Carbohydrate Metabolism

MC 2: Biochemistry
Faisal H. Jackarain, RN, MPH, CLSSYB
Faculty, Manila Doctors College of Nursing
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate Digestion Process
• Digestion: Breakdown of food molecules by
hydrolysis into simpler chemical units that
can be used by cells in their metabolic
processes
• Salivary α-amylase catalyzes the hydrolysis
of α- glycosidic linkages in starch and
glycogen to produce smaller polysaccharides
and disaccharide maltose
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate Digestion Process
• Small amount of carbohydrate is digested in the stomach
• Salivary α-amylase gets inactivated because of stomach acidity
• No carbohydrate-digesting enzymes are present
• Small intestine - Primary site for carbohydrate digestion
• Pancreatic α-amylase breaks down polysaccharide chains into
disaccharide maltose
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate Digestion Process
•Final step occurs on the outer membranes of intestinal mucosal
cells
–Disaccharidase enzymes convert disaccharides to
monosaccharides
•Maltase - Converts maltose to glucose
•Sucrase - Converts sucrose to glucose and fructose
•Lactase - Converts lactose to glucose and galactose
–Carbohydrate digestion products (glucose, galactose, and fructose)
are absorbed into the bloodstream through the intestinal wall
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate Digestion Process
–Intestinal villi are rich in blood capillaries into which the
monosaccharides are actively transported
• Protein carriers mediate the passage of the monosaccharides
through cell membranes
•Galactose and fructose are converted to products of glucose
metabolism in the liver
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates

Where does the digestion of carbohydrates begin?

a. Stomach
b. Small intestine
c. Mouth
d. Large intestine
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates

Where does the digestion of carbohydrates begin?

a. Stomach
b. Small intestine
c. Mouth
d. Large intestine
Glycolysis

• Metabolic pathway by which glucose is converted to two

molecules of pyruvate (a C3 molecule)
•• Produces ATP and NADH-reduced coenzymes
•• Occurs in two stages - Six-carbon and threecarbon
•stages
Glycolysis
Six-Carbon Stage of Glycolysis (Steps 1–3)
• Energy-consuming stage
• – Two ATP molecules are converted to two ADP molecules, and the
energy released is used to transform monosaccharides into
monosaccharide phosphates
Step 1 - Formation of glucose 6-phosphate
• Phosphorylation of glucose - A phosphate group from ATP is attached to the
hydroxyl group on carbon 6 of glucose
• Reaction is catalyzed by hexokinase
• Energy required is derived from ATP hydrolysis
Glycolysis
Six-Carbon Stage of Glycolysis (Steps 1–3)
Step 2 - Formation of fructose 6-phosphate
• Glucose 6-phosphate is isomerized to fructose 6-phosphate by
phosphoglucoisomerase
Step 3 - Formation of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate
• Phosphorylation reaction
• Energy derived from ATP hydrolysis
• Enzyme involved - Phosphofructokinase
Glycolysis
Three-Carbon Stage of Glycolysis (Steps 4–10)
• Reaction intermediates are derivatives of glycerol and acetone
• C3 intermediates of glycolysis are all phosphorylated derivatives of
dihydroxyacetone, glyceraldehyde, glycerate, or pyruvate
Step 4 - Formation of two triose phosphates
• C6 biphosphate is split into two C3 monophosphate species
• Two C3 species formed are dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde
• 3-phosphate
• Reaction catalyzed by aldolase
Glycolysis
Three-Carbon Stage of Glycolysis (Steps 4–10)
● Step 5 - Formation of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
○ Dihydroxyacetone phosphate is isomerized to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
○ Enzyme involved - Triosephosphate isomerase
● Step 6 - Formation of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate
○ Reaction catalyzed by glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase
○ A molecule of the reduced coenzyme NADH is a product of the reaction
Glycolysis
Three-Carbon Stage of Glycolysis (Steps 4–10)
○ Source of the added phosphate is inorganicphosphate (Pi)
○ Carboxylate ion and phosphate (Pi) are joined together to form the bisphosphate
product
Step 7 - Formation of 3-phosphoglycerate
● – Diphosphate species is converted back to a monophosphate species
●– An ATP-producing step C1 high-energy phosphate group of 1,3
bisphosphoglycerate is transferred to an ADP molecule to form the ATP
Glycolysis
Three-Carbon Stage of Glycolysis (Steps 4–10)
– Enzyme involved - Phosphoglycerokinase
– Two ATP molecules are produced for each originalglucose molecule
• Step 8 - Formation of 2-phosphoglycerate
– Involves isomerization of 3-phosphoglycerate to 2-phosphoglycerate
• Phosphate group moved from carbon 3 to carbon 2
• Enzyme involved - Phosphoglyceromutase
• Step 9 - Formation of phosphoenolpyruvate
– Alcohol dehydration reaction - Results in another high-energy phosphate group
containing compound
Glycolysis
Three-Carbon Stage of Glycolysis (Steps 4–10)
– Enzyme involved - Enolase
• Step 10 - Formation of pyruvate
– High energy phosphate group is transferred from phosphoenolpyruvate to an ADP
molecule to produce ATP and pyruvate
– Enzyme involved - Pyruvate kinase
– Two ATP molecules are produced for each original glucose molecule
– Note - ATP molecules are involved in Steps 1, 3, 7,and 10 of glycolysis
Glycolysis
ATP Production and Consumption
• There is a net gain of two ATP molecules inglycolysis for every glucose molecule
•processed

