevations. The closer the contour lines are to each other,
the steeper the slope is there. To further emphasise the elevation, layer tinting
is frequently employed. Lighter colours are used to illustrate lower areas,
whereas a gradual increase in darkness portrays higher terrain.
Plains
The aforementioned problems are, obviously, not encountered over great

plains. However, plains impose the problem of "uniformity". Basically, there are
no hills which are visible from a distance, even from low altitude. There are
also extended inhabited areas, which makes navigation even more difficult.
Consequently, it is very easy to get lost gradually over plains.
Seasonal changes
Seasonal changes can completely alter the appearance of landmarks. Rivers

and canals can flood during spring, and dry up during summer. Snow can
conceal landmarks, and consequently hills, river bends, and cities become
more important when large areas are covered with snow.
Figure 5.14. Winter and flood
Night
Night flying is slightly different to daytime navigation. You can see illuminated
objects only, thus there is a danger of flying into terrain in the case of being
lost. The so-called "black hole effect" also influences judgement, particularly
distance estimation (i.e. illuminated objects appear closer than they actually
are). It is also more difficult to see the horizon, and map-reading can be
problematic, too.
Getting lost
and canals can flood during spring, and dry up during summer. Snow can
conceal landmarks, and consequently hills, river bends, and cities become
more important when large areas are covered with snow.
Figure 5.14. Winter and flood
Night
Night flying is slightly different to daytime navigation. You can see illuminated
objects only, thus there is a danger of flying into terrain in the case of being
lost. The so-called "black hole effect" also influences judgement, particularly
distance estimation (i.e. illuminated objects appear closer than they actually
are). It is also more difficult to see the horizon, and map-reading can be
problematic, too.
Getting lost
The above-mentioned factors, with possible mistakes in identification or
planning, can easily result in getting lost. Although it is much more difficult to
restore navigation than to maintain it at an adequate level, it is not at all
impossible.
The course of action is as follows:
1. Keep calm!
2. Note the time of getting lost.
3. Climb higher (at least MSA) to increase circle of view.
4. Start orbiting over the position at which you got lost.
5. Report to ATC that you are lost.
6. Perform a fuel check, determine the extra time you can spend orbiting.
7. Calculate the difference of the time you got lost and the last known
position (in minutes) with the help of speed factor, calculate the radius,
and draw a circle with this radius and the centre being your last known
position.
8. Use all available possibilities to restore navigation, e.g. checking the

fuses of your navigational instruments or comparing settings so
information provided by charts, etc.
For example, you get lost and you see the following (the circle is already
calculated and drawn for you). Where are you?
Figure 5.15. Unknown position
There are six sharp river bends within the circle: two close to Tiszanagyfalu,
one SW from Tokaj not close to any inhabited area, one between Timar and
Szabolcs, one area north of Tokaj and one at Tiszaladany. You can easily
exclude three: the one SW from Tokaj, the one between Timar and Szabolcs,
and the bend in the floded area north of Tokaj, as no village is situated on their
shores.
Consequently, Tiszanagyfalu and Tiszaladany are the only remaining

possibilities. If you have a closer look at the photo, it is clear that two villages
are visible, one on this bank and one on the opposite bank. The only place that
meets the requirements is one position, namely Tiszaladany.
Figure 5.15. Unknown position
There are six sharp river bends within the circle: two close to Tiszanagyfalu,
one SW from Tokaj not close to any inhabited area, one between Timar and
Szabolcs, one area north of Tokaj and one at Tiszaladany. You can easily
exclude three: the one SW from Tokaj, the one between Timar and Szabolcs,
and the bend in the floded area north of Tokaj, as no village is situated on their
shores.
Consequently, Tiszanagyfalu and Tiszaladany are the only remaining

possibilities. If you have a closer look at the photo, it is clear that two villages
are visible, one on this bank and one on the opposite bank. The only place that
meets the requirements is one position, namely Tiszaladany.
5.1.2. Revising navigation data
So far, it has been assumed that planning and execution of the flight matches
with the real track and ground speed. However, this is relatively rare.
Now, let us see how to revise data if things are not happening exactly as
planned.
Generally speaking, the wind is different in reality compared to that for which
is planned. Therefore, ground speed vector will be different, which means that
wind correction angle and/or estimated time over/arrival must be altered. This
is why it is advantageous to select many fixes: many small adjustments can be
made, so you will basically remain on course unnoticed. Should there be no or
a low number of fixes, the drift and ground speed difference can be significant.
Revision for drift

If you are blown off course and you identify an off-course fix, you can
calculate the drift angle and correction relatively easily.
Figure 5.16. Off-track corrections
Although the figure above seems quite complicated at first glance, it is indeed
quite self-evident.
Let us assume, you want to fly from "A" to "B". However, due to unexpected
winds, you end up over point "C". After successful identification of fix "C", you
measure the distance between the intended course and point "C" (XLAt)- This
should be perpendicular to the course. Afterwards, you also measure the
distance between points "A" and "T" (XA).
Then, drift (a) can be calculated with a single trigonometric function - tan (or,
when in flight, the l-in-60 rule). This a correction angle must be maintained in
order to fly in the required direction (parallel to the intended track).
(5.1)
tana = ÂT —> a = arctan XÂT « X3:AT -60 [°]
XA Xa Xa
or 1 NM XLAT over 60 NM distance (XA) results in a 1° angle (a).

