Cellular Respiration

MARY LOU D. BASA

Cellular Respiration
• Cellular of metabolic process that
converts food into usable
energy(ATP)
• takes place in the cell of all living
organisms
• Produces energy to needed to
maintain life
• Carried out by the different types
of cell
• Needed to fuel such activities like
metabolic process biosynthesis,
locomotion and molecule transport
among membrane
Glucose
• Photosynthesis
• A form of sugar
• Food (glucose) – transformed to – energy (ATP)
ATP – ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE
• Energy currency of the cell
• An organic compound that provides energy by the breaking of
phosphoanhydride bond to release energy when one phosphate is
removed from the compound
Cellular Respiration
PATHWAYS:

1.GLYCOLYSIS
2.KREBS CYCLE
3.ELECTRON
TRANSPORT
CHAIN
Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration
• AEROBIC – NEEDS
OXYGEN
• ANAROBIC – NO OXYGEN
NEEDED
Glycolysis
glycos – sugar + lysis (splitting)

• Anaerobic respiration
• A series of biochemical reactions that splits glucose into
two pyruvates
• Happens in the cytoplasm
Step 1 Step 2
• HEXOKINASE • PHOSPHOGLUCOSE ISOMERASE
• Conversion of D-glucose into – Rearrangement of glucose-6-
glucose-6-phosphate phosphate into fructose 6-
phosphate
Step 3 Step 4
• PHOSPHOFRUCTOKINASE • ALDOLASE
• Changes fructose 6-phosphate • Splits fructose 1,6-bisphosphate
into fructo 1,6 bisphosphate into two sugars
• Mg atom – shield the negative • Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)
charges in the phosphate • Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
molecule
Step 5 Step 6
• TRIOSEPHOSPHATE ISOMERASE • GLYCERALDEHYDE -3-
• interconverts the molecules PHOSPHATE DEHYDROGENASE
dihydroxyacetone phosphate • dehydrogenates and adds an
(DHAP) and glyceraldehyde 3- inorganic phosphate to
phosphate(GAP) glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
Step 7 Step 8
• PHOSPHOGLYCERATE KINASE • PHOPHOGYCERATE MUTASE
• transfers a phosphate group from • relocates the phosphate group of
1,3 bisphosphoglycerate to adp to 3-phosphoglycerate from the 3rd
form atp and 3-phosphoglycerate carbon to the 2nd carbon to form
2- phosphoglycerate
Step 9 Step 10
• ENOLASE • pyruvate kinase
• removes a molecule of water from • transfers a phosphate group from
2-phosphoglycerate to form phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to
phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) ADP to form pyruvic acid and ATP
KREBS CYCLE
• TriCarboxylic Acid (TCA) cycle
• In prokaryotic cells, the citric acid cycle occurs in the cytoplasm
• In eukaryotic cells, the citric acid cycle takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria.
• “Sir Hans Adolf Krebs” (1900 to 1981)
• He shared the Nobel Prize for physiology and Medicine in 1953 with Fritz Albert Lipmann, the
father of ATP cycle.
• The process oxidises glucose derivatives, fatty acids and amino acids to carbon dioxide
(CO2) through a series of enzyme controlled steps
• The purpose of the Krebs Cycle is to collect (eight) high-energy electrons from these
fuels by oxidising them, which are transported by activated carriers NADH and FADH2 to
the electron transport chain
• The Krebs Cycle is also the source for the precursors of many other molecules, and is
therefore an amphibolic pathway (meaning it is both anabolic and catabolic).
Net Equation
acetyl CoA + 3 NAD + FAD + ADP + HPO4-2 —————> 2 CO2 + CoA + 3
NADH+ + FADH+ + ATP
Reaction 1: Formation of Citrate

• The first reaction of the cycle is the

condensation of acetyl-
CoA with oxaloacetate to form citrate,
catalyzed by citrate synthase.
• Once oxaloacetate is joined with acetyl-
CoA, a water molecule attacks the acetyl
leading to the release of coenzyme A from
the complex.
Reaction 2: Formation of Isocitrate

• The citrate is rearranged to form an isomeric

form, isocitrate by an enzyme acontinase.
• In this reaction, a water molecule is
removed from the citric acid and then put
back on in another location. The overall
effect of this conversion is that the –OH
group is moved from the 3′ to the 4′ position
on the molecule. This transformation yields
the molecule isocitrate.
•
Reaction 3: Oxidation of Isocitrate to α-
Ketoglutarate

In this step, isocitrate dehydrogenase catalyzes

oxidative decarboxylation of isocitrate to
form α-ketoglutarate.
In the reaction, generation of NADH from NAD
is seen. The enzyme isocitrate
dehydrogenase catalyzes the oxidation of the –
OH group at the 4′ position of isocitrate to yield
an intermediate which then has a carbon
dioxide molecule removed from it to
yield alpha-ketoglutarate.
Reaction 4: Oxidation of α-Ketoglutarate to
Succinyl-CoA

Alpha-ketoglutarate is oxidized, carbon

dioxide is removed, and coenzyme A is added
to form the 4-carbon compound succinyl-
CoA.

During this oxidation, NAD+ is reduced to

NADH + H+. The enzyme that catalyzes this
reaction is alpha-ketoglutarate
dehydrogenase.
Reaction 5: Conversion of Succinyl-CoA to
Succinate
• CoA is removed from succinyl-CoA
to produce succinate.

• Reaction 5 Conversion of Succinyl-

CoA to Succinate
• The energy released is used to
make guanosine triphosphate
(GTP) from guanosine diphosphate
(GDP) and Pi by substrate-level
phosphorylation. GTP can then be
used to make ATP. The enzyme
succinyl-CoA synthase catalyzes
this reaction of the citric acid cycle.
Reaction 6: Oxidation of Succinate to
Fumarate
• Succinate is oxidized
to fumarate.
• During this oxidation, FAD is
reduced to FADH2. The
enzyme succinate
dehydrogenase catalyzes the
removal of two hydrogens from
succinate.
Reaction 7: Hydration of Fumarate to Malate
• The reversible hydration
of fumarate to L-malate is
catalyzed by fumarase
(fumarate hydratase).
• Fumarase continues the
rearrangement process by
adding Hydrogen and Oxygen ba
ck into the substrate that had
been previously removed.
Reaction 8: Oxidation of Malate to
Oxaloacetate
• Malate is oxidized to
produce oxaloacetate, the
starting compound of the citric
acid cycle by malate
dehydrogenase. During this
oxidation, NAD+ is reduced to
NADH + H+.
ATP Generation
• Total ATP = 12 ATP
• 3 NAD+ = 9 ATP
• 1 FAD = 2 ATP
• 1 ATP = 1 ATP
• Reviewing the whole process, the Krebs cycle primarily transforms the
acetyl group and water, into carbon dioxide and energized forms of
the other reactants.
Significance of Krebs Cycle
1.Intermediate compounds formed during Krebs cycle are used for the
synthesis of biomolecules like amino acids, nucleotides, chlorophyll,
cytochromes and fats etc.
2.Intermediate like succinyl CoA takes part in the formation of chlorophyll.
3.Amino Acids are formed from α- Ketoglutaric acid, pyruvic acids and
oxaloacetic acid.
4.Krebs cycle (citric Acid cycle) releases plenty of energy (ATP) required for
various metabolic activities of cell.
5.By this cycle, carbon skeleton are got, which are used in process of growth
and for maintaining the cells.
SUMMARY OF ATP PRODUCTION
ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
• final stage of aerobic respiration
• located on the inner mitochondrial membrane
• The inner membrane is arranged into folds (cristae), which increases the surface area available for
the transport chain
•
The electron transport chain releases the energy stored within the reduced hydrogen carriers in
order to synthesise ATP
• This is called oxidative phosphorylation, as the energy to synthesise ATP is derived from the
oxidation of hydrogen carriers

•
Oxidative phosphorylation occurs over a number of distinct steps:
• Proton pumps create an electrochemical gradient (proton motive force)
• ATP synthase uses the subsequent diffusion of protons (chemiosmosis) to synthesize ATP
• Oxygen accepts electrons and protons to form water
•
Chemiosmosis hypothesis
• Movement of ions from low to
high concentration to generate a
chemical gradient
Step 1: Generating a Proton Motive
Force
• The hydrogen carriers (NADH and
FADH2) are oxidised and release
high energy electrons and protons
• The electrons are transferred to
the electron transport chain, which
consists of several transmembrane
carrier proteins
• As electrons pass through the
chain, they lose energy – which is
used by the chain to pump protons
(H+ ions) from the matrix
• The accumulation of H+ ions within
the intermembrane space creates
an electrochemical gradient (or a
proton motive force)
Step Two: ATP Synthesis via
Chemiosmosis
• The proton motive force will
cause H+ ions to move down
their electrochemical gradient
and diffuse back into matrix
• This diffusion of protons is
called chemiosmosis and is
facilitated by the
transmembrane enzyme ATP
synthase
• As the H+ ions move through
ATP synthase they trigger the
molecular rotation of the
enzyme, synthesising ATP
Step Three: Reduction of Oxygen
• In order for the electron transport
chain to continue functioning, the de-
energised electrons must be removed
• Oxygen acts as the final electron
acceptor, removing the de-energised
electrons to prevent the chain from
becoming blocked
• Oxygen also binds with free protons in
the matrix to form water – removing
matrix protons maintains the hydrogen
gradient
• In the absence of oxygen, hydrogen
carriers cannot transfer energised
electrons to the chain and ATP
production is halted
Summary: Oxidative
Phosphorylation
• Hydrogen carriers donate high energy electrons to the electron transport chain (located on the
cristae)
• As the electrons move through the chain they lose energy, which is transferred to the electron
carriers within the chain
• The electron carriers use this energy to pump hydrogen ions from the matrix and into the
intermembrane space
• The accumulation of H+ ions in the intermembrane space creates an electrochemical gradient (or a
proton motive force)
• H+ ions return to the matrix via the transmembrane enzyme ATP synthase (this diffusion of ions is
called chemiosmosis)
• As the ions pass through ATP synthase they trigger a phosphorylation reaction which produces ATP
(from ADP + Pi)
• The de-energised electrons are removed from the chain by oxygen, allowing new high energy
electrons to enter the chain
• Oxygen also binds matrix protons to form water – this maintains the hydrogen gradient by removing
H+ ions from the matrix
• https://ib.bioninja.com.au/_Media/electron-transport-chain-2.mp4
OTHER TYPES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION
• Lactic acid fermentation
• 6 carbon sugars, such as glucose are converted into energy in the form of ATP.
• However, during this process, lactate is also released, which in solution becomes
lactic acid.
• It can occur in animal cells (such as muscle cells) as well as some prokaryotes
• In humans, the lactic acid build-up in muscles can occur during vigorous exercise
when oxygen is not available
• The aerobic respiration pathway is switched to the lactic acid fermentation
pathway in the mitochondria which although produces ATP
• it is not as efficient as aerobic respiration
• The lactic acid build-up in muscles can also be painful.
•
Alcoholic Fermentation
• Alcoholic fermentation (also known as ethanol fermentation)
• process that converts sugars into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide
• It is carried out by yeast and some bacteria
• used by humans in the process of making alcoholic drinks such as wine and beer
• During alcoholic fermentation, sugars are broken down to form pyruvate molecules in a
process known as glycolysis
• Two molecules of pyruvic acid are generated during the glycolysis of a single glucose
molecule
• These pyruvic acid molecules are then reduced to two molecules of ethanol and two
molecules of carbon dioxide
• The pyruvate can be transformed into ethanol under anaerobic conditions where it begins
by converting into acetaldehyde, which releases carbon dioxide, and acetaldehyde is
converted into ethanol
• In alcoholic fermentation, the electron acceptor NAD+ is reduced to form NADH and this
exchange of electrons helps to generate ATP