Unit 4

Description

Description is the pattern of narrative development that aims to make vivid a place, object,
character, or group. Description is one of four rhetorical modes (also known as modes of
discourse), along with exposition, argumentation, and narration. Description is the fiction-
writing mode for transmitting a mental image of the particulars of a story. Together with
dialogue, narration, exposition, and summarization, description is one of the most widely
recognized of the fiction-writing modes.

Arguments

An argument is a set of statements made up, at minimum, of the following parts:

 A main conclusion: This statement is a claim that expresses what the arguer is trying to
persuade us to accept, whether or not it actually is true.
 Evidence: Also known as premises or support, the arguer provides these statements in order to
show us that the conclusion is true. Essentially, the evidence answers the question, “Why do you
believe [the conclusion] to be true?”

There is no set order to an argument’s components; the conclusion could be at the beginning, in
the middle, or at the end, and the same is true for any other component.

Note: When we analyze arguments in this way, we don’t analyze their tone or style. Be prepared
for the argument components to appear in a variety of writing styles.

Conclusion + evidence

The simplest arguments consist of one main conclusion and one piece of evidence. Here’s an
example:

 Sarah will probably receive a job offer, because she has ten years of experience.
Which piece is the conclusion, and which piece is the evidence? Click below when you feel
confident in your answer.
Conclusion + evidence + intermediate conclusion

More complex arguments might include something called an intermediate conclusion. Also
known as a subsidiary conclusion (or “sub-conclusion” for short), this is a claim that acts both as
a conclusion and as evidence. In other words, it’s a conclusion based on evidence, but it’s a
conclusion that leads to yet another conclusion. For that reason, the intermediate conclusion
can’t be the main conclusion.

The Purpose of Comparison and Contrast in Writing

Comparison in writing discusses elements that are similar, while contrast in writing discusses
elements that are different. A compare-and-contrast essay, then, analyzes two subjects by
comparing them, contrasting them, or both.

The key to a good compare-and-contrast essay is to choose two or more subjects that connect in
a meaningful way. The purpose of conducting the comparison or contrast is not to state the
obvious but rather to illuminate subtle differences or unexpected similarities. For example, if you
wanted to focus on contrasting two subjects you would not pick apples and oranges; rather, you
might choose to compare and contrast two types of oranges or two types of apples to highlight
subtle differences. For example, Red Delicious apples are sweet, while Granny Smiths are tart
and acidic. Drawing distinctions between elements in a similar category will increase the
audience’s understanding of that category, which is the purpose of the compare-and-contrast
essay.

Similarly, to focus on comparison, choose two subjects that seem at first to be unrelated. For a
comparison essay, you likely would not choose two apples or two oranges because they share so
many of the same properties already. Rather, you might try to compare how apples and oranges
are quite similar. The more divergent the two subjects initially seem, the more interesting a
comparison essay will be.

Writing at Work

Comparing and contrasting is also an evaluative tool. In order to make accurate evaluations
about a given topic, you must first know the critical points of similarity and difference.
Comparing and contrasting is a primary tool for many workplace assessments. You have likely
compared and contrasted yourself to other colleagues. Employee advancements, pay raises,
hiring, and firing are typically conducted using comparison and contrast. Comparison and
contrast could be used to evaluate companies, departments, or individuals.
The Structure of a Comparison and Contrast Essay

The compare-and-contrast essay starts with a thesis that clearly states the two subjects that are to
be compared, contrasted, or both and the reason for doing so. The thesis could lean more toward
comparing, contrasting, or both. Remember, the point of comparing and contrasting is to provide
useful knowledge to the reader. Take the following thesis as an example that leans more toward
contrasting.

Illustration using graphics in writing

Graphics used in technical documentation serve a specific purpose - to present information in the
clearest format possible for the reader. Basic graphic principles apply:

 avoid clutter,
 orient the image properly,
 be aware of scale,
 always verify content, and
 avoid any graphic that is extraneous.