However, this a angle is not enough to get back to the original route, only to
fly parallel to the intended track.
To get back, a + p correction must be applied, where:
(5.2)
/3 = arctan 2^1 ~ . 60 [’]
Xb Xb
Where:
• Xg is the remaining distance
Alternatively, the l-in-60 rule can be applied (right-hand side of the equations
above).
Should point "C" fall in the middle (point "T" equidistant from points "A" and
"B"); a = p, so 2a correction should be applied.
For example, you fly from "A" to "B", but find yourself over point "C". After
identification, you determine XLAT = 20 NM, XA = 100 NM, XB = 30 NM. By
how many degrees should you change your heading in order to get back to
point "B"?
Apply Equation 5.1 and Equation 5.2:
a = arctan = arctan 0.2 « 11°
(3 = arctan = arctan 0.6 « 34°
Consequently, the heading must be altered by 45 and later extra 11° wind
correction angle must be maintained, if the same course is flown.
Revision for estimated time over/arrival

In the planning phase, ground speed is calculated for each leg, rather than the
time needed for each leg. Afterwards, all data is recorded in the navigation log
(discussed later in this chapter).
During the flight, you should time each leg and compare with the planned one.
Obviously, with real time and distance between two fixes, revised ground
speed can easily be calculated.
vGSr = £ [kt] or [^] or [f]
Where:
• vgsr's revised ground speed
• Ax is distance between two points or fixes [NM] or [km]

• Atr is revised time between two fixes [h] or [s]
Alternatively, the distance in NM/km can be divided with minutes, so as to

obtain the revised speed factor. Naturally, with rearranging the equation
above, it is easy to calculate the revised times for the other leg(s), provided
that ground speed can be maintained.
If you want to be really precise, revised wind can be determined with the help
of revised ground speed and drift. The steps are detailed in Section 4.1.2.
Thereafter, with this wind measurement you are able to compare the new
ground speed for each leg. However, as you might presume, there is hardly
enough time for this during a flight, unless you are a navigator.
Sometimes, it can be asked by a given ATS unit to reach a specific waypoint at

a specific time. In this case, the speed factor method is the quickest to utilise.
„ _ Ax
VSFGSr — T~-
^^req
Where:
• Atrpn is time required by the ATS unit in minutes
VGSr — VSF X 60
As an alternative option, you can use your flight computer as well. In this case,
alter your indicated speed proportionally.
Now, let us see how to use all of this during flight in a well-organised manner.
5.1.3. Planning and recording of flight
progress
The title refers to the document known as the navigation log (NavLog) or
operational flight plan (OFP).
The difference between the two is that NavLog is normally simpler to handle
than an OFP. Both can be used for either VFR or IFR Flights.
Navigation log
Figure 5.17. Navigation log and background calculation
Let us start with the navigation log. It is apparent that waypoints are listed
below each other (VERIG, TOC I top of climb, MAVIR, etc.). In the columns to
the right of the waypoints, Navaid, MSA, FL, MC, etc. are shown, and in
column ETO (estimated time over) - the corresponding times overhead such
waypoint has been entered. The pilot will enter the actual time right next to it,
in column ATO (actual time over).
Operational flight plan

In the following section, an airline OFP will be discussed.
OFP description
AWY Ident of airway, DCT, SID or STAR connecting listed waypoint with the
previously-listed waypoint. In the first row, the departure airport and SID ID
are shown.
MORA (Minimum off-route altitude) shows minimum safe altitude within

protected corridor around routing centreline
WPT FRQ Waypoint ID I Nav-aid Frequency
LAT Latitude of waypoint
LONG Longitude of waypoint
DIST Distance from previous waypoint to listed waypoint [NM]
ACCD Accumulated distance [NM]
REMD Remaining distance to destination [NM]
MT Initial magnetic true track from previous waypoint
TT Initial true track from previous waypoint
VAR Magnetic variation at previous waypoint
TIME Flight time from previous waypoint [hh:mm]
ACCT Accumulated flight time
REMT Remaining flight time [hh:mm]

ETA ATA REV Spaces for crew entry of ETA, and ATA and revised times at
each waypoint
FL Calculated FL at waypoint
TROP Tropopause height [x 100 ft]
SHR Estimated shear at waypoint
WIND Forecast wind at waypoint at the planned FL [° true/kt]
SAT Forecast OAT at waypoint at the planned FL [°C]
TDV Forecast ISA deviation at waypoint at the planned FL (P = above ISA; M

= below ISA)
TAS True air speed from previous waypoint [kt]
MN Mach number from previous waypoint
G/S Ground speed from previous waypoint [kt]
RQRD Required fuel onboard (RQRD = Remaining TRIP + Remaining CONT +

ALTN fuel + FIN RES)
EGW Estimated gross weight at waypoint [tonnes]
FOB/USED/SUM Reserved for crew fuel check entries

AWY WPT FRQ DI ST MT TIME ETA FL WINO TAS RQRD FOB
USED 1
MORA LAT ACCO TT ACCT ATA TRO SAT MN ACCF
LONG REMO VAR REMT REV SHR TDV G/S EGW SUM
VERIG2D LUX 2 31 0 0 . ... 5924 ....

N4729.3 0 180
359FT E02136.9 575 0136 .... 60.2 ....
VERIG2D VERIG 26 6 . ... 149 316/043 5307 ....
N4710.3 26 0006 371 -12 768
E02143.5 549 0130 .... ♦1 59.7 ....
DCT TOC 92 259 14 . ... 380 317/059 4373
027 N4659.8 118 264 0020 363 -57 1658
E01929.5 457 06E 0115 .... -1 58.8 ....
RVSM ALTIMETER CHECK
TIME:... Fl:... ALT1:. ... altstby:... . ALT2:...
999 L3UBL3ANA FIR/LJLA 999
OCT OIMLO/L3LA 128 260 19 .... 380 300/044 447 3700 ....
027 N4641.0 246 264 0039 ,. ., 354 -57 .780 2299
E01625.4 329 05E 0057 .... 0.8 +0 410 58.1
DCT TOSC(390) 8 254 1 .... 390 296/042 3651