• Overall equation for glycolysis

• + +
Glucose + 2NAD + 2ADP + 2Pi → 2 pyruvate + 2NADH + 2ATP + 2H + 2H2O
Glycolysis
Practice Exercise
Indicate at what step in the glycolysis pathway each of the following events occur:

a. Second formation of ATP occurs

b. Second “energy-rich” compound is produced

c. Second time ATP is converted to ADP

d. A dehydration reaction occurs

Glycolysis
Practice Exercise
Indicate at what step in the glycolysis pathway each of the following events occur:

a. Second formation of ATP occurs

b. Second “energy-rich” compound is produced

c. Second time ATP is converted to ADP

d. A dehydration reaction occurs

Answers:

a. Step 10 b. Step 9 c. Step 3 d. Step 9

Glycolysis
Entry of Galactose and Fructose into Glycolysis
• Both fructose and galactose are converted in the liver to intermediates that enter into
the glycolysis pathway
• Entry of fructose into the glycolytic pathway involves phosphorylation by ATP to
produce fructose 1-phosphate
– Fructose 1-phosphate is converted to:
• Glyceraldehyde - Should be phosphorylated before it enters into glycolysis
• Dihydroxyacetone phosphate - Enters into glycolysis directly
Glycolysis
Entry of Galactose and Fructose into Glycolysis
• Entry of galactose into the glycolytic pathway begins with its conversion to glucose
1-phosphate, which is then converted to glucose 6-phosphate
Glycolysis
Regulation of Glycolysis
•Control points of glycolysis - Steps 1, 3, and 10
• Step 1 - Conversion of glucose to glucose 6- phosphate by hexokinase
- Hexokinase is inhibited by glucose 6-phosphate (feedback inhibition)
• Step 3 - Conversion of fructose 6-phosphate to fructose 1,6-bisphosphate by
phosphofructokinase
- High concentrations of ATP and citrate inhibit enzyme activity
Glycolysis
Regulation of Glycolysis
• Step 10 - Conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate by pyruvate
kinase
- Enzyme is inhibited by high ATP concentrations
- Both pyruvate kinase (Step 10) and phosphofructokinase (Step 3) are
allosteric enzymes
 What statement best describes glycolysis?
a. A series of metabolic reactions to breakdown glucose into one three-carbon
pyruvate molecule, energy in the form of GTP, and NADH.
b. A series of metabolic reactions to breakdown glucose into two pyruvate
molecules, energy in the form of ATP, and NADH.
c. An aerobic pathway for the breakdown of glucose.
d. The conversion of the three-carbon pyruvate molecule to glucose.
 What statement best describes glycolysis?
a. A series of metabolic reactions to breakdown glucose into one three-carbon
pyruvate molecule, energy in the form of GTP, and NADH.
b. A series of metabolic reactions to breakdown glucose into two pyruvate
molecules, energy in the form of ATP, and NADH.
c. An aerobic pathway for the breakdown of glucose.
d. The conversion of the three-carbon pyruvate molecule to glucose.
Fates of Pyruvate
Oxidation to Acetyl CoA
• Under aerobic (oxygen-rich) conditions, pyruvate is oxidized to
acetyl CoA by pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
• Pyruvate formed through glycolysis crosses the two mitochondrial
membranes and enters the mitochondrial matrix
• Acetyl CoA molecules produced from pyruvate enter the citric acid
cycle
• Most pyruvate formed during glycolysis is converted to acetyl CoA
Fates of Pyruvate
Lactate Fermentation
Enzymatic anaerobic reduction of pyruvate to lactate
– Occurs mainly in muscles
Purpose - Conversion of NADH to NAD+ for increased rate of
glycolysis
Lactate is converted back to pyruvate when aerobic conditions are
reestablished in the cell
Muscle fatigue associated with strenuous physical activity is
attributed to increased buildup of lactate
Fates of Pyruvate
Ethanol Fermentation
Enzymatic anaerobic conversion of pyruvate to ethanol and carbon
dioxide
Simple organisms regenerate NAD+ through ethanol fermentation
reaction
– Ethanol fermentation, involving yeast, causes bread and related
products to rise as a result of CO2 bubbles being released during
baking
– Beer, wine, and other alcoholic drinks are produced by ethanol
fermentation of the sugars in grain and fruit products
Ethanol Fermentation
Steps of conversion
• Decarboxylation reaction to produce acetaldehyde
• Acetaldehyde reduction to produce ethanol