Graphics should never be used to dress up a document; they should only be used to enhance
understanding. When principles of design replicate principles of thought, the act of arranging
information becomes an act of insight (E. Tufte intro).

A reader's attention is drawn to graphics more than to blocks of text. The use of graphics enables
writers to present technical information more clearly and emphatically than words alone.
Therefore, graphics for a technical document must be designed, edited, and prepared with
precision to avoid weakness. Readers often look at graphics quickly. The message in a figure or
table should be clear and readily apparent. The writer should be familiar with the intended
audience of the document so that the right graphics are selected. Each graphic should focus on
clearly conveying one piece of information.

Uncomplicated graphics work best. Avoid what Edward Tufte calls "chart junk" (E. Tufte,
Visual) that distracts the reader from the intended information the graphic is presenting.
The Franklin Covey Style Guide for Business and Technical Communication provides
comprehensive guidelines for each of the graphical components, and this wiki content text draws
heavily upon it for both content and style recommendations (Franklin).

There are several types of graphics, each with its own function. Graphics can represent these
elements in a technical document:

 Numbers:
o Tables
o Graphs
 Bar graphs
  Line graphs
 Pie graphs
o Maps
 Concepts:
o Charts
 Flow Charts
 Organizational charts
 Scheduling Charts
 Objects:
o Photographs
o Illustrations
 Drawings
 Diagrams
 Schematics
 Words - Words emphasized by boxing them, by changing the color or the font, or
enlarging them to call attention in a text are all forms of graphics, albeit not very
sophisticated (McMurrey).

Visual techniques for depicting quantity include direct labels - for example, the numerically
labeled grids of statistical graphics; encodings - for example, color scales; and self-representing
scales - for example, objects of known size appearing in an image (E. Tufte 13).

Illustrations are classified as either tables or figures: if the illustration is not a table (information
is presented in columns and rows), then it is a figure. Tables and illustrations are numbered
independently; within each category, they are numbered sequentially.

Tables
Tables are the best graphic to use when readers need to focus on specifics. "A table is an
effective display for two-dimensional data, usually when one dimension is a collection or series
of items and the second dimension consists of attributes or characteristics that all or most of the
items have in common, such as description, type, size, and color" (Gurak 357). Tables can
communicate many details in a simple way; details that would be hard to comprehend if done
through words alone. An advantage of tables is that they can be quickly scanned for information
and that "commonalities and differences" across entries are readily apparent (Gurak 358).

Guidelines for Creating Tables

 Explain what the table contains and how it will help the reader.
 Give the table either a title or caption, as appropriate.
 Write informative, understandable, and visually distinct heading labels.
 Make rows distinct through headings or display of categories.
 Avoid wordiness, limit text in cells to a few words.
  Use color coding and symbols to facilitate quick scanning and data comparison.
 Ensure the table will be readable in the display format.

Figure 1. Table of data for a steel wall product.

Graphs
Graphs plot a set of points on a set of axes, usually along the horizontal (x) and vertical (y) axes,
to show abstract information in an easy to understand way. They visually represent and compare
numerical data, and as such are useful for showing trends, cycles, cumulative changes,
relationships between variables, and distributions. Though not as effective as a table in
presenting precise data, readers can "see in one image a trend or pattern within a large data set"
(Gurak 319). Graphs are better than tables to show the meaning of data.

"Because graphs represent complex data in visual form, they can be powerful and
persuasive"(Gurak 322). Therefore, one must be careful when creating graphs that information is
not distorted or misrepresented, that resource information is accurate, and that the graph is clear
and easy to read (Gurak).

Guidelines for Creating Graphs

 Ensure the axes are clearly labeled, and that units of scale or measurement are identified
(Gurak 323).
 Ensure that axes that do not begin at zero are clearly labeled.
 Ensure that the graph does not distort or modify the trend.
 Indicate the source of data used to construct the graph.
 Explain how the graph supports points discussed in the text.
 Design for simplicity, avoid overuse of colors and typefaces.
 Use software programs such as Microsoft Excel to create graphs.