114 N4639.4 254 258 0040 • •.• 353 -54 2345
E01614.0 321 04E 0055 .... 0.8 ♦2 58.1 ....
Figure 5.18. Airline
BEFORE EXAM L"
STU DY TEST
APPENDIX
Glossary
A
Anabatic wind Wind flowing from a valley up towards the top of a mountain.
Angle on the plane and on the sphere The measure of the angle region
between two points of straight lines starting from a common source. Can be
measured in degrees, or on the sphere also along the equator of the angle
region.
Angle between a straight line and a curved line (measuring) At the common
point of the straight line and the curved line, replace the curved line with its
straight-line tangent, and measure the angle between the straight line and the
straight-line tangent.
Anti-meridian (also called ante meridian) A full great circle in the graticule
consists of two meridians between the North and South Poles. Given a
meridian, the other one on the same great circle is the anti-meridian. Another
use: the International Date Line, the meridian opposite to the Prime Meridian.
Apparent movement of celestial bodies Since the direction of rotation is

counter-clockwise, the earthly observer sees the celestial bodies rotate in the
opposite direction, clockwise.
Arc or segment of a great circle A piece of a great circle on the sphere

between two points of the great circle.
Astronomical twilight The time when the centre of the Sun is 18° below the
horizon during sunrise or sunset (depending on whether we speak about
morning or evening twilight).
Atomic clock vs. Earth’s rotation Presently, the most precise method of time
measurement is based not on the movement of the Earth or a celestial body,
but the atomic oscillation of certain chemical elements.
Atmospheric refraction The phenomenon when light rays pass from the
nearly perfect vacuum of space into the atmosphere, and the light rays bend.
B
Broken line Segments or arcs of straight lines on the plane or on the sphere
arranged so that the endpoint of a segment or an arc is the initial point of the
next segment or arc.
c
Celestial equator The Earth’s projection on the celestial sphere (not to be
confused with the celestial horizon).
Celestial horizon The plane perpendicular to the Zenith-Nadir axis.
Celestial meridian A celestial great circle with declination, by which the

position of the celestial body is determined.
Centres of a spherical circle Two opposite points on the sphere from which all
points on the circle are at equal distance, as the North and South Poles from
the Tropic of Cancer (a circle on the plane has only one centre).
Circles of latitude All the circles at equal distance from the equator and
perpendicular to all longitudes, including the equator itself and the two poles.
Civil twilight The time when the centre of the Sun is 6° below the horizon
during sunrise or sunset (depending on whether we speak about morning or
evening twilight).
Convergence of meridians The distance between the corresponding points of

two meridians is the greatest at the Equator, and continuously converges to
zero at the two pole points where the two meridians cross each other.
Convergency between spots on different latitudes The difference of angles

of a great circle track with the longitudes when moving from one geographic
spot to another.
Convergency between spots on the same latitude At the two spots draw two
Euclidean tangents to the sphere. Convergency is the angle between them.
Another definition involves only angles on the sphere.
Convergency vs. conversion angle The conversion angle is half of the
convergency.
Conversion angle This is for measuring the difference between a great circle
route and a rhumb line route (orthodrome vs. loxodrome) on the sphere.
Conversion of time into angle (arc) and vice versa Distance, angle, and time
can be measured in degrees on the Earth-globe, as can best be illustrated
along the equator.
Conversion of Universal Time to Standard Time Universal Time does not

observe any version of daylight saving time. When converting UTC to ST, the
actual time in a given geographic spot is given by Standard Time.
Coordinates on the Graticule Locate a geographic spot by the crossing point

of a latitude and a longitude. (Not directly applicable at the Poles, because an
infinitely number of longitudes fit on the Poles.)
D
Dateline Theoretically, the dateline coincides with the 180°E/W meridian,
but actually it is an irregular broken line. Effect of crossing: From east to west
(from Asia to America) one day loss, backwards one day gain.
Day The time elapsed between two transits of a celestial body.
Day (apparent solar day and apparent time) The length of an apparent solar
day is the duration between two solar noons when the shadows are the
shortest during the day.
Day (mean solar day and mean time) The length of a day measured by
supposing a fictitious Sun of constant velocity during the whole year.
Day (sidereal and solar) Sidereal day between two transits of a very distant
celestial body, solar day between two transits of the Sun. The sidereal day is
shorter than the solar day, because the Earth’s route along its orbit and its
rotation around the axis are both counter-clockwise.
Daylight saving time Some countries use daylight saving time (summer time)
that means to set clock ahead 1 hour and set back 1 hour half a year later.
Dead reckoning navigation (DR) This means that the flight path (horizontal or
vertical) is purely calculated based on the available data.
Declination (unofficial definition) The "height" of the body measured from

the Celestial Equator.
Density altitude The altitude relative to the standard atmosphere conditions

(ISA), at which the air density is equal to the indicated air density at the point
of observation.
Departure Departure refers to the length of a route between two meridians

along a latitude circle. Calculation:
• Distance = (Difference of longitude x 60 x Cosine latitude) NM

• Distance = (Difference of longitude x 110 x Cosine latitude) km
Deviation Angle between magnetic North (MN) and Compass North (CN):
• If deviation is W (or negative), Compass Heading > Magnetic Heading.

• If deviation is E (or positive), Compass Heading < Magnetic Heading.
Distance in degrees Spherical distance can be measured in angles dividing a

full great circle into 360°. A planar ruler differs from a planar protractor, but a
spherical ruler is a spherical protractor as well.
Distance of meridians along a latitude circle track It is always longer than the
shortest distance, except on the equator where it is the same, or at the poles
where it is zero.
Distance of meridians from the Equator to the Poles It is about 1/4 piece of a
full great circle on the Earth, 10 000 km or 5 400 NM.
Distance on the plane and on the sphere The measure of the shortest route
between two points on the sphere. Can be measured in degrees or on the
Earth-globe in kilometres or miles.
Ellipsoid of revolution The 3D shape generated by a revolving ellipse. (A flat
circle revolving around an axis of symmetry gives a 3D sphere, a flat ellipse
revolving around and axis of symmetry gives a 3D ellipsoid.)
Equation of time The equation of time shows the difference between the
movement of the apparent Sun and the fictitious mean Sun.
Euclidean straight line or, in other words, a straight line on the infinite plane
A line that shows the shortest route on the plane between any two points of
the line.
F
Fixing (unofficial definition) Continuous check of DR navigation against
predetermined fixes.
Flattening of the Earth This shows how much the Earth differs from a perfect
sphere, squashed in a North-South direction. Its measure is about 1/300, so
the Earth is very close to a perfect sphere.
Flight level Vertical altitude at standard pressure, nominally expressed in