Overall ethanol fermentation reaction

Glucose + 2ADP + 2Pi → 2 ethanol + 2 CO2 + 2ATP + 2H2O
Alcohol Metabolism

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Oslu11jnmM
Fates of Pyruvate
+
Regeneration of NAD from NADH
Fates of Pyruvate
Practice Exercise
Which of the three common metabolic pathways for pyruvate is compatible
with each of the following characterizations concerning the reactions that
pyruvate undergoes?
a. Acetaldehyde is an intermediate in this pathway
b. An anaerobic pathway that does not function in humans
c. An anaerobic pathway that does function in humans
d. A C2 molecule is a product under aerobic reaction conditions for
this pathway
Answers:
b.Ethanol fermentation
c.Ethanol fermentation
d.Lactate fermentation
e.Acetyl CoA formation
Fates of Pyruvate
Practice Exercise
Which of the three common metabolic pathways for pyruvate is compatible
with each of the following characterizations concerning the reactions that
pyruvate undergoes?
a. Acetaldehyde is an intermediate in this pathway
b. An anaerobic pathway that does not function in humans
c. An anaerobic pathway that does function in humans
d. A C2 molecule is a product under aerobic reaction conditions for
this pathway
Answers:
b. Ethanol fermentation
c. Ethanol fermentation
d.Lactate fermentation
e. Acetyl CoA formationactate fermentation
f.Acetyl CoA formation
Fates of Pyruvate
Practice Exercise
Under aerobic conditions, what is the fate of pyruvate?
a. It is converted to lactate.
b. It is converted to ethanol.
c. It is converted to acetyl CoA, which enters the citric acid cycle.
d. It is used for protein synthesis.
Fates of Pyruvate
Practice Exercise
Under aerobic conditions, what is the fate of pyruvate?
a. It is converted to lactate.
b. It is converted to ethanol.
c. It is converted to acetyl CoA, which enters the citric acid cycle.
d. It is used for protein synthesis.
ATP Production from the Complete Oxidation of
Glucose
• NADH produced during Step 6 of glycolysis cannot directly
participate in the electron transport chain
+
- Mitochondria are impermeable to NADH and NAD
- Glycerol 3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate transport
system shuttles electrons from NADH, but not NADH itself, across
the outer membrane
• Dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glycerol phosphate freely cross the
mitochondrial membrane
• The interconversion shuttles the electrons from NADH to FADH2
ATP Production from the Complete Oxidation of
Glucose
The Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate-Glycerol 3- Phosphate Shuttle
ATP Production from the Complete Oxidation of
Glucose
• 30 ATP molecules are produced in skeletal muscle and nerve cells
- 26 are from the oxidative phosphorylation associated with the
electron transport chain
- 2 are from the oxidation of glucose to lactate
- 2 are from the oxidation of glucose to ethanol
• Aerobic oxidation of glucose is 15 times more efficient in ATP
production as compared to anaerobic lactate and ethanol processes
• In heart and liver cells, 32 molecules are produced instead of 30 per
glucose molecule
ATP Production from the Complete Oxidation of
Glucose
What is the net production of ATP from the complete oxidation of one
glucose molecule?