Graphs should be numbered sequentially, include a title, and an informative caption which
identifies the specific purpose of the graph. Warrant the source of the data contained in the graph
with a footnote reference. Labels, numbers and letters should each be kept parallel with the
horizontal axis.

Line Graphs
Line or coordinate graphs are plotted using grid lines, with a horizontal axis and a vertical axis.
Labels and scales should indicate the quantity, magnitude and range of each axis. The key data
lines should be made heavier than grid lines for less important data. Multiple lines can appear in
the same chart to show different variables, and should appear in different colors or patterns to
differentiate them (Franklin 108).

Line graphs are especially helpful to show several variables relating to one other variable. For
example, time is the variable tracked in Figure 15.15, and several types of mortgage rates plotted
over time. This creates a clear and simple visual comparison for the reader.
Figure 2. Mortgage interest rates from August 1992 through February 2009.

Bar Graphs
Bar graphs, as the name implies, use colored bars to depict a trend between two or more
variables over time. "Most readers are familiar with bar graphs and can quickly grasp
quantitative relationships by comparing the heights or lengths of the bars" (Gurak 319).

Bar graphs are not useful if the quantities shown do not differ significantly. Changing the axis
scales to dramatize slight differences skews the reader's perception of the data.

Bar graphs can be horizontal or vertical - vertical bar graphs are considered better for showing
trends and horizontal bar graphs are considered better for showing magnitude changes (Franklin
111).

Bars should be wider than the gaps between them, different patterns should be used to indicate
differences and they should be labeled clearly.
Figure 3. Ozone concentration in locations A through E.

Pie Graphs
Pie graphs are circles divided into sectors, or slices, to show the relationship of parts to a whole.
"Pie charts are often accompanied by numerical data presented as a spreadsheet or table to allow
readers to explore the displayed information in more detail" (Gurak 271).

The sectors must add up to 100 percent. Pie graphs are useful for general comparisons of relative
size, but they are not useful if accuracy is important. They are also not useful for showing a large
number of items. Different colors and/or fill patterns should be used for adjacent pie sectors.
Small percentage items should be grouped under a general label such as "Other" (Franklin 113).

Figure 4. Pie Chart of populations of English native speakers.

Maps
Maps, both 2D and 3D, represent many purposes from simple road maps to visualizing complex
numerical data. "The design and content of a map depends on the purpose and type of map being
constructed, the conventions for that type of map, and the audience using it" (Gurak 324).

To map sequential data, it is best to use gradations of one or two colors to show gradations in the
data. But, to show differences "in kind rather than in amount", many colors may be used; choose
colors that are easily distinguished from one another (Gurak 325- 326).

Charts
Charts are some of the most valuable and frequently used types of graphics. Charts have several
conflicting definitions, depending on the resource consulted. For the purposes of our Style
Guide, we will follow the style supported by the Franklin Covey Style Guide for Business and
Technical Communication. Charts are graphs that do not rely on numerical interpretations,
including organizational charts, flow charts, and schedule charts. The purpose of the chart, the
audience, the medium, and the data and ideas being conveyed in the document should determine
the best type of chart to use, rather than adhering to a hard rule (Franklin 42).

A chart is only as good as the effect it creates. A chart should only be included if it
communicates information quickly and simply. Charts should be integrated with the text and
convey information more dramatically than is possible without their use. A chart can both
replace text and provide a visual road map that readers can use as they read through dense and
complex material. Charts also provide a visual, which can aid recall. Flow charts, organization
charts or scheduling charts should be used to help readers visualize the major points in a
document.

Guidelines for Creating Charts

 Ensure the chart is consistent with how the audience will view the data.
 Design the chart so that it shows one primary idea or specific relationship.
 Keep the chart simple and clear; do not include too much information.
 Use clear, concise labels and titles; do not include too much text.
 Ensure that the information is not distorted or misleading.
 Use software programs such as Microsoft Excel to create charts.
 Ensure the chart is easily read from one-page orientation.