hundreds of feet.
Flight path angle y flight path angle is the difference between pitch angle and
angle of attack of the wing (for an aircraft having 0 angle of incidence).
G
Geocentric latitude Connect each point on the geocentric latitude with the
centre of the spheroid-shaped Earth. Each line constructed in this way has the
same angle with the plane of the equator.
Geocentric vs. geographic latitude The lines connecting the points of the
geocentric latitude with the centre of the spheroid have equal angles with the
plane of the equator. The lines perpendicular to the tangential planes of the
spheroid at the points of the geographic latitude have equal angles with the
plane of the equator. Were the Earth a perfect sphere, the geocentric and
geographic latitudes would be the same.
Geographic latitude Construct a tangential plane to each point on the

geographic latitude, and erect a normal (a perpendicular) to this plane. All
these normals have the same angle with the plane of the equator.
Great circle or spherical straight line A line that shows the shortest route on
the sphere between any two points of the line. The greatest spherical circle
that divides the sphere into two (equal) hemispheres.
Greenwich/Prime/Zero meridian The meridian through Greenwich, England.
Greenwich Mean Time, GMT The time in the Greenwich time zone with the
Prime Meridian.
Grid convergence The angle between grid North and true North:
• If True North is East of GN, grid convergence is E (+).

• If True North is West of GN, grid convergence is W (-).
Grid graticule A series of (equally spaced) parallel lines drawn parallel to an

arbitrary true meridian.
Grivation/grid variation The angle between MN and GN is called grivation

(grid variation) and measured in degrees E (+) or W (-). Because of the uneven
grivation (caused by uneven magnetic field), normally isogrives are plotted on
charts used for polar navigation.
• If grivation is E (+), Magnetic Heading < Grid Heading.

• If grivation is W (-), Magnetic Heading > Grid Heading.
H
Height (unofficial definition) This shows your vertical distance over the
ground (airfield, terrain).
Hour circle A celestial great circle similar to the celestial meridian. However, it
revolves by 15°/h.
I
Isogriv An isogriv is a line joining points, which have the same grivation.
K
Katabatic wind Wind blows from the top of a mountain into a valley.
Latitude A circle on the Earth-globe whose two centres are the North and
South Poles. The Equator is the only latitude which is a great circle. The North
and South Poles are two points. In other words: A circle on the graticule at
equal distance from the equator and perpendicular to all longitudes.
Latitude of the Equator and of the Poles The Equator is 0° (zero latitude), the
North Pole 90°N, and the South Pole 90°S.
Local Mean Time, LMT (variation with longitude) The Local Mean time
depends on the longitude of the location only. (At the Poles this definition of
LMT does not apply, since all longitudes meet at the Poles.)
Local Mean Time, LMT vs. Universal Time, UT Any location which is on
(09000 ± 00750) longitude is at a quarter of a full day, that is, 24/4 = 6 hours
time difference in LMT, Local Mean Time from UTC, Universal Time
Coordinated, either to the east or to the west.
Longitude Half of a great circle (180° long) on the Earth-globe that connects
the North and South Poles.
Longitude of the Greenwich meridian and its anti-meridian Greenwich

meridian is labelled as 0°E/W, and Date Line anti-meridian 180°E/W.
Loxodrome and orthodrome The loxodrome cuts all perpendiculars to a given

straight line at the same angle, the orthodrome connects two spherical points
at the shortest distance on the sphere (a spherical spiral vs. a spherical straight
line).
M
Mach number Mach number is the ratio between the speed of the
undisturbed airflow (TAS) and local speed of sound.
Mean latitude The mean latitude is halfway between two given latitudes.
Meridian Half of a great circle (180° long) on the sphere that connects two
opposite points. (A longitude is a special meridian in the geographic
coordinate system.) Calculating the distance along a meridian:
• Distance = (Difference of latitude x 60) NM

• Distance = (Difference of latitude x 110) km
Midnight The beginning of a local mean day at any location is when the mean
Sun is in transit with the anti-meridian of the given location. This is midnight
or 00:00 h Local Mean Time (LMT) in the given time zone.
Minor arc Two points on the great circle divides it into two pieces. The longer
one is the major arc.
N
Nadir Opposite point to Zenith, if a celestial body is in Nadir, it is directly
below the observer.
Nautical miles and kilometres Distance on the Earth is usually measured, not
in degrees, but in kilometres and nautical miles. One kilometre is roughly
1/40000 piece of the equator, the nautical mile is 1/21600 piece of the
equator.
Nautical Twilight The time, when the centre of the Sun is 12° below the
horizon during sunrise or sunset (depending whether we speak about morning
or evening twilight).
Noon When the mean Sun is in transit with the location’s meridian, the time
difference from midnight is half a day. In this moment it is noon, 1200 Local
Mean Time (LMT) in the same zone.
Numbering latitudes Starts from the Equator at 0° (zero latitude) and going
northwards and southwards to the North Pole 90°N and South Pole 90°S.
Numbering longitudes Numbering starts from the Greenwich Meridian 0°,

and goes eastern and western directions to 180°E and 180°W at the date line
anti-meridian.
o
Oblate spheroid A squashed sphere like a mandarin (in contrast with a prolate
spheroid like a lemon).
Orthodrome and loxodrome The loxodrome cuts all perpendiculars to a given

straight line at the same angle, the orthodrome connects two spherical points
at the shortest distance on the sphere (a spherical spiral vs. a spherical straight
line).
p
Parallels of latitude Any two latitudes on the Graticule (parallel because they
keep equal distance from each other, as with parallel straight lines on the
plane).
Point on the plane or on the sphere or in three-dimensional space Just a

location with negligible (= 0) measure as compared with 2D surface or 3D
space around it, like a city on the map of a continent, or the Earth on its orbit.
Pressure altitude The altitude in the International Standard Atmosphere with

the same pressure as the part of the atmosphere in question.
Prime/Greenwich/Zero meridian The meridian through Greenwich, England.