a. 2

b. 4

c. 26

d. 30
ATP Production from the Complete Oxidation of
Glucose
What is the net production of ATP from the complete oxidation of one
glucose molecule?

a. 2

b. 4

c. 26

d. 30
Glycogen Synthesis and Degradation

•Glycogen - Branched polymeric form of glucose

–Storage form of carbohydrates in humans and animals
•In muscle, it is the source of glucose for glycolysis
•In liver tissue, it is the source of glucose required to maintain normal blood
glucose levels
–Produced by the process of glycogenesis
Glycogen Synthesis and Degradation
Glycogenesis
• Metabolic pathway by which glycogen is synthesized from glucose
6-phosphate
Involves:
- Formation of glucose 1-phosphate
- Formation of UDP-glucose
- Glucose transfer to a glycogen chain
Glycogen Synthesis and Degradation
Glycogenesis - Steps 1–3
Step 1 - Formation of glucose 1-phosphate
- Starting material is glucose 6-phosphate (available from the first
step of glycolysis)
- Enzyme phosphoglucomutase effects the change from a 6-
phosphate to a 1-phosphate
Step 2 - Formation of UDP-glucose
- High-energy compound UTP (uridine triphosphate) activates
glucose 1-phosphate to form uridine diphosphate glucose (UDP-
glucose)
Glycogen Synthesis and Degradation
Glycogenesis - Steps 1–3
•Step 3 - Glucose transfer to a glycogen chain
–Glucose unit of UDP-glucose is attached to the end of a glycogen chain and
UDP is produced
–UDP reacts with ATP to form UTP and ADP
–Adding one glucose unit to a glycogen chain requires the investment of two
ATP molecules
Glycogen Synthesis and Degradation
Glycogenolysis
•Metabolic pathway by which glucose 6- phosphate is produced
from glycogen
– It is not just the reverse of glycogenesis because it does not require UTP or
UDP molecules
•Two-step process
–Step 1 - Phosphorylation of a glucose unit
–Step 2 - Glucose 1-phosphate isomerization
Glycogen Synthesis and Degradation
Glycogenolysis
•Step 1 - Phosphorylation of a glucose unit
–Glycogen phosphorylase effects the removal of an end glucose unit from a
glycogen molecule as glucose 1-phosphate
•Step 2 - Glucose 1-phosphate isomerization
–Phosphoglucomutase catalyzes the isomerization process whereby the
phosphate group of glucose 1- phosphate is moved to the carbon 6 position
(reverse of the first step of glycogenesis)
Glycogen Synthesis and Degradation

•Locally produced glucose 6-phosphate directly enters the

glycolysis pathway
•Low glucose levels stimulate glycogenolysis in liver cells
–Glucose 6-phosphate cannot cross cell membranes
–Enzyme glucose 6-phosphatase found in liver cells converts glucose
6-phosphate into free glucose
•This enzyme is not present in muscle and brain cells
•Free glucose is then transported to the brain and muscles through the
bloodstream
Glycogen Synthesis and Degradation
The Processes of Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis
Glycogen Synthesis and Degradation

Which of the following pathways is responsible for glycogen synthesis?

a. Glycogenolysis
b. Gluconeogenesis
c. Glycogenesis
d. Glycolysis
Glycogen Synthesis and Degradation

Which of the following pathways is responsible for glycogen synthesis?

a. Glycogenolysis
b. Gluconeogenesis
c. Glycogenesis
d. Glycolysis
Gluconeogenesis