Sequentially number and label all charts the same as other graphics contained within a document.
Do not have a separate numbering scheme for charts. Place footnotes and warranting evidence
below a chart.
Flowchart
A flowchart is a common type of chart, representing an algorithm or process, and showing the
steps as boxes of various kinds, and their order by connecting these with arrows. Flowcharts are
used in analyzing, designing, documenting or managing a process or program in various fields.

There are many different types of flowcharts for different users (such as analysts, designers,
engineers, managers, or programmers) representing different types objects.

Four General Types of Flowcharts (Sterneckert)

 Document
o shows document flow through system
 Data
o shows data flows in a system
 System
o shows controls at a physical or resource level
 Program
o shows the controls in a program within a system (Business)

Features of a Flow Chart (Gurak 273)

 Each step in the process is represented by a shape.

 Decision steps are labeled in the form of a question. Different paths may be taken
depending upon the answer to the question.
Figure 5. Flowchart representing steps for troubleshooting a broken lamp.

Organizational Chart
Organizational charts help readers visualize the structure and internal relationships of units or
individuals within an organization.

Organizational Charts Typically Show:

 divisions and subdivisions of the organization,

 hierarchy and relationship of the groups to one another,
 lines of responsibility and authority, where solid lines indicate direct lines of control, and
 lines of communication and coordination through the use of dashed lines.
Figure 6. Organizational chart of the US government.

Scheduling Chart
A common project task is to schedule a series of events; the complexity of this task can vary
considerably depending on how many steps are involved in the process.
Some common challenges are:

 Resource Scheduling or the scheduling of people to work on and resources required by

tasks.
 Dealing with uncertainties in the estimates of the duration of each task.
 Arranging tasks to meet various deadlines.
 Juggling multiple projects simultaneously to meet a variety of requirements (Franklin
47).

A scheduling chart visually illustrates the steps and their dependencies in a process. There are
several types of commonly used scheduling systems.
Examples of Scheduling Systems

 Gantt,
 MindMapper,
 Fixed Point Chart (FPC), and
 PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique) (Evaluation).

Figure 7. PERT Network Chart for a seven-month project with five milestones (10 through 50)
and six activities (A through F).

Research Paper

A research paper is a piece of academic writing based on its author’s original research on a
particular topic and analysis together with interpretation of research findings. A research paper is
a common assignment. It comes to a situation when students, scholars, and scientists need to
answer specific questions by using sources.

Format of a Research Paper

Introduction

Introduction provides the main information on problem statements, the indication of

methodology, important findings, and principal conclusion. Basically, this section of a research
paper covers rationales behind the work or background research, explanation of the importance,
defending its relevance, a brief description of experimental designs, defined research questions,
hypotheses, or key aspects.

The Introduction is one of the most important elements of any great research paper, and
interestingly enough, often written LAST. This is because the purpose of the introduction is to
grab the attention of the reader, this is done by presenting the reader with the topic, and using the
thesis statement as an opportunity to ‘hook’ the attention of the reader.
Abstract

An abstract, or brief summary of your findings. An abstract does not need to be provided in
every paper, but an abstract should be used in papers that include a hypothesis. A good abstract
is concise—about one hundred fifty to two hundred fifty words—and is written in an objective,
impersonal style. Your writing voice will not be as apparent here as in the body of your paper.
When writing the abstract, take a just-the-facts approach, and summarize your research question
and your findings in a few sentences. Abstract means the first section of a research paper that
provides the study’s purpose, research questions or suggestions, main findings with conclusions.
Moreover, this paragraph of about 150 words should be written when the whole work is finished
already. Hence, abstract sections should describe key aspects of studies, including discussions
about the relevance of findings

Literature Review

Literature Review is needed for the analysis of past studies or scholarly articles to be familiar
with research questions or topics. Hence, this section summarizes and synthesizes arguments and
ideas from scholarly sources without adding new contributions. In turn, this part is organized
around arguments or ideas, not sources.

Methodology or Materials and Methods

Methodology or Materials and Methods covers explanations of research designs. Basically,

techniques for gathering information and other aspects related to experiments must be described
in a research paper. For instance, students and scholars document all specialized materials and
general procedures. In this case, individuals may use some or all of the methods in further studies
or judge the scientific merit of the work. Moreover, scientists should explain how they are going
to conduct their experiments.

Results

Results mean the gained information or data after the research or experiment. Basically, scholars
should present and illustrate their findings. Moreover, this section may include tables or figures.

Discussion

Discussion is a section of a research paper where scientists review the information in the
introduction part, evaluate gained results, or compare it with past studies. In particular, students
and scholars interpret gained data or findings in appropriate depth. For example, if results differ
from expectations at the beginning, scientists should explain why that may have happened.
However, if results agree with rationales, scientists should describe theories that the evidence is
supported.

Recommendations
 Recommendations take its roots from a discussion section where scholars propose potential
solutions or new ideas based on obtained results in a research paper. In this case, if scientists
have any recommendations on how to improve this research so that other scholars can use
evidence in further studies, they must write what they think in this section.

Limitations

Limitations mean a consideration of research weaknesses and results to get new directions. For
instance, if researchers found any limitations of studies that could affect experiments, scholars
must not use such knowledge because of the same mistakes. Moreover, scientists should avoid
contradicting results, and, even more, they must write it in this section.

Conclusion

Conclusion includes final claims of a research paper based on findings. Basically, this section
covers final thoughts and the summary of the whole work. Moreover, this section may be used
instead of limitations and recommendations that would be too small by themselves. In this case,
scientists do not need to use headings for recommendations and limitations.

Acknowledgments or Appendix

Acknowledgments or Appendix may take different forms from paragraphs to charts. In this
section, scholars include additional information on a research paper.

References

References mean a section where students, scholars, or scientists provide all used sources by
following the format and academic rules.

The brief citations included in the body of your paper correspond to the more detailed citations
provided at the end of the paper in the references section. In-text citations provide basic
information—the author’s name, the publication date, and the page number if necessary—while
the references section provides more extensive bibliographical information. Again, this
information allows your reader to follow up on the sources you cited and do additional reading
about the topic if desired.

The specific format of entries in the list of references varies slightly for different source types,
but the entries generally include the following information:

 The name(s) of the author(s) or institution that wrote the source

 The year of publication and, where applicable, the exact date of publication
 The full title of the source
 For books, the city of publication
 For articles or essays, the name of the periodical or book in which the article or essay appears
 For magazine and journal articles, the volume number, issue number, and pages where the article
appears
 For sources on the web, the URL where the source is located

The references page is double spaced and lists entries in alphabetical order by the author’s last
name. If an entry continues for more than one line, the second line and each subsequent line are
indented five spaces.

How to Conduct an Effective Literature Review

The process of conducting a literature review can be overwhelming. However, if you start with a
clear research question, you can stay focused.

1. Literature search: Search for articles related to your research question. Keep notes of the search
terms and keywords you use. A list of databases to search and notes of the ones you have
searched will prevent duplicate searches.
2. Critically analyze the literature: Check each piece of literature for the following to help you
decide whether it is relevant to your research:

- What is their research question?

- Are there potential conflicts of interest such as funders who may want a particular result?

- Are their methods sufficient to test the objectives?

- Can you identify any flaws in the research?

 - Do their results make sense, or could there be other reasons for their conclusion?

- Are the authors respected in the field?

- Has the research been cited?

How to Write a Good Research Paper Abstract

The importance of research paper abstracts cannot be emphasized enough.

 They are used by online databases to index large research works. Therefore, critical keywords
must be used.
 Editors and reviewers read an abstract to decide whether an article is worth considering for
publication.
 Readers use an abstract to decide whether the research is relevant to them.

A good research paper abstract is a concise and appealing synopsis of your research. There are
two ways to write an abstract: structured and unstructured research abstracts. The author
guidelines of the journal you are submitting your research to will tell you the format they require.

 The structured abstracthas distinct sections with headings. This style enables a reader to easily
find the relevant information under clear headings (objective, methods, results, and conclusion).
Think of each section as a question and provide a concise but detailed answer under each
heading.
 The unstructured abstract is a narrative paragraph of your research.

Effectively Citing and Referencing Your Sources

You need to acknowledge the original work that you talk about in your write-up. There are two
reasons for this. First, cite someone’s idea to avoid plagiarism. Plagiarism is when you use words
 or ideas of others without acknowledging them and this is a serious offence. Second, readers will
be able to source the literature you cited easily.

This is done by citing works in your text and providing the full reference for this citation in a
reference list at the end of your document.

Tips for effective refencing/citations:

1. Keep a detailed list of your references including author(s), publication, year of publication, title,
and page numbers.
2. Insert a citation (either a number or author name) in-text as you write.
3. List the full reference in a reference list according to the style required by the publication.
4. Pay attention to details as mistakes will misdirect readers.

Reference

Reference can be understood as the act of giving credit to or mentioning the name of, someone or
something. In research methodology, it denotes the items which you have reviewed and referred
to, in the text, in your research work. It is nothing but a way to acknowledge or indirectly
showing gratitude, towards the sources from where the information is gathered.

While using references, one thing is to be noted that you go for reliable sources only, because it
increases credence and also supports your arguments. It may include, books, research papers, or
articles from magazines, journals, newspapers, etc., interview transcripts, internet sources such
as websites, blogs, videos watched, and so forth.

These are used to inform the reader about the sources of direct quotations, tables, statistics,
photos etc. that are included in the research work.

There is also a particular formatting style you must follow. It depends on the field of your studies
or requirements of your University supervisor. There are several formatting styles typically used.
The most commonly used are APA style and MLA style. However, there are such style guides
as, Harvard, Chicago Manual of Style, American Medical Association (AMA) Style, APSA
(American Political Science Association), ASA (American Sociological Association), IEEE
(Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) and more. Check informative style
guides before completing formatting.
APA (American Psychological Association) style is mostly used to cite sources within social
sciences field. The detailed information is in Publication Manual of American Psychological
Association, (6th ed., 2nd printing).

MLA (Modern Language Association) style is most commonly used for liberal arts and
humanities. The most recent printed guide on it is MLA Handbook (8th ed.). Instead of providing
individual recommendations for each publishing format (printed, online, e-books, etc.), this
edition recommends a single universal set of guidelines, which writers can apply to any kind of
source. Also, remember to use parenthetical citations for MLA research paper format correctly.

In-Text Citations

Throughout the body of your paper, include a citation whenever you quote or paraphrase
material from your research sources. the purpose of citations is twofold: to give credit to others
for their ideas and to allow your reader to follow up and learn more about the topic if desired.
Your in-text citations provide basic information about your source; each source you cite will
have a longer entry in the references section that provides more detailed information.

In-text citations must provide the name of the author or authors and the year the source was
published. (When a given source does not list an individual author, you may provide the source
title or the name of the organization that published the material instead.) When directly quoting a
source, it is also required that you include the page number where the quote appears in your
citation.

This information may be included within the sentence or in a parenthetical reference at the end of
the sentence, as in these examples.
Epstein (2010) points out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we
think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Here, the writer names the source author when introducing the quote and provides the
publication date in parentheses after the author’s name. The page number appears in
parentheses after the closing quotation marks and before the period that ends the sentence.
Addiction researchers caution that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way
that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (Epstein, 2010, p. 137).

Here, the writer provides a parenthetical citation at the end of the sentence that includes the
author’s name, the year of publication, and the page number separated by commas. Again, the
parenthetical citation is placed after the closing quotation marks and before the period at the end
of the sentence.
As noted in the book Junk Food, Junk Science (Epstein, 2010, p. 137), “junk food cannot be
considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive.”

Here, the writer chose to mention the source title in the sentence (an optional piece of
information to include) and followed the title with a parenthetical citation. Note that the
parenthetical citation is placed before the comma that signals the end of the introductory phrase.
David Epstein’s book Junk Food, Junk Science (2010) pointed out that “junk food cannot be
considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Another variation is to introduce the author and the source title in your sentence and include the
publication date and page number in parentheses within the sentence or at the end of the
sentence. As long as you have included the essential information, you can choose the option that
works best for that particular sentence and source.

Citing a book with a single author is usually a straightforward task. Of course, your research may
require that you cite many other types of sources, such as books or articles with more than one
author or sources with no individual author listed. You may also need to cite sources available in
both print and online and nonprint sources, such as websites and personal interviews.

Bibliography

A bibliography is a list of all of the sources you have used (whether referenced or not) in the
process of researching your work. In general, a bibliography should include:

 the authors' names

 the titles of the works
 the names and locations of the companies that published your copies of the sources
 the dates your copies were published
 the page numbers of your sources (if they are part of multi-source volumes)

Also known as a list of works cited, a bibliography may appear at the end of a book, report,
online presentation, or research paper. Students are taught that a bibliography, along with
correctly formatted in-text citations, is crucial to properly citing one's research and to avoiding
accusations of plagiarism. In formal research, all sources used, whether quoted directly or
synopsized, should be included in the bibliography.

An annotated bibliography includes a brief descriptive and evaluative paragraph (the annotation)
for each item in the list. These annotations often give more context about why a certain source
may be useful or related to the topic at hand.

 Etymology: From the Greek, "writing about books" (biblio, "book", graph, "to write")
 Pronunciation: bib-lee-OG-rah-fee
BASIS FOR
REFERENCE BIBLIOGRAPHY
COMPARISON

Meaning Reference implies the list of Bibliography is about listing out all the
sources, that has been referred materials which has been consulted
in the research work. during the research work.

Based on Primary Sources Both Primary and Secondary Sources

Arrangement Alphabetically and numerically Numerically

Includes Only in-text citations, that have Both in-text citations and other sources,
been used in the assignment or that are used to generate the idea.
project.

Supporting A reference can be used to A bibliography cannot be used to

argument support an argument. support an argument.

Used for Thesis and Dissertation Journal Papers and Research work

Definition of Bibliography

At the end of the research report, bibliography is added, which contains a list of books,
magazines, journals, websites or other publications which are in some way relevant to the topic
under study, that has been consulted by the researcher during the research. In finer terms, it
comprises of all the references cited in the form of footnotes and other important works that the
author has studied.

The bibliography is helpful to the reader in gaining information regarding the literature available
on the topic and what influenced the author. For better presentation and convenient reading, the
bibliography can be grouped into two parts, wherein the first part lists out the names of books
and pamphlets consulted, and the other contains the names of magazines and newspapers
considered.

Types of Bibliography

 Bibliography of works cited: It contains the name of those books whose content has
been cited in the text of the research report.
 Selected Bibliography: As it is evident from the name itself, selected bibliography
covers only those works which the author assumes that are of major interest to the reader.
  Annotated Bibliography: In this type of bibliography, a small description of the items
covered is given by the author to ensure readability and also improve the usefulness of
the book.

Key Differences between Reference and Bibliography

The difference between reference and bibliography can be drawn clearly on the following
grounds:

1. Reference implies referring to someone or something, that means it provides the list of
sources, whose text is used in the assignment or research work. Conversely, bibliography
represents the list of all the sources, from which the research has gained some
information about the topic, irrespective of the work cited or not.
2. References are based on primary sources, whereas bibliography is created on the basis of
primary and secondary sources.
3. References used in the assignment can be arranged alphabetically or numerically. On the
contrary, list of sources used in the bibliography is arranged numerically.
4. The bibliography is used to list out everything you go through to obtain the information
relating to the assignment, no matter if you specifically cite it in your assignment or not.
Now coming to references, it only takes into account those sources which have been cited
in the assignment.
5. The main objective of adding a reference at the end of the document is to improve
credence or support an idea or argument. As against, the bibliography is not used for
supporting an argument.
6. While reference is used in thesis and dissertation. On the other hand, bibliography is used
in case of journal paper and research work.