R
Reciprocal of flattening As with flattening, it shows how much the Earth
differs from a perfect sphere, but by the reciprocal of 1/300, that is, 300
(approximately).
Revolution of a planar ellipse A flat shape, an ellipse revolving around either

the major axis of symmetry (long axis) or around the minor axis (short axis).
Rhumb line Take all the straight lines on the plane or on the sphere
perpendicular to a given straight line, the rhumb line intersects all the
perpendiculars at a fixed, constant angle. All the lines in the graticule are
special rhumb lines, either great circles or small circles. All the other rhumb
lines are spherical spirals, flattening towards the Equator, and bulging out
towards the Poles.
Rotation of the Earth The Earth has two main types of movement, revolving
on its orbit around the Sun, and rotating around its north-south axis of
rotation.
Direction of rotation: It is counter-clockwise or direct or prograde. Watching
from the North Pole, the order of the oceans under your feet is Atlantic-
Indian-Pacific-Atlantic.
s
Segment of an Euclidean straight line A piece of a straight line on the plane or
in 3D space between two points of the line.
Semi-major axis Half of the long axis of symmetry of a flat ellipse.
Semi-minor axis Half of the short axis of symmetry of a flat ellipse.
Small circle See: spherical small circle
Spherical small circle A circle on the sphere smaller than a great circle (even if
a little bit smaller). A circle that divides the sphere into to uneven parts.
Spherical straight line or great circle A line that shows the shortest route on
the sphere between any two points of the line. The greatest spherical circle
that divides the sphere into two (equal) hemispheres.
Spiral A curve on the plane or on the sphere that winds around a fixed centre
point at a continuously increasing or decreasing distance from the point (snail
shape).
Standard Time determined by country The time actually used in a country or

part of a country is called the Standard Time, determined by the government
of the given country.
Summer Solstice The day in which:
• daylight is the longest in the Northern Hemisphere.

• darkness is the longest in the South Hemisphere.
Sun (mean or fictitious Sun) A fictitious Sun that moves with constant
velocity for the earthly observer on its orbit.
Sun (uneven motion) During equal time-slots the apparent routes of the Sun
is not constant. Reasons:
• Eccentricity: The Earth’s orbit around the Sun is not circular but a bit elliptic.
• Obliquity: The axis of rotation is not perpendicular but tilted by 66.5° to the
plane of the Earth’s orbit.
Sunrise/Sunset They occurs when the Sun’s upper edge is on the observer’s
horizon. Obviously, during sunrise, the Sun is moving from the invisible
position towards the visible horizon, while the situation is vice-versa during
sunset.
Tangent and secant to a line in a point of the line Take all the secants of the
curved line through the given point and another point of the line, the tangent
is the limit of secants when the other point falls exactly on the given point.
Time (Greenwich Mean Time, GMT) The zone time in the Greenwich Time
Zone with the Prime Meridian.
Time (Standard Time, ST) The time actually used in a country or part of a
country is called the Standard Time, determined by the government of the
given country.
Time (Universal Time Coordinated, UTC) The Greenwich Mean Time, the
zone time in the Greenwich Time Zone as the Universal Time Zone.
Transit of a celestial body A given celestial body crosses the local meridian in
a given time.
True Altitude (unofficial definition) It basically shows your true altitude over
main sea level (distance between you and main sea level).
u
Universal Time Coordinated, UTC The Greenwich Mean Time, the zone time
in the Greenwich Time Zone as the Universal Time Zone.
V
Variation Difference between magnetic North (MN) and true (or geographical)
North:
• If variation is West or negative, MN is W of True North, Magnetic Heading >

True Heading.
• If variation is East or positive, MN is E of True North, Magnetic Heading <
True Heading.
Vertex of a great circle in the geographic coordinate system The point where
the great circle reaches the highest latitude, the farthest distance from the
Equator. The northernmost or the southernmost point on a great circle in the
geographic coordinate system. All the points of the Equator are vertex points.
w
Winter solstice The day in which:
• daylight is the longest in the South Hemisphere.

• darkness is the longest in the Northern Hemisphere.
Year (number of days) A year consists of approximately 365 + 1/4 days. To

avoid fractions of a day to use, certain four-divisible years have one day plus
in February.
z
Zenith The point on the celestial sphere which is directly over-head the
observer (opposing gravity).
Zero/Prime/Greenwich meridian The meridian through Greenwich, England.
Zone time The Earth is divided into 24 slices (biangles) with meridians
between the poles. Each slice has its own zone time.
APPENDIX
Abbreviations
A
A Altitude/height
a Local speed of sound
^density Density Altitude
A
AFM Aircraft Flight Manual
B
ATO Actual Time Over C

D
Atrue True Altitude E
F
ATS Air Traffic Service G
H
I
B K
L
Tt Magnetic flux density
M
N
c O
P
CAS Calibrated Air Speed Q
R
CH Compass Heading S
T
CN Compass North
U
V
cp Specific heat (heat capacity)
w
X
D OTHERS
dz-^ Length of the arc

AB
Ddecel Distance of Deceleration
dmay Max Distance flown

11 Id A
Dtota| Total Distance
DA Density Altitude
DEV Deviation
DME Distance Measuring Equipment
DR Dead Reckoning
A
E B
C
Ekjn Kinetic Energy D
E
EAS Equivalent Air Speed
F
G
Elev Elevation
H
ETO Estimated Time Over I

K
L
F M
N
F Force O
P
FC Flight Computer
Q
R
FL Flight Level
S
T
FPA Flight Path Angle
U
V
G w
X
g Gravitational acceleration OTHERS
GH Grid Heading
GN Grid North
Grad Gradient
GS Ground Speed
GT Grid Track
H
HDG Heading
Htrue True Height
I B
I Electric current
D
IA Indicated Altitude E
F
IAS Indicated Air Speed G
H
IFR Instrument Flight Rules I
K
IOAT Indicated Outside Air Temperature
M
ISA International Standard Atmosphere
O
K p
Q
kt knot(s) R
S
T
U
L Temperature laps rate