•Metabolic pathway by which glucose is synthesized from

noncarbohydrate materials
–Gluconeogenesis and glycolysis are not exact opposites
•Non-carbohydrate starting materials for gluconeogenesis
–Pyruvate
–Lactate (from muscles and from red blood cells)
–Glycerol (from triacylglycerol hydrolysis)
–Certain amino acids (from dietary protein hydrolysis
or from muscle protein during starvation)
Gluconeogenesis

•About 90% of gluconeogenesis takes place in the liver

•Conditions in which gluconeogenesis occurs
–To replenish depleted liver glycogen stores
–To convert lactate (produced by strenuous exercise) back to glucose
–To maintain blood glucose level when glycogen
stores have been depleted
Gluconeogenesis
Overall Reaction
• 2 Pyruvate + 4ATP + 2GTP + 2NADH + 2H2O → glucose + 4ADP +
+
2GDP + 6Pi + 2NAD

• Pyruvate to glucose conversion requires the expenditures of 4 ATP

and 2 GTP
• Gluconeogenesis occurs at the expense of other ATP-producing
metabolic processes
Gluconeogenesis
Glycolysis Vs. Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis
Cori Cycle
•Gluconeogenesis uses lactate as a source of pyruvate
–Lactate is formed during strenuous exercise
•Diffuses from muscle cells into the bloodstream and is
transported to the liver
•Enzyme lactate dehydrogenase converts lactate to pyruvate in
the liver
–Pyruvate is then converted to glucose via gluconeogenesis
•The glucose enters the bloodstream and is transported
to the muscles
Gluconeogenesis
Nucleotide Triphosphate Change Associated with the Two Parts of the Cori Cycle
Glycogen Synthesis and Degradation

Which of the following pathways is responsible for the synthesis of

glucose from non-carbohydrate materials?

a. Glycogenolysis
b. Gluconeogenesis
c. Glycogenesis
d. Glycolysis
Glycogen Synthesis and Degradation

Which of the following pathways is responsible for the synthesis of

glucose from non-carbohydrate materials?

a. Glycogenolysis
b. Gluconeogenesis
c. Glycogenesis
d. Glycolysis
Glycogen Synthesis and Degradation

•Where does gluconeogenesis occur in the body?

a. In the muscles
b. In the liver
c. In the pancreas
d. In the small intestine
Glycogen Synthesis and Degradation

•Where does gluconeogenesis occur in the body?

• a. In the muscles
• b. In the liver
• c. In the pancreas
• d. In the small intestine
Terminology For Glucose Metabolic Pathways

•Glycogenesis - Three-step process in which glucose 6-phosphate

units are added to a growing glycogen molecule
•Gluconeogenesis - Eleven-step process in which pyruvate is converted
to glucose
•Glycolysis - Ten-step process in which glucose is converted to
pyruvate
Terminology For Glucose Metabolic Pathways

•Glycogenolysis - Process in which glycogen is converted to glucose

6-phosphate
•Names ending with “lysis” mean “breakdown”
•Names ending with “genesis” mean “making”
Terminology For Glucose Metabolic Pathways
Relationships Among Four Common Metabolic Pathways That Involve Glucose
Terminology For Glucose Metabolic Pathways
Practice Exercise
Identify each of the following as a characteristic of one or more of the following
processes: glycolysis, glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, and gluconeogenesis.

a. Glycogen is the final product.

b. Glucose is the initial reactant.
c. Glucose 1-phosphate is produced in the first step.
d. ADP is converted to ATP in this process.
Terminology For Glucose Metabolic Pathways
Practice Exercise
Identify each of the following as a characteristic of one or more of the following
processes: glycolysis, glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, and gluconeogenesis.

a. Glycogen is the final product.

b. Glucose is the initial reactant.
c. Glucose 1-phosphate is produced in the first step.
d. ADP is converted to ATP in this process.
Answers:
a.Glycogenesis
b.Glycolysis
c.Glycogenesis
d.Glycolysis
Terminology For Glucose Metabolic Pathways
Practice Exercise
Which of the following pairs of processes are the reverse of each other in terms of the
initial reactant and final product?
a. Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
b. Glycogenesis and gluconeogenesis
c. Glycolysis and glycogenolysis
d. None of the above
Terminology For Glucose Metabolic Pathways
Practice Exercise
Which of the following pairs of processes are the reverse of each other in terms of the
initial reactant and final product?
a. Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
b. Glycogenesis and gluconeogenesis
c. Glycolysis and glycogenolysis
d. None of the above
The Pentose Phosphate Pathway
Structure of NADPH
•Pentose phosphate pathway
–Pathway in which glucose 6- phosphate
is used to produce NADPH, ribose
5-phosphate (a pentose phosphate),
and numerous other sugar phosphates
+
• NADPH - Reduced form of NADP
(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate)
– NADP+/NADPH - Phosphorylated version of NAD+/NADH
– NADPH is essential for biosynthetic reactions/pathways
The Pentose Phosphate Pathway
Two Stages
•Oxidative stage
–Involves three steps through which glucose 6- phosphate is converted to
ribulose 5-phosphate and CO2
•Non-oxidative stage
–In the first step, ribulose 5-phosphate (a ketose) is isomerized to ribose
5-phosphate (an aldose)
The Pentose Phosphate Pathway
Two Stages
•Helps meet cellular needs
–When ATP demand is high, the pathway continues to its end products, which
enter glycolysis
–When NADPH demand is high, intermediates are recycled to glucose
6-phosphate (the start of the pathway), and further NADPH is produced
–Helps generate ribose 5-phosphate for nucleic acid and coenzyme
production
The Pentose Phosphate Pathway
What is the pentose phosphate pathway?
a.A metabolic pathway by which glucose is used to synthesize
ribose 5-phosphate and NADPH when needed.
b.A metabolic pathway by which glucose is used to synthesize
ribose 6-phosphate and NADPH when needed.
c.A metabolic pathway by which glucose is used to synthesize
ribose 6-phosphate and NADH when needed.
d.A metabolic pathway by which glucose is used to synthesize
ribose 5-phosphate and NADH when needed.
The Pentose Phosphate Pathway
What is the pentose phosphate pathway?
a. A metabolic pathway by which glucose is used to synthesize
ribose 5-phosphate and NADPH when needed.
b. A metabolic pathway by which glucose is used to synthesize
ribose 6-phosphate and NADPH when needed.
c. A metabolic pathway by which glucose is used to synthesize
ribose 6-phosphate and NADH when needed.
d. A metabolic pathway by which glucose is used to synthesize
ribose 5-phosphate and NADH when needed.
Hormonal Control of Carbohydrate Metabolism

•Second major method for controlling carbohydrate metabolism,

besides enzyme inhibition by metabolism
•Hormones that control carbohydrate metabolism
–Insulin
–Glucagon
–Epinephrine
Hormonal Control of Carbohydrate Metabolism
Insulin
•51 amino-acid protein hormone, produced by beta cells of the
pancreas
•Promotes the utilization of glucose by cells
•Function - To lower blood-glucose levels
– Involved in lipid metabolism
•Release of insulin is triggered by high blood- glucose levels
Hormonal Control of Carbohydrate Metabolism
Insulin
•Mechanism for action
–Binds to proteins receptors on the outer surfaces of cells, which facilitates
entry of the glucose into the cells
–Produces an increase in the rate of glycogen synthesis
Hormonal Control of Carbohydrate Metabolism
Glucagon
•Polypeptide hormone (29 amino acids)
•Produced in the pancreas by alpha cells
•Released when blood-glucose levels are low
•Principal function is to increase blood-glucose concentration by speeding up
the conversion of glycogen to glucose (glycogenolysis) in the liver
•Elicits the opposite effects of insulin
Hormonal Control of Carbohydrate Metabolism
Epinephrine (Adrenaline)
•Released by the adrenal glands in response to anger, fear, or
excitement
•Function is similar to glucagon
–Stimulates glycogenolysis
•Primary target - Muscle cells
–Promotes energy generation for quick action
•Functions in lipid metabolism
Hormonal Control of Carbohydrate Metabolism
Stimulation of Glucose Production by Epinephrine
 Hormonal Control of Carbohydrate Metabolism
What hormones control carbohydrate metabolism?

a. Growth hormone and insulin

b. Insulin and glucagon
c. Insulin, glucagon, and epinephrine
d. Insulin and thyroid hormones
 Hormonal Control of Carbohydrate Metabolism
What hormones control carbohydrate metabolism?

a. Growth hormone and insulin

b. Insulin and glucagon
c. Insulin, glucagon, and epinephrine
d. Insulin and thyroid hormones
B Vitamins and Carbohydrate Metabolism

•B vitamins are coenzymes in metabolic reactions

•B vitamins that are involved in carbohydrate metabolism
+
–Niacin (as NAD and NADH)
–Riboflavin (as FAD)
–Thiamin (as TPP)
–Pantothenic acid (as CoA)
–Biotin
–Vitamin B6 in the form of PLP(pyridoxal 5-phosphate)
B Vitamins and Carbohydrate Metabolism

B- Vitamin Participation in
Chemical Reactions
B Vitamins and Carbohydrate Metabolism
How many different B vitamins participate in the reactions
involved in carbohydrate metabolism?

a. 4
b. 6
c. 7
d. None of the above
B Vitamins and Carbohydrate Metabolism
How many different B vitamins participate in the reactions
involved in carbohydrate metabolism?

a. 4
b. 6
c. 7
d. None of the above
B Vitamins and Carbohydrate Metabolism
Concept Question 1
How does the body react biochemically when it is in a dangerous
situation and needs extra energy to avert the danger?

a. Large amounts of thyroid hormone are released mediating the breakdown of

glycogen to glucose, which enters the major pathways used to produce energy.
b. Large amounts of insulin are released mediating the breakdown of glycogen to
glucose, which enters the major pathways used to produce energy.
c. Large amounts of epinephrine are released mediating the breakdown of
glycogen to glucose, which enters the major pathways used to produce energy.
d. Large amounts of glucagon are released mediating the breakdown of glycogen
to glucose, which enters the major pathways used to produce energy.
B Vitamins and Carbohydrate Metabolism
Concept Question 1
How does the body react biochemically when it is in a dangerous
situation and needs extra energy to avert the danger?

a. Large amounts of thyroid hormone are released mediating the breakdown of

glycogen to glucose, which enters the major pathways used to produce energy.
b. Large amounts of insulin are released mediating the breakdown of glycogen to
glucose, which enters the major pathways used to produce energy.
c. Large amounts of epinephrine are released mediating the breakdown of
glycogen to glucose, which enters the major pathways used to produce energy.
d. Large amounts of glucagon are released mediating the breakdown of glycogen
to glucose, which enters the major pathways used to produce energy.
 B Vitamins and Carbohydrate Metabolism
Concept Question 2
The day after a vigorous workout, after months of living a sedentary life, your muscles are
very sore. Biochemically, what happened in your body to cause this soreness?

a.Large amounts of glucose were metabolized to pyruvate that was converted under anaerobic
conditions to lactate, which accumulated in your muscles. This buildup of lactate is what caused
the soreness.
b. Large amounts of glucose were metabolized to pyruvate that was converted under aerobic
conditions to lactate, which accumulated in your muscles. This buildup of lactate is what caused
the soreness.
c. Your muscles were unable to breakdown glucose to pyruvate for the citric acid cycle to
produce the energy required for the vigorous workout. This was caused by a lack of oxygen
intake.
d. Pyruvate, the breakdown product of glucose metabolism, accumulated in your muscles
because of your inability to metabolize pyruvate due to a lack of oxygen.
B Vitamins and Carbohydrate Metabolism
Concept Question 2
The day after a vigorous workout, after months of living a sedentary life, your muscles are
very sore. Biochemically, what happened in your body to cause this soreness?

a. Large amounts of glucose were metabolized to pyruvate that was converted under anaerobic
conditions to lactate, which accumulated in your muscles. This buildup of lactate is what
caused the soreness.
b. Large amounts of glucose were metabolized to pyruvate that was converted under aerobic
conditions to lactate, which accumulated in your muscles. This buildup of lactate is what
caused the soreness.
c. Your muscles were unable to breakdown glucose to pyruvate for the citric acid cycle to
produce the energy required for the vigorous workout. This was caused by a lack of oxygen
intake.
d. Pyruvate, the breakdown product of glucose metabolism, accumulated in your muscles
because of your inability to metabolize pyruvate due to a lack of oxygen.