Highway and Railroad Engineering

Outline of Topics
1. Highway Development and Planning: Importance
2. Classification of Roads
3. Road Patterns
4. Planning Surveys
5. Highway Alignment and Surveys

Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this rating period, the students should be able to:
● Relate highway development and planning; and
● Categorize the classification of roads and sketch road patterns and highway alignment.

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Topic 1: Highway Development and Planning: Importance

What is Highway Engineering?

It is a field of Civil Engineering that deals with the planning and design of highways, bridges, and
tunnels, as well as their operation and maintenance to ensure that people and products are safely and
efficiently transported.
Highway planning involves the estimation of current and future traffic volumes on a road network.
According to Mugdha, planning is a prerequisite for any engineering activity or project.

Objectives of Highway Engineering

● Planning a highway network for safe, efficient, and fast movement of people and goods.
● Keeping the overall cost of construction and maintenance of the roads in the network to a minimum.
● Planning for future development and anticipated traffic needs for a specific design period
● Phasing road development programs from considerations of utility and importance as also of
financial resources.
● Evolving a financing system compatible with the cost and benefits

Importance of Highway Engineering

● To plan a road network for efficient and safe traffic operation, but a minimum coast. Here the costs
of construction, maintenance and renewal of pavement layers and the vehicle operation costs are to
be given due construction.
● To arrive at the road system and the lengths of different categories of road which could provide
maximum utility and could be constructed within the available resource during the plan period under
construction.
● To fix up date wise priorities for development of each road link based on utility as the main criterion
for phasing the road development program.
● To plan for future requirements and improvement of roads in view of anticipated developments and
to work out a financing system.
Topic 2: Classification of Roads

In the Philippines, roads and highways are classified and named according to their functions. Based on
DPWH D.O. No. 133, s. 2018, Philippine roads are classified as follows:

1. National Roads (Primary, Secondary, Tertiary). National roads are continuous in extent that form
part of the main trunk line system.

Primary Roads. Connect major cities (at least around 100,000

population) and comprise the national road system.

● They are mostly single and dual carriageways linking two

or more cities.

● According to the DPWH, the national primary roads are

also classified into the north-south backbone, east-west lateral, and other roads of strategic
importance.
○ North-South Backbone - The main route connecting the Philippines' major cities
from north to south.
- Also known as the Pan-Philippine Highway, Asian
Highway 26 (AH26), or Maharlika Highway that runs
from Laoag in the northernmost parts of Luzon to
Zamboanga City in western Mindanao.
○ East-West Laterals - Other main routes that cross the N-S Backbone to link other
major cities from east to west.
○ Other Roads of Strategic Importance (ORSI) - All other high-traffic routes not
falling under the former two categories. These link other regional centers, major cities
and certain provincial capitals.

Secondary Roads.

● Connect cities to National Primary Roads, except in metropolitan areas.

● Connect major airports to National Primary Roads.
● Connect tourist service centers to National Primary Roads or other National Secondary
Roads.
● Connect cities not classified as major cities.
● Connect provincial capitals within the same region.
● Connect National Primary Roads to National Government Infrastructures.

Tertiary Roads. Other existing roads under DPWH which perform a local function.

2. Bypass/Diversion Roads. These roads divert through traffic away from the city/municipality
business centers.
 3. Provincial Roads. Provincial roads connect cities and municipalities without traversing National
Roads. They also connect National Roads to major provincial infrastructures as well as to
barangays through rural areas.
4. Municipal and City Roads. Roads within a Poblacion that provide inter-barangay connections to
major municipal and city infrastructures without traversing Provincial Roads.
5. Barangay Roads. Other roads within the barangay and not covered in the above definitions
6. Expressways. These are highways with limited access, normally with interchanges. They may
include facilities for levying tolls for passage in an open or closed system.

Other highway classifications by functions:

7. By-passes. These are roads or highways that avoid a built-up area, town or city proper to let
through traffic flow without interference from local traffic, reduce congestion and improve road safety
where a toll for passage is levied in an open or closed system.
8. Parkways. These are arterial highways for non-commercial traffic with full or partial control of
access, usually located within a park or a ribbon of park-like development.

Topic 3: Road Patterns

Road patterns are of great use in urban highway planning. The choice of a road pattern depends upon the
extent of land use or the distribution of residential, industrial and business areas in a city, the nature of the
terrain, and the planner’s preferences.

The main patterns in use in urban areas are:

1. Grid Iron Pattern (Rectangular or Block)
2. Radial Pattern
3. Hexagonal Pattern

Grid Iron Pattern

This is also known as rectangular or block pattern and is perhaps the

simplest. This is easy to set out in straight lines and rectangular coordinates,
and is suitable for flat terrain.

Advantages:

● Beneficial in bypassing any road with traffic congestion and convenience in imposing one
way traffic.
● To construct back-to-back buildings with front-facing roadways.
● Construction and maintenance of highways using this design are relatively simpler.
● One such pattern is easier to build and sustain, does have an excellent visual view, as well
as the road shape is easier to comprehend.

Disadvantages:
 ● This pattern is inconvenient since the roads are perpendicular at junctions, causing the traffic
to converge towards a single point.
● However, it makes monotonously long streets inconvenient in traffic operation.

Radial Pattern

Roads emanate from a central focal area. In order to ease the

congestion of traffic, ring roads are provided; there can be several such as-
inner, intermediate, and outer.

The shape of a ring road may be round, square, or elongated. Based

on this, the pattern may be:

Star and Circular

Advantages

● Safer when compared to a rectangular pattern.

● It reduces congestion at the main bottleneck point.
● If one radial route is closed, another may be utilized as an alternative.

Disadvantages

● Lack of safety equipment such as post-support bases, crash attenuators, and rail transitions.
● It is only effective when the downstream end of a two-lane ramp does not need a merging.

Star and Grid

Advantages

● It increases the effectiveness of land usage unit density.

● It has a high percentage of 3-way intersections, offering great vehicle traffic safety.
● Cut-through traffic is reduced.

Disadvantages

● There should be sufficient distance between splitter islands.

● High construction cost for additional traffic lights and road markings.

Hexagonal Pattern

Three roads meet the built-up area boundary by the sides of the
hexagon.

The hexagonal pattern can be modified into a minimum travel

pattern.
 This facilitates travel from one place to any other place in the area in the minimum possible time,
compared to any other pattern.

Advantages

● Travel time and distance are cut down.

● Reduced traffic congestion

Disadvantage

● There should be enough traffic signs, pavement markings, and illumination to alert vehicles to
lower their travel speed and minimize the risk of accidents.

Topic 4: Planning Surveys

Planning Surveys

Since civil engineering involves the construction and connection of structures and infrastructures on
the earth’s surface, engineering and surveys play a significant role.

The survey activities are performed even before the design phase of these works to plan various
aspects of the project and determine the exact parameters of the natural environment.

One of the major steps before proceeding on a construction project is to plan surveys. It is essential
to know all the needed data as these will ensure that the project will be safe, cost-effective and efficient.

Highway Planning Phase:

Assessment of road length requirements for an area.

Preparation of master plan showing the phasing of plan.

For assessing the required road length for the area, field studies are to be carried out to collect the
necessary data.

Planning Surveys consist of the following studies:

1. Economic Studies: Economic growth has received the strongest priority in all the plans as these
roads are good for the flow of economy and for transport of goods. Government will not spend for
something that doesn’t profit so they invest more on roads that are connected to the center of the
economy like cities rather than the remote areas.
● Population and its distribution
● Trend of population growth
● Agricultural and industrial products
 ● Existing facilities
● Per capita income
2. Financial Studies: It is important to determine the sources of funds in order to mobilize the project.
Money is the fuel for the highway construction to operate.
● Sources of income and estimated revenue
● Living standard
● Toll taxes
● Future trends
3. Traffic or Road Use Studies
● Traffic volume
● Traffic flow pattern
● Mass transportation facilities
● Accidents
● Growth of passenger trips
● Future trends
4. Engineering Studies: Application of the sciences of engineering to estimate life expectancy of the
highway that will be developed.
● Topographic surveys
● Soil surveys
● Possible developments
● Existing roads
● Drainage, construction and maintenance

Preparation of Plans:

Plan 1. Location of places with their respective quantities of productivity

Plan 2. Existing road network with traffic flows and desired lines.

Plan 3. General area plan showing almost all existing details.

Plan 4. Includes distribution of population groups.

Interpretation of Planning Surveys:

1. To arrive at the road network out of several alternate possible systems which have the maximum
utility.
2. To fix up the priority of the construction projects so as to phase the road development plan of an
area in different periods of time such as five year plans and annual plans.
3. To assess the actual road use by studying the traffic flow patterns.
4. New structures may be designed using the data and past experience.
5. May suggest the areas of immediate need for the road network.
6. On a statistical basis, the data obtained in fact finding surveys may be analyzed for the future trends
in the development area.
Topic 5: Highway Alignment and Surveys

HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT

The alignment is the position or the layout of the centerline of the proposed highway on the ground.
It includes straight path, horizontal deviation, and curves. Road alignment is the positioning of the centerline
of the highway or road. Simply, it is the direction through which the road will pass.

Purpose: Road alignment provides proper guidance to pass the road through the path which is most
economical, easy to construct, and free from conflicts.

Requirements of Highway Alignment

Safety. Safety for the road-users should be the primary consideration either during construction,
operation or maintenance, especially at natural hill slopes, embankments and its foundation, and cut
slopes.
Easy. The construction materials, if present at the place of construction, makes the construction
easier.
Short or Directness. The aligned route between end points should be as direct as possible so as to
reduce the construction cost. In between two terminal stations, the alignment should be as short as
possible to provide economy in the cost of construction, maintenance and transportation.
Economy. The overall cost of construction and maintenance of the road, and also the operation
cost of the vehicles should be as low as possible. However, if the construction turns out to be
economical, the gradient may not be easy which in turn increases the cost of operation and
maintenance. Similarly, if the vehicle operation is taken under consideration and is made
economical, the construction cost becomes higher as the gradient and curves need to be easy.
Comfort. The alignment should be fixed such that it provides comfort to the drivers and the
passengers.

Moreover, the alignment should offer maximum utility by serving the maximum population by
connecting intermediate important towns and groups of villages and shall pass through regions of natural
beauty and scenery to have good natural aspects.

Depending upon the purpose of the highway and the characteristics of the terrain, special
considerations may be needed as in the case of hill roads or ghat roads (mountain pass roads).

Factors Controlling Alignment

Government Alignment. As the road project needs a large investment, the government should be
clear about the requirement of the road (when, what, how and why to construct).
Obligatory Points. Points through which the alignment has to necessarily pass to maximum
utilization of the road. Hence to connect obligatory points, alignment may be changed.
● Positive Obligatory Points. Obligatory points through which alignment is to pass such as
bridge site, intermediate town, existing road and mountain pass. This is used to determine
 whether to cut tunnels across the hill, go round the hills, or deviate the shortest and easiest
path.
● Negative Obligatory Points. Obligatory points through which alignment should not pass
such as religious structure, costly structure, conservation areas, restricted zones, densely
populated areas, and unsuitable land. The road should also not be within the boundary of
the country. This is because religious structures are being protected by law, and marshy and
water logged areas are unsuitable for road construction.
Traffic. The alignment should suit traffic requirements. For fast moving traffic, it must be as straight
as possible. For slow moving traffic, like bullock carts and others it may have sharp bends. The
number of lanes can be determined as the ratio of traffic volume with traffic capacity.
Geological Condition. Geologically stable hill slope must be considered while selecting the
highway alignment.
● Alignment should be free from obstruction.
● Alignment should run on good soil as far as possible.
● The alignment should have less earthwork
Geometric Design. Design factors such as gradient, radius of curve, and sight distance, which also
govern the final alignment of the highway.
● Curves must be as flat as possible. It may be necessary to make adjustments in the
horizontal alignment of roads keeping in view the minimum radius of curve and the transition
curves. Around 20 to 130 kph for highways and 20to 250 kph for railways.
● While aligning a new road, the gradient should be flat and less than the ruling or design
gradient. Thus in order to avoid excessive fall or rise the alignment is to be changed.
● The minimum sight distance, which should be available in every section of the road, is the
safe stopping distance for the fast moving vehicles. Also there should be enough distance
visible ahead for safe overtaking operations of vehicles moving at design speed on the road.
Availability of Construction Materials and Labor. The construction works become easier and
economical when the construction materials are near the place of highway alignment. The alignment
should provide proximity to labor and material required for the construction of roads.
Economy. Alternative routes must also be provided and are needed to be investigated before
finalizing the most feasible alignment. The construction, operation, and maintenance work should be
aligned with the alternative routes.
Other Considerations: Drainage Considerations (should be as low as possible), Hydrological
Factors (includes the atmospheric details, groundwater system or water table fluctuations or
proximity to surface water), Political Considerations (politics affects the decision of the selection of
the highway alignment) and Monotony (should not be completely straight, bends and curves are
advisable to provide alertness for the driver).

Special Consideration while Aligning Roads on Hilly Areas

Stability. While aligning hill roads, special care should be taken to align the road along the side of
the hill which is stable. Excessive cutting and filling may affect its stability and cost. The side chosen
should not be prone to erosion, landslide, and rockfall.
Drainage. Avoid the cross drainage structure. The number of cross drainage structures should be
minimum.
 Geometric Standards. Different sets of geometric standards are followed in hill roads with
reference to gradient, curves, and speed.
Resisting Length. The Ineffective rise and excessive fall should be minimum.

Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

The alignment of a highway is a three-dimensional problem measured in x, y, and z coordinates.

This is illustrated, from a driver’s perspective, in Fig. 3.1. However, in highway design practice,
three-dimensional design computations are cumbersome, and, what is perhaps more important, the actual
implementation and construction of a design based on three-dimensional coordinates has historically been
prohibitively difficult.

As a consequence, the three-dimensional highway alignment problem is reduced to

two-dimensional alignment problems, as illustrated in Fig. 3.2.

One of the alignment problems corresponds roughly to x and z coordinates and is referred to as
horizontal alignment or the plan view. The other corresponds to highway length (measured along some
constant elevation) and y coordinates (elevation) and is referred to as vertical alignment or the profile
view.

The operational characteristics of a roadway are directly affected by the horizontal alignment. The
designer must consider the road's terrain, traffic volume, expected capacity and LOS together with other
safety factors in order to properly anticipate the posted speed. Highways will be designed according to their
anticipated posted speed as opposed to an arbitrary design speed

On the other hand, Roadway vertical alignment is controlled by design speed, topography, traffic
volumes and composition, highway functional classification, safety, sight distance, typical sections,
horizontal alignment, climate, vertical clearances, drainage, economics, and aesthetics. When a highway is
located where environmental resources exist the vertical alignment should be designed to minimize
impacts. Vertical alignment should be properly coordinated with the natural topography, available
right-of-way, utilities, roadside development and natural and man-made drainage patterns.

What is the Difference between Horizontal and Vertical Alignment?

Watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ELzTygJbZYE

Horizontal Alignment includes the straight path, curves (left and right) or deviation in horizontal
direction. Vertical Alignment includes vertical curves (up and down) and gradient on the ground.

ENGINEERING SURVEY FOR HIGHWAY LOCATION

Stages of Engineering Surveys

Before a highway alignment is finalized in a highway project, the engineering survey is to be carried
out. The various stages of engineering surveys are as follows.

1. Map Study (Provisional Alignment Identification)

2. Reconnaissance Survey
3. Preliminary Survey
4. Final Location and Detailed Survey

Map Study

It is possible to suggest the likely routes of the roads if the topographic map of the area is available.
The main features like rivers, hills, valleys, etc. are also shown on these maps. Topographic maps are
available with 15 to 30 meters contour intervals. A contour interval is the vertical distance or difference in
elevation between contour lines.

The probable alignment can be located on the map from the following details available on the map.

Alignment avoiding valleys, ponds or lakes.

Approximate position of bridges can be planned (by avoiding bend or rivers).
If a road has to cross a row of hills, the possibility of crossing through a mountain would be
considered.
Moreover, if a road is to be connected between two stations, one of the top and the other on the foot
of the hill, then alternate routes can be suggested keeping in view the permissible gradient; say the
ruling gradient.

Therefore from a map study alternate routes can be suggested. Map study gives a rough guidance
of the routes to be further surveyed in the field.

Reconnaissance Survey

Reconnaissance survey is done to confirm features indicated on map and examine the general
character of the area in the field for deciding the most feasible routes for detailed studies.

A survey party may inspect along the proposed alternative routes of the map in the field with very
simple instrument like abney level (measure slopes and difference in elevations), tangent clinometer
(difference in elevation between points, placed on plane table and levelled by estimation), barometer
(altitudes, air pressure), etc. to collect additional details.
Details to be collected from alternative routes during this survey are:

Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy lands, hills, permanent structures and other obstructions along the
route which are not available in the map.
Approximate values of gradients, length of the gradients and radius of curves of alternate
alignments.
Number and type of cross drainage structures, maximum flood level and natural ground water level
along the probable routes.
Soil type along the routes from field identification tests and observation of geological features
Source of construction material such as stone quarries, water sources, etc.
When the road passes through hilly or mountainous terrain, additional data regarding the geological
formation, type of rocks, dip of strata, seepage flow etc. may be observed so as to decide the stable
and unstable sides of the hill for highway alignment.

The reconnaissance team would then prepare a report on merits and demerits of different alternative
routes. As a result, a few alternate alignments may be chosen for further study based on practical
considerations observed at the site.

Preliminary Survey

Definition of Preliminary Survey in Civil Engineering:

“To collect adequate data to prepare a plan/map of the area to be used for planning and design.”

The preliminary survey is a detailed study of a route tentatively selected on the basis of
reconnaissance survey information and recommendations. Sophisticated Survey Instruments are used
during the preliminary survey.

Objectives:

To survey the various alternative alignments proposed after the reconnaissance.

To collect all the necessary physical information and detail of topography, drainage and soil.
To compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of the good alignment.
To estimate the quantity of earthwork materials and other construction aspects and to work out the
cost of the alternate proposals.
 To finalize the most feasible alignment.

The Methods under Preliminary Survey:

1. Conventional Approach. In this survey, parties carry out surveys using the required field
equipment, taking measurements, collecting topographical and other data and carrying soil surveys.
The procedure for the conventional approach are listed below:
● Traverse. The traverse is run from the starting point to the end point by setting out various
control points. Both primary traverse and secondary traverse may need to be run. As these
traverses are open traverses (used in highways) and adjustment of errors is not possible
later, the angles should be very accurately measured using a precision theodolite.
● Topographical Features. After establishing the center line of the preliminary survey,
topographical features are recorded. All geographical and man-made features are surveyed
and plotted which are along the traverse and for a certain width on either side.
● Levelling Work. Alongside topographical features, the levelling work is carried out along the
center line or the proposed road. The levelling work is used to estimate the volume of the
earthwork.
● Drainage Studies and Hydrological Data. The number, type and approximate size of cross
drainage structures are estimated during the preliminary survey. Also, the vertical alignment
of the highway, particularly the grade line, is decided based on the hydrological and drainage
data, such as High Flood Level (HFL), depth of water table, rainfall intensity, amount of
surface runoff, etc.
● Soil Survey. The soil survey is conducted in working out details of earthwork, slope, and
stability of materials, subsoil and surface drainage requirements and the type of the
pavement requirements.
● Material Survey. The location and availability of construction materials are needed to be
known. Materials such as road aggregates, bitumen, tar, cement, concrete, and any other
required for the construction of the road should be surveyed. Naturally occurring materials
and identification of suitable quarries should also be made.
● Traffic Survey. Surveys regarding the number of lanes, roadway width, and pavement
design need to be done. In the case of a highway project, the detailed information of traffic is
much necessary so as to design the road pavement, fixing the number of traffic lanes,
geometric design of roads and other economical aspects. Various studies like speed studies,
traffic volume studies, delays, journey time are more essential to carry out for the purpose of
road design and also improvement of existing road networks.
● Determination of Final Center Line. After the completion of all the above mentioned steps
and calculating the amount of earthwork, the final center line is determined.
2. Rapid Approach. This survey is done by aerial survey taking the required aerial photographs and
by photogrammetric methods for obtaining the necessary topographic and other map details of soil
and geology. The procedure of the rapid approach are listed below as:
● Aerial Photographs. Taking aerial photographs with required lateral and longitudinal
overlaps.
● Stereoscopes Examination and Control Points Selection. These photographs are then
examined under stereoscopes and control points are selected for the establishment of the
traverse.
 ● Spot Levels and Contour Lines. The spot levels and contour lines may be obtained from
the stereo-pair observations.
● Photo-Interpretation Method. Photo-Interpretation method is used to grab information on
the geological features, soil conditions, drainage requirements, etc.
● Comparative Analysis. Finalize the best alignment from all considerations by comparative
analysis of all alternative routes.
3. Modern techniques by use of Global Positioning System (GPS). One of the purposes of a GPS
is to locate something on Earth. In surveying, a GPS locates the Latitude, Longitude, and Altitude of
the location.

FInal Location and Detailed Survey

The alignment finalized at the design office after the preliminary survey is to be first located on the field by
establishing the center line. The Detailed survey is to be followed for collecting the information necessary
for the preparation of plans and construction details for the highway project.

1. Location Survey. Location Survey is a type of survey which roughly depicts a parcel of land and
particular improvements based on record research and compilation of data supplemented by limited
field measurements.

The centerline of the road finalized in the drawings is to be transferred on the ground during
location survey. This is done by transit theodolite and by staking of the center line. Centre line
stacks are driven at suitable intervals, say 50 m interval in plane and rolling terrains (constant rise
and fall) and 20 m in hilly terrain.

2. Detailed Survey. Carried out to locate all features on a piece of land. This includes both natural and
man-made structures. Natural features include vegetation such as rocks, trees, stumps and so on.

Temporary benchmarks are fixed at intervals of about 250 m and at all drainage and
underpass structures. Levels along the final center line should be taken with great importance as
these data are required for vertical alignment, earth work calculation, and drainage details. Levelling
work is of great importance as the vertical alignment, earthwork calculations and drainage details
are to be worked out from the level notes.
 Cross sectional levels are taken at intervals of 50 to 100 m in Plane Terrain, 50 – 75 m in
Rolling Terrain, 50 m in Built-Up Area, and 20 m in Hill Terrain.

All topographical details are noted down and also plotted using conventional signs.
Adequate hydrological details are also collected and recorded. Detailed soil survey is to be carried
out to enable drawing the soil profile up to the depth of 1.5 – 3 m below the Ground Line and twice
the height of the finished embankment in the case of the high embankment.

The data during detailed survey should be elaborate and complete for preparing detailed
plans, design and estimates of project.