W
I Length and direction of conductor

OTHERS
Lo Standard adiabatic lapse rate
LAT Latitude
LMT Local Mean Time
LST Local Standard Time

M
M Mach number
MEP Multi Engine Piston aircraft
MH Magnetic Heading
MN Magnetic North
A
nrif Fuel on board B
C
msec Fuel flow D
E
F
G
|_j
NavLog Navigation Log
NCP North Celestial Pole

L
ND Navigation Display M
N
NDB Non-Directional Beacon O
P
o Q
R
S
OAT Outside Air Temperature
OFP Operational Flight Plan

V
W
P X
OTHERS
p* Total pressure in a compressible flow
Pa Pascal
PA Pressure Altitude
PFD Primary Flight Display

POH Pilot Operation Handbook
ps Static pressure
ps0 Static pressure at sea level
pt Total pressure
Q A
B
q Dynamic pressure
C
D
QDM Magnetic bearing to the station
E
QDR Magnetic bearing from the station F

G
QFE Height above aerodrome elevation barometric setting H
I
QNE Standard 1013.25 barometric setting K
L
QNH Height above sea level barometric setting M
N
R O
P
R Radius Q
R
R Specific gas constant S
T
U
s V
w
SAT Static Air Temperature
X
OTHERS
SCP South Celestial Pole
SI International System of Units
SR Sunrise
SS Sunset
T Thrust
TAS True Air Speed
TAT Total Air Temperature
TH True Heading
A
TH True Height B
C
tmay Max time in the air D
E
TN True North F
G
Ts Static air temperature H
I
TSo Temperature at sea level
K
L
Tsh Temperature at altitude
M
TT Total air temperature N

O
Tt Total air temperature P
Q
R
u S
T
UTC Coordinated Universal Time
U
V
V w
X
Speed (vector) of the aircraft OTHERS
VAR Variation
VFR Visual Flight Rules
VHF Very High Frequency

Vcw Crosswind component vector
Ground speed vector of the aircraft
VGSR Revised ground speed
V|AS Indicated airspeed
Vpw Parallel wind component vector
vSF Speed factor A

B
Vta> TAS (vector) of the aircraft C
D
Wind vector (direction and speed) E
VzG> Vertical speed compared to ground
VOR VHF Omnidirectional Range
K
W L
M
W Weight N
O
WCA Wind Correction Angle P
Q
X Rs
Xg Remaining distance
U
Xh Horizontal distance V
W
XLAT Lateral distance X
OTHERS
xz Vertical distance
OTHERS
a Wind correction angle
P Drift angle
Y Flight path angle
Ad Difference in distance between two altitude settings
Axz Vertical distance
Displacement vector
AT Ram rise
A
AT$|$a Temperature deviation from ISA B
C
Ap|_| Ap corresponding to height
D
E
Ap|A Ap corresponding to indicated altitude
F
G
ApPA Ap corresponding to pressure altitude
H
AT|SA Temperature difference from ISA I

K
Atr Revised time between two fixes L
M
Atrea Time required N
O
Ah Altitude difference P
Q
Ap Pressure difference R
S
Ax Distance between two points or fixes
T
U
At Elapsed time
V
c Lift-to-drag ratio w
X
Ho Permeability of vacuum OTHERS
p0 Standard density at sea level
ph Density at altitude
APPENDIX
Literature and
Regulations
Literature used
FAA: Flight Navigator Handbook
Air Almanac 2017
Recommended literature
Nathaniel Bowditch: American Practical Navigator

APPENDIX
Formulae
The connection between departure and degrees of latitude:
Distance in nautical miles = Difference of longitude x 60 x

Cosine latitude
Distance in kilometres = Difference of longitude x 110 x
Cosine latitude
Convergency:
Convergency = Change in longitude x Sine (mean) latitude

. i Convergency
Conversion angle = -------------
On the "Direct Mercator" chart the scale is:
scale at any latitude = scale at the Equator x —:——

cosme latitude
The l/(cosine x) function is also called secant x function, and abbreviated to

sec x. Thus:
scale at any latitude = scale at the Equator x —:————

cosme latitude
= scale at the Equator x sec x
Converting total temperature (Tt) to static temperature (Ts):
Ts =
Where:
• M is Mach number
9
TS = Tt - "Cp
[K]
Where:
• v is true airspeed [m/s]

• cp is specific heat (heat capacity) measured at constant pressure [J/kg-K]
cp = 1005.3 [J/kg-K] for air
Converting Mach number to TAS:

M = a
Where:

• vTAS is true airspeed [m/s]
• a is local speed of sound [m/s]

a ~ 20.05V(Ts) [m/s] for air
Converting IAS to TAS:
vtas [f ] M
Where:
• pQ is density at altitude [kg/m3]
• p0 is standard density at sea level [kg/m3]

p0 = 1.225 [kg/m3] by ISA
So TAS can be calculated more precisely:
I —
„
VTAS = VlAS
X yI
v/ Tso \ LR
J .,
X rp [—j or n[kt]
TSh [ml .1
Where:
• ps0 is static pressure at sea level [Pa]
• Tso is temperature at sea level [K]
• Tsh is temperature at altitude [K]
• g is gravitational acceleration [m/s2]

g = 9.81 [m/s2]
R = 287 [J/kg-K]
• L is temperature laps rate [K/m]
As standard, we can use L ~ 0.0065 [K/m]
Speed, time, distance:
V = £ [“]
Where:
• is velocity vector [m/s]
• Ax is displacement vector [m]

• At is elapsed time [s]
Fuel consumption:
_ f _ mf
sec “At max “ msec
Where:
• mf is fuel on board [kg]
• msec's fuel A°w [kg/h] (fuel consumption)
11 idA is max time in the air *■[h]J

• tm3y
Wind correction:
----- >
Vcw
- —> — > —>
sin£ = - Vcw vw • sin£ [y] or [kt]
----- >
Vpw —>
COSO — vpw vw • cos£ [™] or [kt]
vcw
smct = ----- [—]
vtas
Thus, wind correction angle a is the following:
a = arcsin vTas
[rad] or [ ° ]
l j l j
VGS = V ± Vpw
— vtas ' cosa ± vw • cos£ [ or [kt]
—>
v’gs = v’gs
= vtas ± vpw [7-] or [kt]
v’gs = vTas ± vw x cos£ [y] or [kt]
Now, from triangle OBA, it is fairly simple to determine a and vGS:
Vcw vw x sin<y
tan/3
v’gs v’gs
Since:
vcw — vw x sin6
Thus, drift angle is:
pn = arctan
if -----
vw x sinJ \
----
\ v GS /
vw x sinJ
( ------ ;--------------- 7 [rad]

vtas =*= vw x coso
or [°]
Finding unknown wind:
vtas x since
6 = arctan (± vgs - vTas x cosce
[rad] or
vtas x since
VW = sin<S
vtas x since
VTAS x sinQ
sin arctan
VGS “ VTAS x cosa
Converting Tt (TAT) to Ts (SAT):
Ts Tt - 30 x M [°C]
Where:
• Ts is static temperature [°C]
• Tt is total temperature [°C]
Converting Mach number to TAS:

vtas ~ M x 600 [kt]
Where:
Converting IAS to TAS:
vtas — v!as + M]
Where:
• FL is flight level [hundreds of feet]
l-in-60 rule:
6-283 a
dAB = W X a -360- x a
At> 360 60
Where:
• R is radius [m]
• a is centre angle [°]
* ÂB’s of the arc
Speed factor:
vtas
vsf 60
Determination of wind components:
v\v x 6
vcw=
• if 0° < 6 < 50° or 130° < 6 < 180°
v\v x 6
VPW = “60“
• if 40° < 6 < 140°
Converting flight level to altitude:

Ad = Ap x 27 [ft]
Where:
• Ad is distance difference between two alt. settings

• Ap is pressure difference between two alt. settings [hPa]
Calculating height from altitude:
H = IA - Elev. [ft]
Where:
• IA is indicated altitude [ft]
• Elev. is elevation [ft]
Should the elevation be given in pressure (QFE), the only thing you need to do
is to assume 1 hPa difference between QFE and QNH is 27 ft. Consequently:
Elev. = (QNH - QFE) x 27 [ft]
Determination of density altitude:
As a rule of thumb, you can apply 120 ft correction for 1 °C deviation from
ISA. If temperature is colder than ISA, density altitude is lower than pressure
altitude and vice versa.
DA = PA + 120 x A TSisa [ft]
Where:
• DA is density altitude [ft]

• PA is pressure altitude [ft]
• ATS|SA is temperature deviation from ISA
Climb gradient, descent gradient:

, vzGS
tarry
'
= ----
vGs
Where:
Track error:
Xtat r°i
a = arctan — —
Xa
Where:
• XA is the distance from the last known point

or 1 nm XLAT over 60 nm distance (XA) results in 1° angle (a).
Track correction:
To get back to the original route: a+p correction must be applied, where:
/3 = arctan [°]
Xb
Where:
• XB is the remaining distance

Alternatively, l-to-60 rule can be applied.
Revision for ETO/ETA:
vcsR = M [kt] or M or
Where:
• vgsr's revised ground speed
• Ax is distance between two points or fixes [nm] or [km]

• Atr is revised time between two fixes [h] or [s]
Mental method:
_ Ax
VSFGSr — TT“
£ALreq
Where:
• Atreq is time required by the ATS Unit in minutes.
vgsr — VSF x 60
APPENDIX
Learning Objectives
Below, you can find the Learning Objectives of this subject as designed by
EASA and contained in Amendments 4, 6 and 8 to AMC/GM to Part-FCL (ED
Decision 2018/001/R, ED Decision 2018/011/R and ED Decision
2019/017/R) that came into effect in 2020.
Mental dead reckoning (MDR)

Where the term ‘mental dead reckoning’ (MDR) is used within a Learning
Objective (LO), the applicable technique which will be used for the European
Central Question Bank (ECQB) questions is based on the methods shown
below.
Examination questions will state that an MDR technique is required to

produce the solution. If other techniques (e.g. trigonometry) are used to
determine the answer, then the determined answer may be incorrect.
MDR crosswind component (XWC)

The XWC can be calculated using a ‘clock code rule’, where each 15° of wind
angle is represented by 1/4 of an hour — meaning 1/4 the wind strength.
The XWC can be estimated using the values from the table below:
Wind angle 15° 30° 45° 60°

% of wind speed 25 50 75 100
(Wind angle (WA) is the angle between the wind vector and the track/runway
direction to the nearest 10°)
Example:
RWY 04 and surface wind from tower is 085°/20 kt. What is the XWC?
WA = 45°
XWC = (0.75) x 20 = 15 kt
MDR headwind component (HWC)/tailwind

component (TWC)
The H/TWC can be estimated using the values from the following table:
90° - wind angle 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60°

% of wind speed 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.9
To assist recall, an aid is shown below:
90° - wind angle 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60°

Aid 1 1 2 2 3 3
% of wind speed 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.9
Example:
RWY 04 and surface wind from tower is 080°/20 kt. What is the HWC?
WA = 40°
90° - WA = 50°
HWC = (0.8) x 20 = 16 kt
MDR triangle of velocities (TOV)

Heading is determined by calculating the XWC as previously described, then
applying the 1:60 rule to the TOV as follows:
This MDR technique works for the relatively small WCAs which are typical for
medium to high TAS values (the ground speed (GS) therefore can be assumed
to be equal to the TAS for application of the 1:60 rule).
Example 1:
Planned track = 070° (T)

TAS = 400 kt
WV = 100° (T)/40 kt
WA = 30°
XWC = (0.5) x 40 = 20 kt
GS is determined by using the headwind/tailwind example previously
explained.
WA = 30°
90° - 30° = 60°
HWC = (0.9) x 40 = 36 kt
GS = 400 - 36 = 364 kt
Example 2:
Planned track = 327° (T)

TAS = 240 kt
WV = 210° (T)/70 kt
WA = 60°
XWC = (0.9) x 7 = 63 kt
GS is determined by using the headwind/tailwind example previously

explained.
WA = 60°
90° - 60° = 30°
TWC = (0.5) x 70 = 35 kt
GS = 240 + 35 = 275 kt
VFR navigation (061 02 00 00)

The techniques referred to within the LOs are based on the methods as
described below.
Mental dead reckoning (MDR) off-track

corrections
Based on the 1:60 rule
1 NM of cross-track error (XTE) for every 60 NM along track from waypoint =

1° of track error angle (TKE).
1 NM of XTE for every 60 NM along track to waypoint = 1° of closing angle
(CA).
Change of heading required to regain track in same distance as covered from

waypoint to position off track = 2 x TKE.
Change of heading required to reach next waypoint from position off track =
TKE + CA.
Example 1:
Planned heading is 162° (T), and after 40 NM along track the aircraft position
is fixed 2 NM right of planned track. What heading is required to regain track
in approximately the same time as has taken to the fix position?
TKE = 3°
Heading required = 156° (T)
Example 2:
Planned heading is 317° (T), and after 22 NM along track the aircraft position
is fixed 3.5 NM left of planned track. What heading is required to fly direct to
the next waypoint which is another 45 NM down track?
TKE = 10°, CA = 5°
Heading required = 332° (T)
Mental dead reckoning (MDR) estimated time of

arrival (ETA) calculations
Round the GS to the nearest NM/min, and then make the same percentage
adjustment for the distance.
Example:
Distance to go = 42 NM
GS = 132 kt
GS rounded to 120 kt = 2 NM/min
Percentage change = 10 %
Distance = 42 -10 % = 38 NM
Time = 38 -r 2 = 19 min
Unsure-of-position procedure
As soon as the position of the aircraft is in doubt:
1. note the time;
2. communicate if in contact with an air traffic control (ATC) unit to request

assistance;
3. consider using any radio-navigation aids that may be available to give

position information (do not become distracted from flying the aircraft
safely);
4. if short of fuel or near controlled airspace, and not in contact with ATC,
set 121.5 MHz and make a PAN call;
5. if that is not necessary, check the directional indicator (DI) and compass
are still synchronised and continue to fly straight and level and on route
plan heading;
6. estimate the distance travelled since the last known position;
7. compare the ground with your estimated position on the map (look at
the terrain for hills and valleys or line features such as a motorway,
railway, river or coastline);
8. once the position has been re-established, keep checking the heading
(and look out for other aircraft) and continue the flight by updating the
estimated position regularly while looking for unique features such as a
lake, wood, built-up area, mast, or a combination of roads, rivers and
railways.
Procedure when lost

If the unsure-of-position procedure does not resolve the problem:
1. inform someone - call first on the working frequency and state the word
"LOST";
2. if there is no contact on that frequency or there is no frequency

selected, change to 121.5 MHz and make a PAN call; select 7700 with
ALT on the transponder if fitted.
In all cases: maintain visual meteorological conditions (VMC), note the fuel
state, and try to identify an area suitable for a precautionary landing.
Consider the "HELP ME" mnemonic:
• H: High ground/obstructions - are there any nearby?

• E: Entering controlled airspace - is that a possibility?
• L: Limited experience, low time or student pilot - let someone know.
• P: PAN call in good time -don’t leave it too late.
• M: MET conditions - is the weather deteriorating?
• E: Endurance - is fuel getting low?
LEARNING OBJECTIVES L"

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1.1.1. Rotation of the Earth

1.1.2. Time measurement

1.2. Geometry of the Earth

1.2.1. Great circle, small circle, and rhumb line

1.2.2. Convergency, conversion angle

1.2.3. Latitude, difference of latitude

1.2.4. Longitude, difference of longitude

1.2.5. Use of latitude and longitude coordinates to locate any

1.3. Time and time conversions

1.3.1. Apparent Erne

1.3.2. Universal Erne coordinated (UTC)

1.3.4. Standard times (STs)

1.3.5. Date line

1.3.6. Sunrise, sunset, civil twilight

1.4.1. True North

1.4.2. Terrestrial magnetism: magnetic north, inclination and

1.5.1. Units of distance and height used in navigation: nautical

miles, statute miles, kilometres, metres, feet

1.5.2. Conversion from one unit to another

1.5.3. Relationship between nautical miles and minutes of latitude

and minutes of longitude

1.5.4. Rhumb line tracks

2.1.1. Magnetic materials

2.2.1. Working principle

2.2.2. Factors, influencing, accuracy

3.1.1. The fundamental question of map-making: How can

geographic shapes be depicted on a flat sheet of paper?

3.1.2. Classification of sphere projections

3.1.3. Classification by preserving angles: Conformal projections

3.1.4. Scale of the chart

3.2. Some types of projections from the spherical surface to the

3.3. Direct Mercator

3.4. Lambert conformal conic

3.4.1. Simple conical projection

3.4.2. Lambert’s conformal conic projection

3.4.3. Constant of cone/convergency factor

3.4.4. Chart convergency

3.5.1. Shape and distortion of the projection >

3.5.2. Polar stereographic chart convergency >

3.6. The representation of meridians, parallels, great circles and

rhumb lines >

3.6.1. Direct Mercator >

3.6.2. Lambert conformal conic >

3.6.3. Polar stereographic >

3.6.4. Conversion angle >

3.6.5. Polar stereographic chart >

3.6.6. The use of current aeronautical charts >

4. Practical Navigation I. >

4.1.1. Definition >

4.1.2. Dead reckoning (horizontal plane) >

4.1.3. Dead reckoning (vertical plane) >

5. Practical Navigation II. >

5.1.2. Revising navigation data

5.1.3. Planning and recording of flight progress

1. To provide you with a concise compilation of the study materials needed

2. To supply you with the means to establish a solid knowledge foundation,

Important notice - the eTextbooks are available in two versions: