13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31)

Module 13
Aircraft Aerodynamics, Structures

and Systems
13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31)
For Training Purposes Only

Intentionally Blank
Module 13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 8-2

ST Aerospace Ltd For Training Purposes Only
© Copyright 2012
Copyright Notice
© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written
permission of Higher College of Technology.
Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft

Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels
indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1
or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:
LEVEL 1
• A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
• The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words
and examples.
• The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
• A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
• An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
• The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
• The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws
describing the subject.
• The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing
the subject.
• The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
• A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
• A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
• The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical
fundamentals and specific examples.
• The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
• The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and
schematics describing the subject.
• The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
• The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.

© Copyright 2012
Intentionally Blank

© Copyright 2012
Table of Contents
Module 13.8 Instruments Systems (ATA 31) ____________________________________ 11

Position Measuring Instruments ___________________________________________ 11
Variable Resistance Systems ______________________________________________ 11
Synchros _____________________________________________________________ 13
Direct Torquer Systems __________________________________________________ 15
Servo Systems _________________________________________________________ 16
Resolvers _____________________________________________________________ 17
Linear Variable Differential Transducers (LVDTs) ______________________________ 19
E-and-I Bar ____________________________________________________________ 21
Rotary Variable Differential Transducers (RVDTs) ______________________________ 23
Servo Loops ____________________________________________________________ 25
Two Phase Servo Motor __________________________________________________ 26
Rate Feedback _________________________________________________________ 27
Pressure Measuring Instruments ___________________________________________ 29
Absolute Pressure Instruments ____________________________________________ 29
Gauge Pressure Instruments ______________________________________________ 29
Differential Pressure Instruments ___________________________________________ 31
Strain Gauges _________________________________________________________ 33
Piezo-Resistive Sensors__________________________________________________ 34
Variable Frequency Signals _______________________________________________ 35
Temperature Measuring Instruments ________________________________________ 37
Non-Electrical Temperature Measurements ___________________________________ 37
Temperature Dependant Resistors__________________________________________ 38
Quantity Measuring Systems ______________________________________________ 44
DC Electrical Indicators __________________________________________________ 44
Digital Fuel Quantity Indicating System ______________________________________ 47
Ultrasonic Fuel Contents Measurement ______________________________________ 51
Stall Warning and Angle-of-Attack Systems __________________________________ 59
Stall Warning Systems ___________________________________________________ 59
Angle of Attack Indicators _________________________________________________ 61
Pitot-Static Systems _____________________________________________________ 63
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) _____________________________________ 63
Light Aircraft System ____________________________________________________ 65
Large Aircraft System ____________________________________________________ 65
Air Data Sensors _______________________________________________________ 67
TAT and SAT Temperatures _______________________________________________ 71
Total Air Temperature (TAT) ______________________________________________ 71
Static Air Temperature (SAT) ______________________________________________ 71
Static Air Temperature (SAT) Probe _________________________________________ 73
Total Air Temperature (TAT) Probe _________________________________________ 73
Altimeters ______________________________________________________________ 77

© Copyright 2012
Principle of Operation ____________________________________________________ 77
Drum-Type Altimeters____________________________________________________ 79
The Sensitive Altimeter___________________________________________________ 81
Types of Altitude Measurement ____________________________________________ 82
Altimeter Indicators ______________________________________________________ 85
Altimeter Errors ________________________________________________________ 86
Blockages and Leakages _________________________________________________ 88
Servo Altimeters ________________________________________________________ 88
Encoding Altimeters _____________________________________________________ 91
Altimeter Tests _________________________________________________________ 91
Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) ______________________________________________ 93
VSI Errors _____________________________________________________________ 95
VSI Faults _____________________________________________________________ 95
Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator (IVSI) _________________________________ 96
Airspeed Indicator (ASI) __________________________________________________ 97
Square Law Compensation ______________________________________________ 100
Airspeeds ____________________________________________________________ 101
True Airspeed (TAS) Indicators ___________________________________________ 103
Air Speed Indicator Errors _______________________________________________ 105
Air Speed Indicator Faults _______________________________________________ 107
Mach Indicator _________________________________________________________ 109
Altitude versus IAS/Mach ________________________________________________ 110
Overspeed Warning ____________________________________________________ 111
Mach Meter __________________________________________________________ 113
Combination Airspeed Indicator ___________________________________________ 113
Mach meter Construction and Operation ____________________________________ 116
Mach Meter Errors _____________________________________________________ 117
Mach Meter Blockages and Leakages ______________________________________ 117
Mach Meter Accuracy ___________________________________________________ 117
Air Data Computer (ADC) ________________________________________________ 118
General______________________________________________________________ 118
Air Data Modules ______________________________________________________ 119
Air Data Systems ______________________________________________________ 120
Gyroscopic Instruments _________________________________________________ 127
Rigidity ______________________________________________________________ 127
Precession ___________________________________________________________ 128
Types of Gyro _________________________________________________________ 130
Vertical Gyro __________________________________________________________ 132
Attitude Indicator_______________________________________________________ 133
Erection of the Vertical Gyros _____________________________________________ 137
Remote Artificial Horizon Indicator _________________________________________ 143
Directional Gyro _______________________________________________________ 145
Slaving of Directional Gyro _______________________________________________ 148
Gyro Wander _________________________________________________________ 149

© Copyright 2012
Rate Gyro ____________________________________________________________ 152
Turn and Slip Indication _________________________________________________ 153
Turn Coordinator ______________________________________________________ 156
Instrument Pneumatic Systems ___________________________________________ 158
General______________________________________________________________ 158
Venturi Tube Systems __________________________________________________ 158
Wet-Type Vacuum Pump Systems _________________________________________ 159
Dry-Air Pump Systems __________________________________________________ 160
Pumps ______________________________________________________________ 160
Pressure Driven Instrument Systems _______________________________________ 162
Electric Motor Systems __________________________________________________ 164
General______________________________________________________________ 164
The Disadvantages and Advantages of Air driven Gyro’s _______________________ 164
The Disadvantages and Advantages of Electrically Driven Gyros _________________ 165
Magnetic Compasses ___________________________________________________ 167
Earth’s Magnetic Field __________________________________________________ 167
Aeroplane Magnetism___________________________________________________ 170
Deviation and its Compensation ___________________________________________ 176
Regulation (EASA) Limits ________________________________________________ 180
Compass Swinging _____________________________________________________ 181
Deviation Compensation Devices __________________________________________ 183
Summary of Deviation and Variation _______________________________________ 186
Direct Reading (Standby) Magnetic Compass ________________________________ 187
"E" Type Compass _____________________________________________________ 190
Direct Reading Compass Errors ___________________________________________ 193
Turning Errors ________________________________________________________ 197
Other Errors __________________________________________________________ 199
Flux Valve ____________________________________________________________ 200
Slaved Gyro Compass __________________________________________________ 203
Compass Systems _____________________________________________________ 205
Remote Compensator __________________________________________________ 212
Flight Data Recording (FDR) Systems ______________________________________ 215
Requirements _________________________________________________________ 215
System Monitoring _____________________________________________________ 216
Aircraft Integrated Data System (AIDS) _____________________________________ 217
Parameters ___________________________________________________________ 219
Three Axis Accelerometer _______________________________________________ 221
Underwater Locator Beacon ______________________________________________ 222
Typical Flight Data Recording System ______________________________________ 227
Glass Cockpit __________________________________________________________ 229
In Commercial Aviation__________________________________________________ 229
In General Aviation _____________________________________________________ 230
Electronic Flight Instrument Systems (EFIS) ________________________________ 231
Components __________________________________________________________ 231
Display Presentations ___________________________________________________ 235
Failure Annunciation ____________________________________________________ 244

© Copyright 2012
Data Source Selection __________________________________________________ 244
Display of Air Data _____________________________________________________ 245
PFD and ND ___________________________________________________________ 246
General______________________________________________________________ 246
Primary Flight Display (PFD) _____________________________________________ 248
Navigation Display (ND) _________________________________________________ 252
EICAS and ECAM _______________________________________________________ 258
Introduction___________________________________________________________ 258
Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System (EICAS) __________________________ 259
ECAM _______________________________________________________________ 269
Vibration Measurement and Indication _____________________________________ 279
Vibration Transducer ___________________________________________________ 279
Airborne Vibration Monitoring (AVM) System _________________________________ 280
Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS) _________________________________ 281
Warnings ____________________________________________________________ 281
Windshear Alerting _____________________________________________________ 283
EGPWS Terrain Alerting and Display _______________________________________ 284
Terrain Clearance Floor (TCF) ____________________________________________ 286
Terrain Database ______________________________________________________ 287
Obstacle Database _____________________________________________________ 287
System Block Diagram __________________________________________________ 287
Central Warning Systems (CWS) __________________________________________ 289
Glossary of Terms ______________________________________________________ 290

© Copyright 2012
Module 13.8 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EC) No.2042/2003
Annex III (Part-66) Appendix I, as amended by Regulation (EC) No.1149/2011, and the
associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:
Licence
Part-66
Objective Category
Reference
B2
Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 13.8 2
Classification;
Atmosphere;
Terminology;
Pitot static systems;
Altimeters;
Vertical speed indicators;
Airspeed indicators;
Machmeters;
Altitude reporting/alerting systems;
Air data computers;
Instrument pneumatic systems;
Direct reading pressure and temperature gauges;
Temperature indicating systems;
Pressure measuring devices and systems;
Fuel quantity indicating systems;
Gyroscopic principles;
Artificial horizons;
Slip indicators;
Directional gyros;
Ground Proximity Warning Systems;
Compass systems;
Flight Data Recording systems;
Electronic Flight Instrument Systems;
Instrument warning systems including master warning
systems and centralised warning panels;
Stall warning systems and angle of attack indicating
systems;
Vibration measurement and indication.

© Copyright 2012
Intentionally Blank

© Copyright 2012
Module 13.8 Instruments Systems (ATA 31)
Position Measuring Instruments
Variable Resistance Systems

A variable resistance signal is made by a device of which a certain parameter controls the
resistance. The resistance varies between a high and a low value. These limits depend on
the type and range of the resistor.
Parameters which control the resistance are, for example, temperature, displacement or
pressure.
Figure 8.1: Linear and non linear
Figure 8.2: Resistance Temperature Sensor in a Circuit

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.3: Potentiometers
Figure 8.4: Resistor, Rheostat and Potentiometer
Figure 8.5: Rheostat and Potentiometer

© Copyright 2012
Synchros
A typical synchro has a rotor and three stator coils. The coils in the stator are at 120
degrees with respect to each other. This unit acts like 3 control transformers contained in
one unit.
Figure 8.6: Synchro Arrangement
Synchros use 26 V AC or 115 V AC for excitation of the rotor. The excitation makes a
magnetic field in the rotor coil. This magnetic field induces a voltage in the stator coils. The
voltages in the stator coils are in-phase or 180 degrees out-of-phase with respect to each
other. The voltage in the stator coils depend on the angle between the rotor coil and each
stator coil. When we turn the rotor, the magnetic field in the stator also turns and the
voltages in the stator coils change.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.7: Synchro diagram symbols and operation

© Copyright 2012
Direct Torquer Systems
The output signal of a synchro is an AC signal which contains the angular information. The
synchro components which make these signals are synchro transmitters.
These transmitters are of the old multi-coil type or of the latest solid-state type. The multi-
coil type makes a mechanical input a synchro signal, the second from an electrical input.
In a synchro system, we connect the three output signals of a synchro transmitter to the
three inputs of a synchro receiver. The field that is made by the rotor of the synchro
transmitter is now repeated in the stator of the synchro receiver.
Before the rotor of the receiver takes the position of the field in the stator we have to make
a field in the rotor of the receiver. This field must be 180° out of phase with the field made
by the synchro transmitter. The rotor of the synchro receiver now goes to the same position
as the rotor of the synchro transmitter. Any time we change the position of the rotor of the
synchro transmitter the rotor of the receiver follows this exactly.
Figure 8.8: A complete Torque Synchro system

© Copyright 2012
Servo Systems
The rotor of a synchro receiver gives a limited torque for other systems. When this torque is
not high enough we have to use a servo system.
In a synchro-servo system the rotor of the synchro receiver gives a signal to a servo
amplifier. In this system the rotor of the receiver is not connected to a supply source but it
makes a signal from the stator-field in the receiver synchro. The output signal of the servo
amplifier drives a motor. The motor drives, via a reduction gear, the rotor of the synchro
receiver and a load.
When the output signal of the rotor of the synchro receiver is not zero, the servo amplifier
drives the motor. The motor adjusts the position of the rotor of the synchro receiver and the
load until the output signal of this rotor is zero. This output signal is zero when the angle
between the rotor and the stator field is 90 degrees.
Figure 8.9: Servo System
Figure 8.10: Synchro receiver and synchro transmitter

© Copyright 2012
Resolvers
The resolver has two stator coils and a rotor coil. The two stator coils are at 90 degrees with
respect to each other. A resolver produces a sine and cosine signal in the stators as the
rotor is turned.
Figure 8.11: Resolver
Figure 8.12: Sine and Cosine Signal depending of existing Angle

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.13: Resolver as an angular transmitter
Figure 8.14: Resolvers

© Copyright 2012
Linear Variable Differential Transducers (LVDTs)
A transformer induces an output voltage in the secondary coil. According to the direction of
the windings, the phase angle is in phase (zero degrees.) or opposite phase (180o). The
phase angle can be determined by observing the dots drawn on the diagram.
Linear Variable Differential Transducers (LVDTs), also known as Linear Variable Differential
Transformers (LVDTs) change linear position information into electrical signals.
An LVDT has
• one primary coil,
• a linear moveable iron core and
• two in serial connected secondary coils
The mechanical input changes the position of the iron core. The position of the core
changes the magnetic coupling between the primary and the secondary coils. When the
input moves the core in one direction, one of the secondary coils receives more magnetic
flux. This induces a higher voltage in the coil.
The other secondary coil receives less magnetic flux. This induces a lower voltage. The
difference between voltages induced in the secondary stator coils is proportional to the
mechanical position.
Refer to Figure 8.16.
• When the position of the iron core is centred, the magnetic field induced by
primary coil is equally divided between the secondary coils. Therefore the output
voltage is zero.
• When the iron core has moved upward, there is more coupling to the upper coil
and less coupling to the lower coil. The output voltage increases and is in phase
with the excitation.
• When the iron core has turned downward, there is more coupling to the lower coil
and less coupling to the upper coil. The output voltage increases and is in
opposite phase with the excitation.
Figure 8.15: Various LVDTs used in control surface position indication

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.16: LVDT principle of operation

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.17: Use of an LVDT as the feedback transducer for an aileron autopilot
E-and-I Bar
The E-and-I bar (also known as E-and-I transformer, or transducer) is a type of magnetic
unit that is used as an error detector in systems in which the load is not required to move
through large angles.
In the basic E-and-I bar shown in Figure 8.18, an AC voltage is applied to the primary coil
(2) located on the centre leg of the laminated, E - shaped core. Two secondary coils (1 and
3) are wound series-opposing on the outer poles of the core. The magnetic coupling
between the primary (coil 2) and the two secondaries varies with the position of the
armature. The armature can be physically moved left or right (or rotated clockwise or
counter-clockwise) in the magnetic circuit by mechanical linkage to the load. This changes
the reluctance between either pole and the armature.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.18: Basic E-and-I bar
Figure 8.19: Photograph of an E-and-I bar (marked), operated by a position gyro.
When the armature is located in the centre of the E - shaped core, as shown in Figure 8.18,
equal and opposite voltages are induced in the secondary coils. The difference between
them is zero. Thus, the voltage at the output terminals is also zero.
But, if the armature is moved, say to the right, the voltage induced in coil 1 increases, while
the voltage induced in coil 3 decreases. The two voltages are then unequal, so that the
difference is no longer zero. A net voltage results at the output terminals. The amplitude of
this voltage is directly proportional to the distance the armature has been moved from its
centre position. The phase of this output voltage, relative to the AC on the primary, controls
the direction the load moves in correcting the error.

© Copyright 2012
Rotary Variable Differential Transducers (RVDTs)
Transformers (RVDTs), change angular position information into electrical signals.
An RVDT has;
• a primary stator coil

• an iron rotor core, and
• two secondary stator coils.
Figure 8.20: RVDT
Rotary Variable Differential Transducers (RVDTs), also known as Rotary Variable

Differential
The mechanical input changes the position of the iron core. The position of the core
changes the magnetic coupling between the primary and the secondary stator coils. When
the input rotates, one of the secondary coils receives more magnetic flux. This induces a
higher voltage in the coil.
The other secondary coil receives less magnetic flux. This induces a lower voltage. The
difference between voltages induced in the secondary stator coils is proportional to the
rotated angle. This is an AC Ratio Signal.
The difference between rotation directions is that the output-voltage between R and T is of
opposite phase. The output measured between R and T is an AC-RATIO signal which
represents the rotated angle of the RVDT.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.21: RVDT operating principle
Zero Position: The position of the iron core is zero. The

magnetic field induced by primary coil L3 is equally divided
between L1and L2. Therefore the voltage R-T is zero.
Rotated clockwise: The iron core has turned clockwise.

Now there is more coupling between L3 and L2, and less
coupling between L3 and L1. The voltage between T and
S increases and the voltage between R and S decreases.
Rotated counter clockwise: The iron core has turned counter-

clockwise. Now there is more coupling between L3 and L1 and
less coupling between L3 and L2. The voltage between T and S
decreases and the voltage between R and S increases.

© Copyright 2012
Servo Loops
The DC servo motor loop is called a loop because of the closed nature of the system
operation. The DC source is connected to the variable control potentiometer and to the
follow-up potentiometer.
A servo amplifier amplifies the ratio signal and drives a motor with it. The motor drives a
feedback device and a load. The signal from the feedback device also goes to the servo
amplifier. The load is in the correct position when the difference between the ratio and the
feedback signal is zero.
Servo Loop with DC Motor - Any time there is a difference between the two signals, the
motor drives the load and feedback until both signals are equal. The polarity of the
difference determines the direction of rotation.
Servo Loop with AC Motor - When we must have even more torque, it is better to use an
AC motor. A chopper circuit makes AC from the DC signal. To drive the AC motor with this
signal we need an extra amplifier. The rest of this system works like the DC servo system.
Figure 8.22: Servo-loop with DC Motor
Figure 8.23: Servo loop with AC Motor

© Copyright 2012
Two Phase Servo Motor
The AC two-phase induction motor servo motor may be very small or it may be quite
powerful. The construction of the stator has two fields. These two fields are represented
symbolically by two coils drawn at right angles to each other.
Figure 8.24: 2 Phase Motor running CCW and CW
Counter Clockwise Rotation CCW

If a 400 Hertz voltage with a phase angle of 0° is connected to the variable field and
another 400 Hertz voltage with a phase angle of 90°. The resulting field rotates at 400
revolutions per second. A capacitor in series with the fixed field shifts the voltage 90° of the
variable field.
Rotation of the magnetic field in the motor tends to drag the rotor after it in the same
direction. How fast the motor moves depends upon its load and the strength of the
magnetic field, which effectively is dependent upon the strength of the variable signal.
Clockwise Rotation CW
The phase of the variable signal has been reversed. This reverses the direction of rotation
of the resultant field. The direction of motor rotation depends upon the phase of the variable
signal, and the speed of rotation depends upon its amplitude.
Braked
Often it is desirable to apply an electrical brake to a two-phase servo motor This can be
done by disconnecting either the variable field or the fixed field. If only one field is left
operative, the motor does not rotate because the field does not rotate. This tends to hold
the rotor of the motor in a fixed position.
Servo Motor Loop using a Control Synchro Input

Whenever the amplifier sees a signal of a particular phase, it drives the motor in a particular
direction until the synchro rotor comes to a particular null. A signal of opposite phase from
the synchro rotor drives the servomotor in the opposite direction. The synchro rotor
therefore always is driven to a particular null.
The operating signal will come from some remote source whose mechanical position we
want to duplicate in the operated item. For example, the remote source could be a
directional gyro and the operated item could be a compass indicator.

© Copyright 2012
Rate Feedback
The tachometer generator shown in
Figure 8.25 has two stator windings 90° apart, and an aluminium or copper cup rotor. The
rotor rotates around a stationary, soft-iron, magnetic core. One stator winding is energized
by a reference AC source. The other stator winding is the generator output, or secondary
winding the voltage applied to the primary winding produces a magnetic field at right angles
to the secondary winding when the rotor is stationary, as shown in view A. When the rotor is
turned by mechanical linkage from the load, it distorts the magnetic field so that it is no
longer 90 electrical degrees from the secondary winding. Flux lines cut the secondary
winding, and a voltage is induced in the output winding as shown in views B and C. The
amount of magnetic field that will be distorted is determined by the speed of the rotor.
Therefore, the magnitude of the voltage induced in the secondary winding is proportional to
the rotor's velocity (speed).
A B C
Figure 8.25: AC drag-cup rate generator
Figure 8.26: The components of an AC drag-cup rate generator

© Copyright 2012
The direction of the magnetic field's distortion is determined by the direction of the rotor's
motion. If the rotor is turned in one direction, the lines of flux will cut the secondary winding
in one direction. If the motion of the rotor is reversed, the lines of flux will cut the secondary
winding in the opposite direction. Therefore, the phase of the voltage induced in the
secondary winding, measured with respect to the phase of the supply voltage, is
determined by the direction of the rotor's motion. The phase relationship is shown in views
B and C at the output winding.
The frequency of the tachometer generator output voltage is the same as the frequency of
the reference voltage. The output voltage is generated by the primary alternating flux field
cutting the secondary winding; therefore, the output voltage must have the same frequency
as the supply voltage.
Other types of AC tachometer generators have a squirrel-cage rotor. Otherwise their

construction and principles of operation are identical to the drag-cup type.
One of the commonest uses of the rate generator is to provide inverse feedback signals in
servo motor systems for speed limiting and smoothing functions. Another use is to provide
rate signals.
Figure 8.27: Heading Dial Servo Loop with Rate Feedback

© Copyright 2012
Pressure Measuring Instruments
Pressure is the amount of force acting on a given unit of area, and all pressure must be
measured from some known reference. Absolute pressure is measured from zero pressure,
or a vacuum. Gauge pressure is measured from the existing atmospheric pressure, and
differential pressure is the difference between two pressures.
Absolute Pressure Instruments

This instrument uses a sealed, evacuated, concentrically corrugated metal capsule, known
as an aneroid capsule, or diaphragm, as its pressure-sensitive mechanism. The concentric
corrugations provide a degree of springiness that opposes the pressure of the air. As the air
pressure increases, the thickness of the capsule decreases, and as the pressure
decreases, the capsule expands. A rocking shaft, sector gear, and pinion multiply the
change in dimension of the capsule and drive a pointer across a calibrated dial.
Figure 8.28: Aneroid capsule (diaphragm)
Gauge Pressure Instruments

Gauge pressure is measured from the existing barometric pressure and is actually the
pressure that has been added to a fluid over and above atmospheric pressure.
Bourdon Tube - A Bourdon tube is typically used to measure gauge pressure. This tube is
a flattened thin-wall bronze tube formed into a curve. One end of the tube is sealed and
attached through a linkage to a sector gear. The other end is connected to the instrument
case through a fitting that allows the fluid to be measured to enter.

© Copyright 2012
When the pressure of the fluid inside the tube increases, it tries to change the cross-
sectional shape of the tube from flat to round. As the cross section changes, the curved
tube tends to straighten out. This in turn moves the sector gear, which rotates the pinion
gear on which the pointer is mounted.
Bourdon tube instruments measure relatively high pressures like those in engine lubricating
systems and hydraulic systems.
Figure 8.29: Burdon Tube
Bellows - Lower pressures such as instrument air pressure, de-icer air pressure, and
suction are often measured with a bellows mechanism much like an aneroid capsule. The
pressure to be measured is taken into the bellows. As the pressure increases, the bellows
expands and its expansion rotates the rocking shaft and the sector gear. Movement of the
sector gear rotates the pinion gear and the shaft on which the pointer is mounted.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.30: Bellow mechanism and instrument
Differential Pressure Instruments

A differential pressure is simply the difference between two pressures. A differential bellows
like that in the Figure 8.31 is a popular instrument mechanism that can be used to measure
absolute, differential, or gauge pressure.
When used to measure differential pressure, as it is when used as a fuel pressure gauge,
one bellows senses the air pressure at the carburettor inlet, and the other bellows senses
the fuel pressure at the carburettor fuel inlet. A differential bellows can be used to measure
gauge pressure by leaving one of the bellows open to the atmosphere and the other
connected to the pressure to be measured.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.31: Differential bellows with indication mechanism

© Copyright 2012
Strain Gauges
These electric passive devices are used to detect forces. The resistance of strain-gauges
varies with the force applied to it. The metallic wire consists of a chrome-nickel alloy. The
length and the diameter of the conductor changes as a function of the force. Expanding
force increases, shortening force decreases the resistance.
These sensors are used for different applications. Structure monitoring, force sensors,
pressure transducers and weight measuring. Inside pressure sensors, the pressure affects
is changed into force.
Figure 8.32: Strain Gauge
Figure 8.33: Pressure indication using strain gauge bridge

© Copyright 2012
Piezo-Resistive Sensors
P- or N- conducting elements are diffused into a pure silicon substrate. This so called piezo-
resistive effect changes the resistance with a much higher sensitivity than what a metallic
strain gauge does.
Semiconductor based sensors are in many different forms. The substrate of the pressure
sensor shown in Figure 8.34 has a dimension of 3.5 x 3.5 mm. Inside there is a bridge with
4 elements.
Figure 8.34: Piezo Resistive Element

© Copyright 2012
Variable Frequency Signals
A variable frequency signal has a frequency which is controlled by a certain parameter. A
device with a variable output frequency makes such a signal. The frequency varies, under
control of the parameter, between a high and a low frequency. These limit frequencies are
different from device to device and depend on the design of the device.
A control voltage, a variable capacitor, and a variable resistor are, for example, parameters
that control the frequency.
Frequency counters, microprocessor system and special moving coil meters are all devices
that work with variable frequency signals.
Figure 8.35: Linear Parameter Output after Conversion
Figure 8.36 shows a very sensitive and accurate pressure transducer used inside airdata
computers. The oscillator coil assembly oscillates the diaphragm. Its resonant frequency
increases with the applied pressure against the vacuum reference inside the transducer.

© Copyright 2012
The output frequency, proportional to the pressure, is easily changed inside the computer,
into a digital signal. The temperature sensing resistor compensates for influences of the
ambient temperature.
Figure 8.36: Vibrating Diaphragm Transducer
Figure 8.37: Pressure to Digital Conversion

© Copyright 2012
Temperature Measuring Instruments
Temperature is one of the most important measurements in aircraft operation. Operational
temperatures range from well below freezing for outside air, fuel, oil, airconditioning and
pneumatic air, to around 1000°C for exhaust gas temperatures.
Non-Electrical Temperature Measurements

Most solids, liquids, and gases change dimensions proportional to their temperature
changes. These dimensional changes may be used to move pointers across a dial to
indicate changes in temperature.
Bimetallic Strip - Most small general aviation aircraft have an outside air temperature
gauge protruding through the windshield. This simple thermometer is made of strips of two
metals having different coefficients of expansion welded together, side by side, and twisted
into a helix, or spiral. When this bimetallic strip is heated, one strip expands more than the
other and the spiral tries to straighten out. A pointer is attached to the metal strip in such a
way that, as the temperature changes, the pointer moves across a dial to indicate the
temperature.
Figure 8.38: Bimetallic Outside Air Temperature (OAT) Indication
Gas Expansion- Temperature is determined by measuring the pressure of the vapours

above a highly volatile liquid. The vapour pressure varies directly as the temperature of the
liquid.
The Bourdon tube consists of a hollow brass or bronze elliptical-shaped tube formed into a
semi-circle. One end of the tube is open and connected to the fluid to be measured. The
opposite end of the tube is sealed. As pressure is applied, the elliptical tube changes shape
and tends to straighten the semi-circular curve. The bourdon tube needs to be attached to a
mechanical linkage and pointer to create a useful instrument.

© Copyright 2012
A thin-wall, hollow metal bulb is connected to the Bourdon tube by a capillary tube, that has
a very small inside diameter. The bulb is filled with a volatile liquid such as methyl chloride
which has a high vapour pressure, and the entire bulb, capillary, and Bourdon tube are
sealed as a unit. The bulb is placed where the temperature is to be measured and, as its
temperature changes, the pressure of the vapours above the liquid changes.
This pressure change is sensed by the Bourdon tube, which moves a pointer across a dial
that is calibrated in degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius.
Figure 8.39: Remote Temperature Indication with Bourdon Tube
Temperature Dependant Resistors
• NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient) resistor. Its resistance decreases at

increasing temperatures. So it is called: High temperature conductor.
• PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient) resistor. Its resistance increases with

increasing temperature. So it is called: Low temperature conductor:

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.40: Resistance versus Temperature
The temperature sensing bulb consists of a coil of fine nickel-chrome wire encased and
sealed in a thin stainless steel tube. This bulb is immersed in the fluid whose temperature is
being measured. The resistance of the nickel-chrome wire varies directly with its
temperature. At the low end temperature, the bulb resistance is approximately 20 ohms, at
its high end; its resistance is about 200 ohms.
Figure 8.41: Resistance Temperature Bulb

© Copyright 2012
Ratiometer Circuits - The instrument uses two coils mounted on the indicator needle.
When the temperature is low and the bulb resistance is low, more current flows through the
coil 1 and the bulb than flows through coil 2 and resistor R 1 . The resulting magnetic field
pulls the needle toward the low side of the dial. When the temperature is high and more
current flows through coil 2 and R 1 than coil 1 and the bulb, the needle deflects toward the
high side of the dial.
Figure 8.42: Ratiometer with Moving Coil Instrument
Bridge Circuits - (Wheatstone) Bridge circuits are a special type of complex circuit often
used in electrical measuring and controlling devices. Figure 8.43 shows a typical bridge
circuit used to measure temperature. Resistor R 2 is a temperature probe. Its resistance
changes as its temperature changes.
When the bridge is electrically powered, electrons find two paths through which they can
flow. They can flow through resistors R 1 and R 2 or they can flow through resistors R 3 and
R4.
If the four resistors have values such that the ratio of the resistance R 1 to R 2 is the same as
the ratio of R 3 to R 4 , then the voltage at point C will be the same as the voltage at point D.
Because there is no voltage drop (no voltage difference) across the indicator, no current will
flow through it. In this condition, the bridge is said to be balanced.
Resistor R 2 is variable, and as it changes from the value that balanced the bridge, a voltage
drop will be developed across the indicator that causes current to flow through it. As the
resistance of R 2 goes up, current flows from C to D. If the value of R 4 goes down below the
balance value, current flows from D to C.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.43: Wheatstone Bridge Circuit
Thermocouples - Higher temperatures, like those found in the exhaust gases of both
reciprocating and turbine engines are measured with thermocouples.
A thermocouple is a loop made of two different kinds of wire welded together at one end to
form a hot or measuring junction. For example, chromel and alumel wires are used. The coil
of a current-measuring instrument is connected between the wires at the other end to form
a cold, or reference junction.
The hot junction is held against the cylinder head in the spark plug gasket and a voltage is
produced in the thermocouple whose amount is determined by the difference in
temperature between the hot and cold junctions. This voltage difference causes a current to
flow that is proportional to the temperature of the cylinder head.
Figure 8.44: Thermo Couple Principle

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.45: Cylinder Head Temperature (Spark plug gasket)
Figure 8.46: Thermo Couple (Bayonet Type for Cylinder Head)
Thermocouples for Jet Engines - The exhaust gas temperature EGT system for a turbine
engine is similar to that for a reciprocating engine except that several thermocouples are
used. These are arranged around the exhaust so they can sample the temperature in
several locations.
For accurate temperature indication, the reference junction temperature must be held
constant. It is not practical to do this in an aircraft instrument, so the indicator needle is
mounted on a bimetallic hairspring in such a way that it moves back as the cockpit
temperature increases. This compensates for reference junction temperature changes.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.47: EGT Indication (Copper Constantan)
Small indicators operate without any additional electrical power except for the illumination.
For more complex indicators, electrical power supply is used for the amplifiers and motors
inside the indicator.
• Chromel (alloy of chromium and nickel)

• Alumel (alloy of aluminium and nickel)
Figure 8.48: EGT Indication (Chromel Alumel)

© Copyright 2012
Quantity Measuring Systems
DC Electrical Indicators
A common quantity indicating system for fuel and oil operates on direct current. These
systems consist of a variable resistor as a tank unit or transmitter and a current measuring
instrument as the indicator.
The tank unit consists of either a wire wound resistor or a segment of composition
resistance material and a wiper arm driven by a float moves across this resistance material
to change the resistance as a function of the fuel level in the tank.
The ratio meter-type minimizes the error that would be caused by variations in system
voltage. Current flows through both coils and both the fixed resistor and the tank unit.
Figure 8.49: Variable Resistor and Permanent Magnet Rotor Indicator
Figure 8.50: Mechanical Float Type Gauge
This oil quantity transmitter is a variable reed switch type resistor. The reed switch operates
by a magnet in a float. The current to the indicator is depending of the activated resistors in
the probe.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.51: Probe with magnetic Float and Reed Switches
Capacitance type fuel quantity measuring systems measure the mass of the fuel, rather
than just its level in the tank. This is an electronic system that measures the capacitance of
the probe, or probes, which serve as the tank sender units. A capacitor, can store electrical
charges, and it consists of two conductors called plates separated by some form of
dielectric or insulator. The capacity of a capacitor depends upon three variables: the area of
the plates, the separation between the plates, which is the thickness of the dielectric, and
the dielectric constant of the material between the plates. The probes in a capacitance fuel
quantity indicating system are made of two concentric metal tubes which serve as the
plates of the capacitor. The area of the plates is fixed, as well as the separation between
them, so the only variable we have is the material which separates them.
These probes are installed so they cross the tank from top to bottom, and when the tank is
empty, the plates are separated by air which has a dielectric constant of one. When the
tank is full, the dielectric is fuel which has a constant of approximately two. In any condition
between full and empty, part of the dielectric is air and part is fuel, and so the capacity of
the probe varies according to the level of fuel in the tank.
One of the big advantages of this system is that the probes can be tailored for tanks of all
sizes and shapes, and all probes in the aircraft can be connected so the system integrates
their output to show the total amount of fuel on board.

© Copyright 2012
The dielectric constant of the fuel is approximately two, but it varies according to its
temperature and so a compensator is built into the bottom of one of the tank units. It is
electrically in parallel with the probes and cancels the changes in dielectric constant as the
temperature of the fuel changes.
Figure 8.52: Capacitor’s current depends upon Frequency and Capacitance
Figure 8.53: Capacitor’s current depends upon Liquid Level

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.54: Quantity Probe without and with Compensator
Digital Fuel Quantity Indicating System

Digital technology is also incorporated into a quantity indicating system. Basically the
system uses capacitance probes. The indicating system converts the capacity into fuel
weight.
Figure 8.55: Analog and Digital Display

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.56: Probes and digital indicator with integrated processor

© Copyright 2012
Digital Fuel Quantity Indication Circuit - The indicator contains a power supply unit, a
probe driver, an A/D converter and a processor unit. A combined digital read-out with
analogue pointer and scale provides a safe reading.
The probe driver sends a drive signal to the tank probes and compensator. For example,
with an excitation frequency of 1 kHz, fuel quantity information comes back from the probes
into the indicator. The compensator senses the dielectric constant of the fuel used to
calculate the fuel weight.
The analogue signals coming from the probes and the compensator are converted to digital
by the A/D converter. The processor calculates the fuel weight in kg. or lbs. to control the
pointer and read-out.
Figure 8.57: Fuel Quantity Indicator (Digital)

© Copyright 2012
Digital Fuel Quantity Indication System - The fuel quantity indication computer provides
actual fuel quantity and temperature indication to the ECAM/EICAS display and to the Multi
Tank Indicator and Fuel Quantity Preselector located in, or outside of the aircraft used for
refuelling.
Refuel valves closes if actual fuel weight reaches preselected value. The quantity
preselector is used for automatic refuelling, from refuel panel.
Summary:
• Aircraft attitude signal compensates influences of pitch and roll angles.

• A set of capacitance probes in each tank provides fuel level and temperature.
• Compensator senses dielectric constant of the fuel.
• Densiometer senses density of the fuel, for fuel weight determination.
Figure 8.58: Fuel quantity indication system

© Copyright 2012
Ultrasonic Fuel Contents Measurement
Theory
The fundamental distinction between ultrasonic and capacitance gauging is that ultrasonic
gauging uses a technologically different suite of in-tank sensors that is accompanied by
changes in both the signal conditioning interface and software within the processor. Once
fuel height and the associated fuel parameters have been accurately determined, the
calculation of fuel quantity is very similar to that of a capacitance system. Ultrasonic fuel
height measurement relies on the phenomenon that sound energy can be transmitted
through liquid and be reflected at an interface with that liquid. A key consideration in the
measurement is that the velocity of
sound in fuel is inversely proportional to temperature, with some further variation due to fuel
type.
The basic principle of ultrasonic fuel gauging is its dependence on two measurements:
• the speed with which the ultrasound travels through fuel, as measured by a
velocimeter;
• the round trip time for sound to travel upwards through fuel from the transmitting
transducer to the fuel surface and downwards back to the receiving transducer,
as measured by a probe.
Unfortunately it is not practical to use ultrasonic techniques to locate the fuel surface from
the top of the tank by measuring the round trip time downwards from the top of the tank
through the ullage. This is because very high levels of energy are required to reliably
transmit through the air/vapour mixture, particularly at low fuel levels and this would be
incompatible with system intrinsic safety requirements.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.59: Operating principles of velocimeter and probe.
Figure 8.60: Ultrasonic fuel height measurement

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.59 illustrates the principles of the ultrasonic velocimeter and ultrasonic probe
where the velocimeter acts as a speed of sound calibration using a fixed target and the
probe is used to measure the fuel height in the tank.
The time chart shown in Figure 8.60 shows how fuel height can be obtained with this
arrangement with the parameter definitions as follows:
T T = Round trip time to target, T S = Round trip time to surface

D = Known distance to target, and L = Unknown distance to surface
The velocity of sound in fuel (VOS) can be derived from the velocimeter via the equation:
VOS = 2D/T T
Similarly, the unknown distance to the surface (L) is defined as follows:
L = (VOS)(T S )/2
Substituting for VOS from (1) in (2) yields:
L = D(T S /T T )

© Copyright 2012
Signal Processing
The basic method of interfacing with an ultrasonic velocimeter or probe is illustrated in
Figure 8.61. Under processor control, the piezoelectric crystal of the probe is excited at a
particular amplitude and duration. The excitation comprises a pulse or series of pulses to
cause the crystal to resonate and transmit ultrasound.
The excitation frequency is determined by the resonant frequency of the crystal selected to
meet the accuracy requirements. The ultrasound signal or echo reflected by a target or the
fuel surface is then received back at the same crystal, now acting as a receiver. The
reflected signal is then amplified, as necessary, prior to passing through a threshold
detector to remove unwanted signal.
Figure 8.61: Method of ultrasonic signal conditioning
The resulting signal is then gated with a timing window and recorded in memory as an echo
for subsequent processing. Typical waveforms for a transmit burst of pulses at 1 MHz and
first received echo are shown in Figure 8.62.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.62: Typical burst and echo waveforms.
Application to Aircraft Systems

The following issues are specific to aircraft fuel measurement.
• The fuel surface ripples and sloshes with motion to cause varying degrees of
reflection.
• The fuel surface attitude changes with respect to aircraft attitude when
uncoordinated.
• The fuel reflection coefficient changes that occur with altitude as the density of ullage
air and fuel temperature changes.
• The fuel outgases with increase in altitude until trapped air is boiled off.
• The fuel turbulence such as that encountered in operations such as refuel may
generate large bubbles.
• The presence of undisclosed water in the tank.
The purpose of the stillwell is to reduce the effects of ripples and slosh, but the surface is
still dynamic and certainly cannot be guaranteed to reflect all of the available incident sound
energy back in the direction it came. Furthermore, aircraft attitude itself causes sound to be
reflected in a zigzag way as shown in Figure 8.63.
At attitude, the reflected sound comprises two components; the direct path (primary signal)
and zigzag (secondary signal) sound. As can be seen from Figure 8.63, the reflected path,
caused by the zigzag effect, is longer than that of the direct path. This causes two returns to
be generated sequentially; the primary signal followed by the zigzag signal. Another effect

© Copyright 2012
is that the primary signal progressively reduces until the incident sound path is at 22.5o from
perpendicular to the surface. With increasing angles above 22.5 o, the signal progressively
increases again.
As the aircraft climbs in altitude, the fuel will outgas to release any air in solution and
generate many fine bubbles throughout the fuel, including that in the stillwell. This process
ceases when all the air has been released. In the intervening period, this process causes a
degree of both sound adsorption and reflection with the net effect of reducing the signal
return.
Once again, suitable signal conditioning gain changes can accommodate this effect.
Figure 8.63: Attitude-induced zigzag reflected waveform.
The presence of large bubbles in the stillwell must be avoided at all times as, unlike
outgassing, they will cause premature signal returns as they are sufficiently large to reflect
significant ultrasound. These bubbles are likely to be generated by turbulent fuel such as
that encountered during operations such as refuel. Software can be designed to identify

© Copyright 2012
erroneous readings caused by this effect but avoidance is the best policy. The first level of
protection is the incorporation of a bubble shroud in the transducer assembly that allows
free fuel flow but eliminates these bubbles. The second level of protection is to not locate
the probes in turbulent areas of the tank wherever possible.
As with capacitance systems, it is necessary to locate the ultrasonic probes away from
areas likely to encounter the presence of undisolved water in the fuel. This water will pool,
as it is denser than fuel, at the lowest part of the tank, particularly in collector tank areas.
Free water may also forma wedge against a rib. Whereas a capacitance probe would short
if subjected to sufficient water to cover the bottom of both electrodes, an ultrasonic probe
would generate a premature return signal of the water/fuel interface, assuming the probe
connections have not been shorted.
Ultrasonic Probe Design

The ultrasonic probe is configured as a transducer assembly at the lower end with a stillwell
attached and mounted vertically above it. The probe may be constructed from metal and/or
composite materials. The overall length of the probe, for a given location, is the same as an
equivalent capacitance probe, barring any necessary mounting clearances.
The transducer assembly features a piezoelectric ceramic disk that acts as a transceiver to
both generate and receive ultrasound. The thickness and diameter of the crystal determine
the resonant frequency of the crystal. Typically a crystal with a resonant frequency between
1 and 10 MHz is selected. The transducer assembly comprises the disk and a resistive
discharge network, mounted directly on to the disk, to safely dissipate any abnormal energy
created by temperature or mechanical shock, a mechanical labyrinth or bubble shroud, and
provision for the electrical connections to the in-tank harness. Care must be taken in the
mounting of the disk within the transducer to ensure that resonance is not impeded. Also as
the resonating disk will emit ultrasound not only up the stillwell, but downwards into the
assembly to cause unwanted reflections, sound absorbent material is required to be located
under the disk.
The purpose of the stillwell is to both collimate the sound generated and received by the
transducer, and provide a ‘sheltered’ area to make measurements. The stillwell protects
measurements from major phenomenon such as fuel slosh or large bubbles. The design of
the stillwell and transducer assembly has to be such that fuel can readily enter the stillwell
so that the level follows that outside the stillwell but prevents the ingress of large bubbles
caused by turbulence that may be created by operations such as refuelling. This is
achieved by incorporating a labyrinth-type baffle in the transducer assembly.
To help eliminate false measurement, it is important that any spurious ultrasound reflections
created within the stillwell are kept to a minimum at all times. This is achieved by ensuring
the inside surface of the stillwell is smooth by uniformly coating or lining the surface with
acoustically suitable material. Also careful attention to the probe mountings should be made
as the mechanical interface with the outside of the stillwell can lead to internal reflections.
To that end, the lower mounting bracket should be fixed to the bubble shroud and the upper
moveable mounting bracket(s), with damper(s) located on the stillwell.
A typical probe and an assembly view are shown in Figure 8.64 and Figure 8.65
respectively

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.64: Typical ultrasonic probe
Figure 8.65: Ultrasonic probe assembly

© Copyright 2012
Stall Warning and Angle-of-Attack Systems
The only instrument the Wright brothers had on the Flyer was an angle of attack indicator,
or, more specifically, a piece of string blowing in the wind. This told them more about the
aerodynamic conditions their wing was subjected to than any airspeed indicator could have
told them.
Figure 8.66: Angle of attack
Precision flying is not so much the control of the airspeed, though this is important, but the
control of the angle of attack. We must remember that an aeroplane can stall at almost any
airspeed, depending on the load and the angle of bank; but it will stall at only one angle of
attack. For an approach, if the correct angle of attack is maintained, the aeroplane will
descend with the proper combination of steep descent angle and slow sink rate. For takeoff,
the pilot can hold the angle of attack that will provide either the maximum angle of climb or
the maximum rate of climb, whichever he desires.
Stall Warning Systems

Many small, general aviation aircraft are required to have a stall warning system to tell the
pilot when he is approaching a stall. There are two types of these instruments in common
use:
Electric Stall Warning System - A number of aircraft use a small vane about the size of a
postage stamp protruding from the leading edge of the wing, about halfway out to the tip.
This is the lift transducer or stall warning vane. The location of this vane is quite critical, as
it must be at the stagnation point; that is, the point at which the airflow separates—some
flowing over the top of the wing and some going under it. As the nose of the aeroplane
rises, the angle at which the wind strikes the wing increases, as the stagnation point moves
down. At a speed somewhere around five knots above the stall speed, the vane will lift and

© Copyright 2012
close a micro-switch. This turns on a red light on the instrument panel or activates a buzzer,
telling the pilot he is approaching a stall.
Figure 8.67: Stall warning vane and micro-switch
Non-Electric Stall Warning System - Other stall warning devices are totally independent
of the electrical system and operate by an airflow through a vibrating reed. For normal flight
the air hole leading to the stall warning reed is in an area of positive pressure and the reed
does not vibrate. But as the angle of attack increases, the area of low pressure above the
stagnation point moves over the entrance to the reed and it begins to vibrate. As the angle
of attack changes, the tone of the vibrations changes, so the pilot can tell by the sound just
how far from a stall he actually is.
Figure 8.68: Stall warning – stagnation point (suction) entrance and reed

© Copyright 2012
Angle of Attack Indicators
An elaboration of the stall warning system is the simple angle of attack indicator that uses a
pick-up similar to the electric stall warning vane. But instead of a micro-switch to turn on a
light or actuate a buzzer, the vane moves a variable resistor that drives the indicator to tell
whether the angle of attack is high, low, or just right for a "normal" approach or climb-out.
Figure 8.69: Simple vane-type angle of attack indicator
These vanes are often called ‘alpha’ (α) vanes, and the indicator is called an ‘alpha’
indicator.
Many modern transport category aircraft have the vane installed on the side of the fuselage.
Figure 8.70: Fuselage mounted alpha vanes
Continuing to elaborate on the stall warning device, an angle of attack indicating system
has been perfected for the Navy and adapted to civilian aircraft. It tells, not just whether you
are fast or slow for a normal condition, but what your angle of attack actually is so the pilot
can accurately set up for the best angle or best rate of climb or for the most efficient cruise.
The indicator for this system is marked from 0 (zero degrees angle of attack) to 1 for the
angle of attack that will produce a full stall. With this instrument the pilot is able to adjust his
angle of attack to get any flight condition he wants. The pick-up for this system is, quite

© Copyright 2012
naturally, more complex than just the simple vane.
Figure 8.72 shows the probe that sticks out into the airstream and the two slots that feed air
into the two chambers of the pick-up housing. These chambers are separated by a moving
paddle which, through a shaft, drives a variable resistor. This arrangement provides a
smooth movement of the resistor as the angle of attack changes.
Figure 8.71: Angle of attack indicator
Figure 8.72: Angle of attack probe

© Copyright 2012
Pitot-Static Systems
The flight environment data system comprises the pitot-static system. This determines the
following data from the atmosphere;
• Static pressure;
• Total (or Pitot) Pressure;
• Total (or Ram) Air Temperature.
Out of this data, instruments or computers derive;
• Altitude;
• Vertical Speed;
• Velocity;
• Temperature.
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)
Altitude According to Air-Pressure

The pressure decreases with increasing altitude. The rate of pressure change is not linear
with the change of the altitude. At sea level the pressure decreases 1 hPa every 28 feet.
The altimeter senses the air pressure and indicates the altitude according to the ISA.
Temperature versus Altitude

The temperature in the troposphere decreases linearly at a rate of minus 2°C per 1,000 ft.
According to the ISA the standard temperature at sea level is 15°C. Higher than 36,000
feet (tropopause) the temperature stays constant at - 56.5°C (Stratosphere).

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.73: International Standard Atmosphere - ISA

© Copyright 2012
Light Aircraft System
The Pitot tube for a light aircraft is connected directly to the centre opening of the airspeed
indicator. The two flush static ports, one on either side of the fuselage, are connected
together and supply pressure to the airspeed indicator, altimeter, and vertical speed
indicator. An alternate static air valve is connected into this line to supply static air to the
instruments if the outside static ports should ever block with ice. The alternate air is taken
directly from the cockpit of unpressurized aircraft, but pressurized aircraft pick it up from
outside of the pressure vessel.
Figure 8.74: A simple pitot-static system
Large Aircraft System

Large jet transport aircraft have a more complex pitot-static system. The Pitot tube on the
left side of the aircraft supplies the captain’s instruments. Static pressure for all of the
instruments is obtained from the captain’s static source. The alternate static source valve
allows this to be taken from the alternate static sources.
The right-hand Pitot tube supplies pitot air pressure to the first officer’s instruments and
Mach/Indicated Airspeed warning system. All the first officer’s static instruments connect to
the F/O static source, and can also be connected to the alternate static source.
The auxiliary Pitot tube picks up ram air for the auto pilot, yaw dampers, overspeed warning
system, and flight recorder. The alternate static source supplies air to these instruments
plus the two flight directors and the reference for cabin differential pressure.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.75: A Complete Pitot-Static System

© Copyright 2012
Air Data Sensors
Pitot Tube
A tube with an inside diameter of approximately 6 mm is installed on the outside of an
aircraft so that it points directly into the airflow over the aircraft. This tube, called a pitot
tube, picks up ram air pressure and directs it into the centre hole in an airspeed indicator.
An electrical heater in the head prevents build up of ice.
Figure 8.76: A pitot-tube - heated
Static Port
The ambient pressure of the air mass surrounding the aeroplane, or "static pressure", is
obtained via a static source. The static source or ‘static vent’ senses the static pressure of
the atmosphere, which is unaffected by the airflow. To achieve this the source (vent) is
located on a part of the aeroplane where the airflow will be undisturbed by its passage, and
is also positioned with its entrance perpendicular to the airflow. The vent is manufactured
and attached to the surface of the aeroplane so that it does not create local disturbances in
the airflow.
Vent pipe connections are installed with a slight downward angle to ensure adequate
drainage, and it is also important that the vent plates are not painted, as this would impair
their thermal efficiency. This may be indicated on the aeroplane structure next to the plate
by a placard. The direction of the airflow around the static vent may vary as the airspeed
and configuration of the aeroplane changes, and may also induce errors known as position
(or pressure) errors. These errors can be minimised by carefully positioning the static vent,
or by using multiple vents to average out the errors. This is known as ‘Static Balancing’, and
is achieved by fitting vents on either side of the aeroplane fuselage. The purpose of this is
to even out any differences of pressure that may be caused by the sideways motion of the

© Copyright 2012
static vents, such as will occur during a yaw or s sideslip condition. Any residual position
(pressure) errors are recorded during initial flight tests and a correction table is produced,
for various airspeeds and configurations.
These readings are incorporated into the Aeroplane Operating Manual (AOM). If failure of
the primary pitot/static pressure source should occur, for example icing up of a pitot or
pressure head due to a failed heater circuit, errors may be introduced in the instrument
readings and other areas dependent on such pressure. As a safeguard against partial
failure, a standby system may be installed in some aeroplanes, whereby static pressure
and/or pitot pressure from alternate sources can be selected and connected into the
primary system. A blockage of the pitot source is not serious, as it will only affect the ASI. A
blockage of the static source will however affect all of the instruments, and it is thus
common practice to provide an alternate static supply.
Figure 8.77: Static ports

© Copyright 2012
Alternate Static Source
The changeover to an alternate static source is normally achieved by selector valves
located in the static lines, which are located on the flight deck, within easy reach of the flight
crew. A typical internal alternate static source installation is shown on the next page. Such
a system will only operate satisfactorily if the cabin is unpressurised and the air within the
cabin is relatively undisturbed. When calibrating the pressure/position errors of the alternate
system, the manufacturer will lay down the conditions required in respect of the position of
such items as windows, heating/ventilation and doors, all of which must be observed if the
system is to work correctly.
Combined Pitot-Static Probe

Total pressure or impact air is taken into the front of the head. Static air pressure is taken in
through holes or slots in the bottom and sides of the head.
Figure 8.78: A combined pitot-static port
Figure 8.79: Captain’s pitot tube (top) and 1st Officer’s pitot tube (bottom).
Also Alpha vane (centre) and TAT sensor (bottom right)

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.80: Captain’s static port (top) and 1st Officer’s
static port (bottom), at side of fuselage

© Copyright 2012
TAT and SAT Temperatures
Total Air Temperature (TAT)

The TAT is the temperature of the air compressed by the impact of the flying aircraft. At
higher airspeeds the temperature is increased.
This temperature is used for the power setting of the engines.
The difference between TAT and SAT is called ram rise (RR) and is caused by
compressibility and friction of the air at high velocities.
In practice the ram rise is negligible for aircraft flying at (true) airspeeds under Mach 0.2
For airspeeds (TAS) over Mach 0.2, as airspeed increases the temperature exceeds that of
still air. This is caused by a combination of kinetic (friction) heating and adiabatic
compression
• Kinetic heating As the airspeed increases, more and more molecules of air per
second hit the aircraft. This causes a temperature rise in the Direct Reading
thermometer probe of the aircraft due to friction. Kinetic heating for modern
passenger jets is almost negligible.
• Adiabatic compression As described above, this is caused by a conversion of

energy and not by direct application of heat. At airspeeds over Mach 0.2, in the
Remote Reading temperature probe (TAT-probe), the outside airflow which may be
several hundred knots, is brought virtually to rest very rapidly. The energy (Specific
Kinetic Energy) of the moving air is then released (converted) in the form of a
temperature rise (Specific Enthalpy). Energy cannot be destroyed but only
transformed, this means that according to the first law of thermodynamics, the
internal energy of an isolated system must remain constant.
Static Air Temperature (SAT)

The SAT is the temperature of the real undisturbed air around the aeroplane. The airdata
computer reads the TAT from the temperature probe and needs the Mach number to
calculate the SAT.
This temperature is used for navigational purposes and to inform the passengers about
outside air temperature.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.81: TAS and SAT Indication
Figure 8.82: TAS and SAT Indication

© Copyright 2012
Static Air Temperature (SAT) Probe
The majority of temperature sensors use a platinum wire element which is contained either
in a probe mounted in what is termed a ‘flush bulb configuration’, or in a specially designed
probe, that is shielded from solar radiation.
In the type of sensor shown above the probe protrudes through a hole in the aeroplane
skin.
Figure 8.83: Static air temperature sensor
If the sensing element is mounted flush with the aeroplane skin (flush bulb), it will sense
only
the Static Air Temperature (SAT). The recovery factor, or the ratio of the indicated to the
actual
temperature, of this type of sensor varies from 0.75 to 0.90, which is dependent on the
aeroplanes geometry, and location of the bulb.
Total Air Temperature (TAT) Probe

The outside temperature is sensed with a probe which contains a temperature dependant
resistor (Platinum). Its positive temperature coefficient is linear over the existing
temperature range. The probe is heated to prevent build up of ice.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.84: Total Air Temperature Probe
Figure 8.85: Total Air Temperature Probe

© Copyright 2012
For aeroplanes operating at high Mach numbers, it is usual to sense and measure the
maximum temperature rise possible. This is called the Total Air Temperature (TAT) or Ram
Air Temperature (RAT), and is the temperature of the air when it is brought to rest (or nearly
so) without the addition or removal of heat.
The advantages of this type of thermometer over the flush bulb type is that it has a virtually
zero time lag, and also has a recovery factor of approximately one. This type of probe is
normally connected directly to a flight deck indicator, and also to the Mach number module
of an Air Data Computer (ADC).
An air intake, which is mounted on top of a small streamlined strut is secured to the
aeroplane skin at a predetermined location around the nose, where it is free from any
boundary layer activity. In flight, air pressure within the probe is slightly higher than outside,
and air flows through the probe. Separation of water droplets from the air is achieved by
causing the air to turn through 90°, before it passes over the sensing element. Bleed holes
in the casing also allow boundary layer air to be drawn off due to the pressure differential,
which exists across the casing. A pure platinum resistance wire, which is sealed within two
concentric platinum tubes is used to sense the temperature, and a heating element is
mounted on the probe to prevent any ice forming. The heater has a minimal affect on the
indicated temperature readings, with typical values being 0.9°C at Mach 0.1 and 0.15° C at
Mach 1.0.

© Copyright 2012
Intentionally Blank

© Copyright 2012
Altimeters
An altimeter is simply a barometer that measures the absolute pressure of the air. This
pressure is caused by the weight of the air above the instrument and, naturally, this
pressure constantly changes. Also, as the aircraft climbs above the earth’s surface, there is
less air stacked on top of the aircraft and the absolute pressure decreases. By measuring
this change of absolute pressure, the aircraft’s altitude can be determined.
The altimeter is one of the oldest flight instruments, and some of the early balloon flights
carried some form of primitive barometer which served to indicate the height. The standard
altimeter used in many of the early aeroplanes has a simple evacuated bellows whose
expansion and contraction are measured by an arrangement of gears and levers that
transmit the changes in dimensions into movement of the pointer around the dial. The dial
is calibrated in feet, and a change in the barometric pressure changes the pointer position.
It is extremely important that the altitude indication is accurate, and that the pilot be able to
quickly read the altitude within a few feet. These requirements are complicated by the fact
that the pressure lapse rate, the decrease in pressure with altitude, is not linear: that is, the
pressure for each thousand feet is greater in the lower altitudes than it is in the higher
levels. The bellows are designed with corrugations that allow the expansion to be linear
with a change in altitude.
Principle of Operation
In aircraft, an aneroid barometer measures the atmospheric pressure from a static port
outside the aircraft. Air pressure decreases with an increase of altitude—approximately 100
hectopascals per 800 meters or one inch of mercury per 1000 feet near sea level.
The aneroid altimeter is calibrated to show the pressure directly as an altitude above mean
sea level, in accordance with a mathematical model defined by the International Standard
Atmosphere (ISA). Older aircraft used a simple aneroid barometer where the needle made
less than one revolution around the face from zero to full scale. This design evolved to the
drum-type altimeter, where each revolution of a single needle accounted for 1,000 feet, and
with thousand foot increments recorded on a numerical odometer-type drum. To determine
altitude, a pilot first had to read the drum to get the thousands of feet, then look at the
needle for the hundreds of feet. Modern aircraft use a "sensitive altimeter," which has a
primary needle, and one or more secondary needles that show the number of revolutions,
similar to a clock face. In other words, each needle points to a different digit of the current
altitude measurement. On a sensitive altimeter, the sea level reference pressure can be
adjusted by a setting knob. The reference pressure, in inches of mercury in Canada and the
US and hectopascals (previously millibars) elsewhere, is displayed in the small Kollsman
window, on the face of the aircraft altimeter. This is necessary, since sea level reference
atmospheric pressure at a given location varies over time with temperature and the
movement of pressure systems in the atmosphere.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.86: Principle of the aneroid capsule
Figure 8.87: An altimeter mechanism

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.88: An altimeter face
A knob on the outside of the instrument case, rotates the scale and, through a gear
arrangement, the mechanism inside the case. The barosetting is used for the correct
altitude measurement. (QNH, QFE, QNE).
In aviation terminology, the regional or local air pressure at mean sea level (MSL) is called
the QNH or "altimeter setting", and the pressure that will calibrate the altimeter to show the
height above ground at a given airfield is called the QFE of the field. An altimeter cannot,
however, be adjusted for variations in air temperature. Differences in temperature from the
ISA model will, therefore, cause errors in indicated altitude.
Drum-Type Altimeters
A sensitive pneumatic altimeter uses a stack of bellows, as seen in Figure 8.89, to drive the
pointers. If, for example, the bellows change their dimensions one-quarter of an inch for the
full 35,000 feet, the tip of the long pointer will travel more than 300 inches. This
amplification requires a rather complex and delicate transmission and some very small
gears. The friction inside the altimeter even under near-ideal conditions is such that there
must be vibration of the instrument for accurate reading. This is no problem in reciprocating
engine aeroplanes, as there is enough vibration from the engine, but jet aircraft often
require instrument panel vibrators to keep the altimeter reading accurately.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.89: An altimeter mechanism and display

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.90: Schematic of a drum-type aircraft altimeter, showing the small
Kollsman windows at the bottom left and bottom right of the face.
The Sensitive Altimeter

The sensitive altimeter employs a minimum of two aneroid capsules. This provides for a
more accurate measurement of pressure and also provides more power to drive the
mechanical linkage.
The capsules are stacked together with one face fastened down, which permits movement
due to pressure changes at the other end. The movement of the capsules in response to
changes in altitude (pressure) is transmitted via a suitable mechanical linkage to three
pointers that display (against a graduated instrument scale) the aeroplane altitude in tens,
hundreds and thousands of feet. The whole assembly is encased in a container, which is
fed with static pressure, but is otherwise completely airtight. Within the mechanical linkage
a bi-metallic insert is fitted to compensate for temperature changes that could affect the
movement. As the aeroplane climbs and air pressure falls, the capsules will expand;
similarly, as the aeroplane descends, the static pressure will increase and the capsules will
contract. Since it is necessary to allow for different values of mean sea level pressure and
also to allow the altimeter to be used for indicating altitude above the aerodrome, the
altimeter is similarly provided with a means of adjusting the level at which it will indicate
zero feet. This is done via a barometric subscale mechanism, which adjusts the mechanical
linkage and operates a set of digital counters, or calibrated dial. This is displayed in a
window in the face of the altimeter, and is the datum pressure setting above which the
instrument is now displaying altitude. The desired setting is again made using the knurled
knob at the bottom of the instrument.

© Copyright 2012
Types of Altitude Measurement
Pressure Altitude
Pressure altitude is the altitude above the standard datum 1013.25 hPa or mBars (29.92
inch of mercury).
Density Altitude
Density altitude is pressure altitude corrected for temperature. Pressure and density are the
same when conditions are standard. As the temperature rises above standard, the density
of the air will decrease and the density altitude will increase.
QNH (Nautical Height) setting
Figure 8.91: QNH
An altimeter can measure height above almost any

convenient reference point, and for most flying, it
measures the altitude above sea level. This is called
indicated altitude and is read directly from the indicator
when the altimeter QNH setting is placed in the
barometric window.
Airport control towers give the pilot the altimeter setting

which is their local barometric pressure corrected to sea
level.
When the pilot uses this barosetting, the altitude measurement starts at sea level pressure.
All elevations on aeronautical charts are measured from mean sea level (MSL), and
therefore with a bit of simple arithmetic, the pilot can easily and accurately find the aircraft’s
height above any charted position. When the aeroplane is on the ground with the local
altimeter setting in the barometric window, the altimeter should indicate the surveyed
elevation of the aeroplane’s parking space.
Indicated altitude gives us a measure of terrain clearance at low altitudes.
STD (Standard) or QNE (Nautical Elevation) setting
Figure 8.92: QNE
For vertical separation between aircraft flying at higher

altitudes, pressure altitude or flight level is used. When the
barometric pressure scale is adjusted to standard sea
level pressure, 29.92 inches of mercury or 1013.2 mbar or
hPa, the altimeter measures the height above this
standard pressure level. This is not an actual point, but is
a constantly changing reference. The reason is that all
aircraft in the upper level have their altimeters set to the
same reference.

© Copyright 2012
If an aeroplane flying at a constant 3,000 feet pressure altitude, for example, may vary its
height above the existing sea level pressure, all of the aircraft flying in this same area will
vary the same amount and the separation between the aircraft will remain the same. When
an aircraft is flying with the altimeter set to indicate pressure altitude, it is operating at a
flight level. Flight level 320 is 32,000 feet, pressure altitude.
Figure 8.93: Pressure measurement reference points
QFE (Field Elevation) setting
Figure 8.94: QFE
When this baroscale is set, the altimeter shows an altitude

of zero, with the aircraft on ground. The baroscale shows
the local air-pressure of the parking field.
If the pilot gets (via radio) the local baro pressure (QFE) of
the airfield, during approach the altimeter shows the height
above ground. Touching the ground, the altimeter shows
an altitude of zero.
This barosetting is seldom used and has been replaced by radio altimeters.

© Copyright 2012
Flight Level, Altitude, Height and Elevation
Altitude - The altitude is the vertical distance between aircraft and sea-level.
The barosetting therefore is QNH.
Height - The height is the vertical distance between aircraft and the terrain.
The barosetting therefore is QFE.
Flight Level - The flight level is the vertical distance between aircraft and the standard
pressure reference. This point can be above sea level if high pressure exists or below sea
level if a low pressure exists. The barosetting therefore is QNE.
Elevation - The elevation is the vertical distance from sea level to the airport or obstacle
(mountains and hills).
Figure 8.95: Pressure Measurement Reference Points

© Copyright 2012
Altimeter Indicators
For many years, altimeters had three pointers, the long one making a complete rotation
each 1,000 feet, a short, fat pointer making a complete rotation for each 10,000 feet, and a
third pointer geared so that it would have made one trip around the dial for 100,000 feet if
the instrument were to go that high. The range of these altimeters is usually 20,000, 35,000,
50,000 or 80,000 feet.
The control of aeroplanes along the many air-routes in the vicinity of modern airports
requires that an aeroplanes lateral and vertical position be constantly and accurately
monitored if potentially hazardous air traffic situations are to be avoided. To provide an
automated transmission of altitude (flight level), two digitisers are normally fitted to modern
altimeters. The digitisers are fitted inside the instrument case, as illustrated in Figure 8.96,
and are connected by a common gearing to the main shaft.
Figure 8.96: Modern altimeter
The angular position taken up by the rotors of each digitiser relative to its stator determines
the value of a pulsed digital signal, which is produced by the assembly. The digital pulses
are fed to a code converter where any ambiguity is resolved, and the total reply pulse is
modified into a coded response suitable for use by an SSR transponder. The digitised
altitude signal is not affected by changes to the hectopascals (millibars) counter setting, as
it is always referenced to a datum pressure of 1013.25 hPa.
Modern altimeters are also fitted with a vibrator assembly, which is designed to reduce the
initial opposition to motion of the moving parts, and also to reduce any frictional lag in the
system. The electrical supply additionally energises a warning flag solenoid in the digitiser
circuit code converter, which in the event of a power supply failure, will be de-energised,

© Copyright 2012
and will allow a power failure warning flag to appear in an aperture on the dial. At the same
time the code converter will also revert to a recognised fail-safe position of "ALL Zeros".
Figure 8.97: Modern altimeter display
Altimeter Errors
Position error is inherent with static systems, and is caused by the static port not always
being in undisturbed air. This error varies with each aircraft design and it changes with
airspeed and altitude. The servo altimeter has a built-in compensation system that tailors
the instrument to the particular aircraft and minimizes this error for the full range of flight
speeds and altitudes.
Instrument or mechanical error is produced from the instrument itself and is divided into
different aspects:
Scale error -The altimeter must indicate the same altitude shown on the master indicator or
manometer within a specified allowable tolerance.
Hysteresis -The reading taken with the altitude increasing must agree with the readings at
the same pressure level when the altitude is decreasing. A specified tolerance is allowed for
this test.
After effect -The altimeter must return to the same indication, within tolerance, after the
test as it had when the test began.
Friction -Two altitude readings are to be taken at each pressure level, one before and one
after the instrument is vibrated. There should be no more than a specified difference
between the two readings.

© Copyright 2012
Case leak -A low pressure is trapped inside the case it should not leak more than a
specified amount in a given period of time.
Barometric scale error - The correlation between the barometric scale and the indication
of the altimeter pointers must be correct within the allowable tolerance.
Figure 8.98: An old-style ‘3-pointer’ indicator
Figure 8.99: A modern servo altimeter indicator

© Copyright 2012
Blockages and Leakages
If the static tube or vents become blocked, the pressure within the instrument case will
remain constant and the altimeter will continue to indicate the altitude of the aeroplane
when the blockage occurred.
Leaks can also take place either inside or outside the pressure cabin. Within the pressure
cabin the cabin pressure altitude will be shown rather than the true altitude. In some
aeroplanes, an emergency source inside the fuselage is available. The static pressure
inside an aeroplane is however normally different from that external to the fuselage, since it
is influenced by blowers, ventilation, etc, so that a different correction for pressure error is
necessary.
Servo Altimeters
Some altimeters drive such a complex drum-type display that it is not practical for the
bellows to do the work unassisted, so the servo altimeter has been developed. Figure 8.100
is a diagram of the dial of a 50,000-foot servo altimeter in which there is a tens-of-
thousands foot drum, all of which move incrementally, and a continuously rotating drum that
indicates the tens of feet. The pointer makes one revolution in 1000 feet and indicates the
same information shown on the last three digits. In this instrument the tens-of-thousands-
foot drum shows the familiar barber pole stripes when the aeroplane is below 10,000 feet.
There is also a dual barometric scale where the pressure in either inches of mercury or
millibars can be set into the instrument. If the power should fail, a power failure flag warns
the pilot that the altimeter is inoperative.
The evacuated bellows or capsule is required to drive only an extremely low-inertia rotary
pick-off. The signal from the pick-off is built up by the amplifier and drives a servo motor
which rotates the drums, pointer, and synchros. These in turn drive repeater indicators and
code the transponder for altitude reporting.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.100: Servo altimeter schematic
In this instrument the pressure sensing capsules are coupled mechanically to an electrical
E-and-I pick-off assembly, and any movement of the aneroid capsules is transmitted
through a linkage to the "I" bar of the E-and-I inductive pick-up (transducer). The amplitude
of the AC voltage output from the secondary windings depends on the degree of deflection
of the "I" bar, which is a function of pressure change. When the two air gaps become
unequal, the reluctance of each circuit changes and an electrical output is generated. The
actual polarity of the output signal will depend on whether the capsules expand or contract.
The output signal is then amplified and used to drive a motor whose speed and direction of
rotation will depend on the amplitude and phase of the signal. The motor drives the gear
train, which then rotates the altitude digital counters and the pointer. The motor also drives
through a gearing arrangement and a cam which imparts an angular movement to a cam
follower, to which the "E" bar of the inductive pick-off is attached. Movement of the "E" bar
is such that it is driven until it reaches a position where the air gaps between the "E" and "I"
bars once again become equal, thus completing the servo-loop. The system is very
sensitive to small changes in pressure, and through the motor assembly, provides adequate
torque to drive the indicating system.
The datum pressure setting knob is linked to the cam via a gear train and worm shaft, as
shown. Rotation of the knob causes the worm shaft to slide forwards or backwards and
rotates the cam. Angular movement of the cam also alters the relationship between the 'E'
and 'I' bars, resulting in an electrical output which will cause the counters to rotate, and will
also drive the inductive pick-off back to its neutral position. The hPa sub-scale displays the
value of the datum pressure set.

© Copyright 2012
There is an error inherent in static systems known as position error, caused by the
impossibility of a static port to continually operate in perfectly undisturbed air. The servo
altimeter has a built-in correction system tailored for the particular aeroplane design that
minimizes this error for the full range of flight speeds and altitudes.
Servo-altimeters have the following advantages over simple and sensitive altimeters:-
• At high altitude very little pressure change takes place for a given change of altitude,
with the result that capsule movement is considerably less than for the same change
of altitude at lower levels. This factor reduces the efficiency of ordinary altimeters at
high levels, whereas the servomechanism will pick up a capsule movement as small
as 0.0002 inches per thousand feet.
• Power transmission gives greater accuracy.
• There is practically no time lag between the arrival of a new pressure in the
instrument, and the positioning of the counters.
• Being an electrical system, correction for pressure error can be made, and an
altitude-alerting device may be incorporated in the system.
• Although conventional altimeters now employ digital presentation, it is generally
more common with servo-altimeters. The digital presentation reduces the possibility
of misreading.
• A pointer is still available on the servo-altimeter for use at low level in assessing the
rate of change of altitude.

© Copyright 2012
Encoding Altimeters
Radar control of air traffic has made the smooth, orderly flow of high-density traffic possible,
but until recently the controller has had no accurate knowledge of the altitude of the
aeroplane he was following. The radar beacon transponder replies to the ground radar with
a code giving the controller certain information he needs. These transponders have 4,096
codes available, so the latest generation of altimeters not only provide the pilot with a
visible read-out of his altitude, but code the transponder so it can reply to the ground station
with a signal providing a visible indication on the radar scope of the aeroplane's altitude in
100-foot increments.
Encoding altimeters of the non-servo type must have an extra low-torque pick-off, and the
majority now in use have optical encoders. In this system, the bellows drives a glass disc,
etched with transparent and opaque sectors. A light source shines through the disc onto
photoelectric cells which convert the disc's movement into coded signals for the
transponder. This type of pick-off provides a high degree of accuracy with very low torque
requirements.
Altimeter Tests
An altimeter must be tested every 24 months. Tests include:
Scale error: The barometric scale is set to 29.92 inches of mercury and the instrument
subjected to pressure corresponding to a series of test altitudes. The instrument must not
have a scale error in excess of that allowed in Table 8.1.
Hysteresis: This test is made to determine that the instrument will be within tolerance
between a reading taken when the altitude is increasing and one taken when the altitude is
decreasing. Hysteresis is essentially a lagging of the indication caused by the deflection of
the metal in the diaphragms not keeping up with the pressure changes.
After-effect: This error shows up by the altimeter not returning to its original reading after
the hysteresis test has been performed. It is the effect of the "set" the diaphragms have
taken.
Friction: All non-servo altimeters have enough friction that some form of vibration is
needed for their accurate reading. This test determines just how much friction the
instrument has. A reading is taken before and after the case is vibrated.
Case leak: The case is tested at 18,000 feet pressure to be sure it does not leak more than
100 feet in one minute.

© Copyright 2012
Barometric scale error: This test determines that the movement of the barometric scale-
has the proper effect on the pointers.
Altitude Equivalent pressure Tolerance
(feet) (inches of mercury) ± (feet)
-1,000 ______________________ __31.018 _____________ 20

0 _____________________ ___ 29.921 __________ 20
500 ______________________ __29.385 ____________ 20
1,000 ______________________ 28.856 ______________ 20
1,500 ______________________ 28.335 ______________ 25
2,000 ____ _________________ 27.821 ______________ 30
3,000 ______________________ 26.817 ______________ 30
4,000 ______________________ 25.842 ________________ 35
6,000 ______________________ 23.978 _____________ 40
8,000 ______________________ 22.225 _____________ 60
10,000 ____________________ __ 20.577 ____________ 80
12,000 ____________________ __ 19.029 ____________ 90
14,000 ____________________ __ 17.577 _______________ 100
16,000 ____________________ ___16.216 _______________ 110
18,000 ____________________ __ 14.942 _______________ 120
20,000 ____________________ __ 13.750 _______________ 130
22,000 ____________________ __ 12.636 _______________ 140
25,000 _______________ _______ 11.104 _______________ 155
30,000 ____________________ ___ 8.885 _______________ 180
35,000 ____________________ ___ 7.041 _______________ 205
40,000 ____________________ ___ 5.538 _______________ 230
45,000 ____________________ ___ 4.355 _______________ 255
50,000 ____________________ ___ 3.425 _______________ 280
Table 8.1: Maximum allowable altimeter errors
Tolerance
Test (Feet)
Case Leak Test __________________ ____ ___100

Hysteresis Test:
First Test Point (50 percent of maximum
altitude) ______________________ ____ ___ 75
Second Test Point (40 percent of maximum
altitude) ______________________ ____ ___ 75
After Effect Test _________________ _________ 3
Table 8.2: Maximum allowable altimeter leak, hysteresis and after effect

© Copyright 2012
Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)
The rate-of-climb indicator, more properly called the vertical speed indicator. Its main
function is that of helping the pilot establish a rate of ascent or descent that will allow them
to reach a specified altitude at a given time.
The vertical speed indicator has as its operating mechanism a bellows, or pressure
capsule, similar to that of an altimeter, except that rather than being evacuated and sealed,
it is vented to the inside of the instrument case through a diffuser which is an accurately
calibrated leak.
The principle of operation of one type of vertical speed indicator is as follows:
When the aircraft begins to climb, the pressure inside the capsule begins to decrease to a
value below that inside the instrument case, and the capsule compresses, causing the
levers and gears to move the pointer so it will indicate a climb. The pressure inside the case
now begins to decrease by leaking through the diffuser. This leak is calibrated so that there
will always be a difference between the pressure inside the capsule and that inside the
case that is proportional to the rate of change of the outside air pressure. As soon as the
aircraft levels off, the pressure inside the case and that inside the capsule will equalize, and
the indicator will show a zero rate of change.
Figure 8.101: A VSI mechanism

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.102: A VSI mechanism and display

© Copyright 2012
VSI Errors
The VSI can suffer from the following errors:-
Lag - When an aeroplane is suddenly made to climb or descend, a delay of a few seconds
occurs before the pointer settles at the appropriate rate of climb or descent, which is due to
the time required for the pressure differential to develop. A similar delay will occur in the
pointer showing a zero rate of climb or descent when the aeroplane resumes level flight.
Instrument Error - This error is due to the manufacturers' tolerances. However, in service
the instrument pointer can be re-adjusted to the zero position using a screw adjustment.
Manoeuvre Induced Error. Errors induced by manoeuvres or flight in turbulence can cause
any pressure instrument to misread for up to 3 seconds at low altitudes and up to 10
seconds at high altitudes. The times for the VSI may be even longer. Thus, during any
manoeuvre involving a change of attitude, absolute reliance must not be placed on the VSI,
with pitching resulting in the greatest error.
VSI Faults
The following faults will have an adverse affect on the VSI reading:-
Blockages - A blockage in the static line will render the instrument completely
unserviceable, and the pointer will register zero regardless of the aeroplane's vertical
speed.
Breakage or Leakage in the Static line - A breakage or leakage in the static pressure
supply line will cause the static value to change as the breakage occurs, e.g. if the
breakage occurs in a pressurised section of the aeroplane the VSI will initially show a high
rate of descent and will then stabilise to give a zero indication. This reading will be
maintained until the aeroplane descends below the cabin altitude pressure.

© Copyright 2012
Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator (IVSI)
The Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator (IVSI) is also sometimes referred to as the
Inertial Lead Vertical Speed Indicator (ILVSI). The basic construction of this instrument is
shown on the next page. It consists of the same basic elements as the conventional VSI,
but it is additionally fitted with an accelerometer unit that is designed to create a more rapid
differential pressure effect, specifically during the initiation of climb or descent. The
accelerometer comprises of two small cylinders or dashpots, which contain inertial masses
in the form of pistons that are held in balance by springs and their own mass. The cylinders
are connected in the capillary tube system leading to the capsule and are thus open to the
static pressure source.
When the aircraft noses over to begin a descent, the inertia of the accelerometer piston
causes it to move upward, instantaneously increasing the pressure inside the capsule and
lowering the pressure inside the case. This change in pressure gives an immediate
indication of a descent. At this time, the lag of the ordinary VSI has been overcome it
begins to indicate the descent, there is no more inertia from the nose-down rotation, and
the accelerometer piston will be centred so the instrument will be ready to indicate the
levelling off from the descent.
Figure 8.103: Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator

© Copyright 2012
Airspeed Indicator (ASI)
The airspeed at which an aeroplane is travelling through the air is essential to the pilot, both
for the safe and efficient handling of the aeroplane and as a basic input to the navigation
calculations.
When an aeroplane is stationary on the ground it is subject to normal atmospheric or static
pressure, which acts equally on all parts of the aeroplane structure. In flight the aeroplane
experiences an additional pressure due to the aeroplane's motion through the air, which is
known as dynamic pressure, and is dependent upon the forward motion of the aeroplane
and the density of the air, according to the following formula:
P T = ½ρV2 + P S
Where;
P T = total or pitot pressure (also known as total head pressure or stagnation
pressure)
P S = static pressure
ρ = air density
V = velocity of the aeroplane – True Air Speed (TAS)
Rearranging the formula, the difference between the pitot and static pressures is equal to
½ρV2 (dynamic pressure). The airspeed indicator thus measures the pressure differential
between the two sources, and provides a display indication graduated in units of speed.
An airspeed indicator is a differential pressure gauge that measures the difference between
the pitot and the static pressure. It consists of an airtight case in which a thin metal capsule
is mounted. Pitot pressure (P t ) is taken into the capsule and the inside of the case is
connected to the static pressure source (P s ). The capsule expands in proportion to the
difference between the pitot and the static pressure, and this expansion is measured by a
mechanical linkage is displayed as a pointer moves over the dial which is graduated in
miles per hour, knots or kilometres per hour.
The Pitot tube shown in Figure 8.104 shows that the Ram Air Pressure is the difference
between Total Pressure and Static Pressure. If the airspeed is zero, P t is equal to P s , so
the Ram-Air-Pressure is zero.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.104: Pitot-static tube and differential pressure measuring principle
Figure 8.105: ASI principle and mechanism

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.106: Actual ASI operation and indication
Figure 8.107: ASI is a differential pressure gauge

© Copyright 2012
Square Law Compensation
Since airspeed indicators measure a differential pressure which varies with the square of
the airspeed, it follows that, if the deflections of the capsules responded linearly to the
pressure, the response characteristic in relation to speed would be similar to that shown in
Figure 8.108 (a). If also the capsule were coupled to a pointer mechanism so that its
deflections were directly magnified, the instrument scale would be of the type indicated in
Figure 8.108 (b).
Figure 8.108: Effect of square law on the speed indication
The non-linearity of such a scale makes it difficult to read accurately, particularly at the low
end of the speed range; furthermore, the scale length for a wide speed range would be too
great to accommodate conveniently in the standard dial sizes.
A type of square-law compensating device is shown in Figure 8.109. It consists of a special

ranging or "tuning" spring which bears against the capsule and applies a controlled
retarding force to capsule expansion. The retarding force is governed by sets of ranging
screws which are pre-adjusted to contact the spring at appropriate points as it is lifted by
the expanding capsule. As the speed and differential pressure increase, the spring rate
increases and its effective length is shortened; thus linearity is obtained directly at the
capsule.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.109: ASI mechanism showing square law adjustment compensation screws
Airspeeds
Airspeed is the speed of an aircraft relative to the air. Among the common conventions for
qualifying airspeed are: indicated airspeed ("IAS"), calibrated airspeed ("CAS"), true
airspeed ("TAS"), equivalent airspeed ("EAS") and density airspeed.
Indicated Airspeed (IAS)

Indicated airspeed (IAS) is the airspeed indicator reading (ASIR) uncorrected for
instrument, position, and other errors. From current EASA definitions: Indicated airspeed
means the speed of an aircraft as shown on its pitot static airspeed indicator calibrated to
reflect standard atmosphere adiabatic compressible flow at sea level uncorrected for
airspeed system errors.
Outside of the former Soviet bloc, most airspeed indicators show the speed in knots i.e.
nautical miles per hour. Some light aircraft have airspeed indicators showing speed in miles
per hour.
1 Knot (Kt) = 1 Nautical mile (NM) per hour
• 1 NM = 1 arcminute along the earth equator or meridian (Great-Circle) (360 degrees

x 60 minutes = 21,600 arcminutes ≈ 40,000 km)
• 1 NM = 1.15 statute miles = 1.8 km
The static pressure measurement is subject to error due to inability to place the static ports
at positions where the pressure is true static pressure at all airspeeds and attitudes. The
correction for this error is the position error correction (PEC) and varies for different aircraft
and airspeeds. Further errors of 10% or more are common if the aeroplane is flown in
“uncoordinated” flight.

© Copyright 2012
Calibrated Airspeed (CAS)
Calibrated airspeed (CAS) is indicated airspeed corrected for instrument errors, position
error (due to incorrect pressure at the static port) and installation errors.
Equivalent Airspeed (EAS)

Equivalent airspeed (EAS) is defined as the speed at sea level that would produce the
same incompressible dynamic pressure as the true airspeed at the altitude at which the
vehicle is flying.
An aircraft in forward flight is subject to the effects of compressibility. Likewise, the

calibrated airspeed is a function of the compressible impact pressure. EAS, on the other
hand, is a measure of airspeed that is a function of incompressible dynamic pressure.
Structural analysis is often in terms of incompressible dynamic pressure, so that equivalent
airspeed is a useful speed for structural testing.
At standard sea level pressure, calibrated airspeed and equivalent airspeed are equal. Up
to about 200 knots CAS and 10,000 feet the difference is negligible, but at higher speeds
and altitudes CAS must be corrected for compressibility error to determine EAS. The
significance of equivalent airspeed is that at Mach numbers below the onset of wave drag,
all of the aerodynamic forces and moments on an aircraft scale with the square of the
equivalent airspeed. The equivalent airspeed is closely related to the indicated airspeed
shown by the airspeed indicator. Thus, the handling and 'feel' of an aircraft, and the
aerodynamic loads upon it, at a given equivalent airspeed, are very nearly constant and
equal to those at standard sea level irrespective of the actual flight conditions.
True Airspeed (TAS)

True airspeed differs from the equivalent airspeed because the airspeed indicator is
calibrated at SL, ISA conditions, where the air density is (𝜌𝑠𝑙 ) 1.225 kg/m³, whereas the air
density in flight at altitude (𝜌𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 ) differs from this value.
𝜌𝑠𝑙
TAS = �𝜌 x IAS
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
The difference between TAS and IAS is significant at altitude. For example, at 40,000 ft,
TAS is twice the indicated airspeed.
𝜌𝑠𝑙
Altitude (ft) �
𝜌𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
Seal level (sl) 1.00

5,000 1.08
10,000 1.16
20,000 1.37
30,000 1.63
40,000 2.02
Table of density ratios to altitude (ft)

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.110: TAS is greater than IAS at altitude
Ground Speed (GS)

The Groundspeed (GS) is the True airspeed (TAS) corrected with the wind speed and
represents the speed of an aircraft relative to the ground
True Airspeed (TAS) Indicators

True airspeed (TAS) is Indicated airspeed (IAS) corrected for density (see Density Error).
Since density varies with both static pressure (i.e. altitude) and temperature, we need to
introduce another variable – temperature, into the instrument mechanism.
The pilot can read his airspeed indicator, altimeter, and outside air temperature gauge and
apply these three indications to his flight computer to come up with his true airspeed (TAS).
Doing all this may be too distracting a procedure, however, and a true airspeed indicator
may be installed in the panel. Figure 8.111 is a typical true airspeed indicator. The case of
this instrument holds both an airspeed indicator which moves the pointer and an altimeter
mechanism which moves the dial. The movement of the altimeter mechanism is affected -
opposed or aided - by the action of a bimetallic spring exposed to outside airflow, and, as
the aeroplane goes up in altitude, the dial rotates in such a direction that the pointer will
indicate a higher value. If the air is warmer than standard for the altitude the aeroplane is
flying, the temperature sensor will assist the altimeter to cause the true airspeed reading to
be higher than indicated airspeed.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.111: This true airspeed indicator modifies the airspeed
indication by moving the dial in response to altitude and temperature (density) changes.
Figure 8.112: A combined IAS and TAS indicator. The white scale is the TAS scale,
and is turned by a mechanism sensitive to air temperature

© Copyright 2012
Air Speed Indicator Errors
The dial of the ASI is calibrated to a formula, which assumes constant air density (standard
mean sea level) and no instrument defects. Any departure from these conditions, or
disturbance in the pitot or static pressures being applied to the instrument, will result in a
difference between the indicated and true air speeds. The following sources of error exist:-
Calibration Error – Position Error

The static port is difficult to locate on a moving aeroplane. If it captures any dynamic
pressure the ASI will under read. On the other hand the actual static pressure along the
side of a moving aeroplane is often lower than atmospheric pressure, and if the static port
experiences this it will cause the ASI to over read. The aircraft designer must endeavour to
place the static port so that it experiences actual atmospheric static pressure. The chosen
point is usually somewhere on the side of the fuselage. Unfortunately static pressure at a
given point on the fuselage tends to change with angle of attack making it nearly impossible
to choose a spot that is ideal at all flight speeds.
When angle of attack changes ram air enters the Pitot tube at a slight angle which causes a
further calibration error.
The error due to static-port location is called position error.
The total error due to both dynamic and static measuring errors is call calibration error.
Calibration error differs for each type of aeroplane, and usually varies with angle of attack.
Compression Error
The second source of error when measuring dynamic pressure with an ASI is called
compression error.
Based on what was said above it seems logical that diaphragm expansion is proportional to
dynamic pressure, but that is only the case if air density inside the diaphragm is the same
as air density in the case, which it is not.
Ram air entering the Pitot tube is compressed when it is brought to a stop in the diaphragm.
Therefore air inside the diaphragm is denser than that in the case.
If this density difference was always the same it could be allowed for in the design of the
instrument. Unfortunately thinner air at high altitude is more easily compressed than the
thick air at sea level. A good ASI is correctly adjusted for compression at sea level but over
reads at high altitude – I.E it indicates more dynamic pressure than really exists.
ICE-T
To get from indicated airspeed to true airspeed you must progress through the sequence:
1. Indicated airspeed (IAS)

2. Calibrated airspeed (CAS)
3. Equivalent airspeed (EAS)
4. True airspeed (TAS)

© Copyright 2012
This can be remembered by the pneumonic ICE-T.
To convert IAS to CAS apply the calibration correction
To covert from CAS to EAS apply the compression correction
EAS accurately reflects the dynamic pressure and as such is the desired value for piloting
(but not navigating.) At slow speeds and low altitudes EAS is not much different than
CAS/IAS, which is fortunate since that means pilots can fly safely by referring to the IAS
most of the time. But EAS is the proper reference and therefore pilots need to know under
which circumstances IAS is substantially different than EAS. In other words pilots need to
know what circumstances cause a lot of calibration and compression error.
Calibration Error
Calibration error is usually greatest at the extremes of the operating envelope, i.e. at very
low and very high indicated airspeeds. In light aircraft this often means that the ASI is
unreliable when in slow flight (but usually quite reliable in cruise.) In a jet aeroplane that
flies over a much wider range of airspeeds the ASI may have significant calibration errors at
both low and high speeds.
Calibration error is applied to IAS to get CAS. CAS represents what a perfect ASI should
read, i.e. one with no calibration errors. If compression error is small CAS can safely be
used as a flight reference. This is the case for all light aircraft, but in a jet pilots must also
consider compression error.
Aeroplanes that travel faster than 200 knots and higher than 20,000 ft. require compression
allowance. Slower, low flying aeroplanes do not.
Density Error
EAS is the speed that determines aerodynamic performance i.e. it represents the dynamic
pressure – in units of sea level equivalent airspeed. For navigation it is necessary to
convert this to the actual velocity i.e. true airspeed (TAS.) To do this air density must be
allowed for
Summary
The relationship between the various air speeds is as follows:
• Air Speed Indicator Reading (ASIR) + Instrument Error Correction = Indicated Air
Speed (IAS)
• IAS + Pressure Error Correction = Calibrated Air Speed (CAS)
• CAS + Compressibility Error Correction = Equivalent Air Speed (EAS)
• EAS + Density Error Correction = True Air Speed (TAS)
In practice, the corrections are combined to give:
• ASIR + Instrument Error Correction + Pressure Error Correction = CAS

• CAS + Compressibility Error Correction + Density Error Correction = TAS

© Copyright 2012
Air Speed Indicator Faults
The following faults may occur in the ASI:
Blockages - A blockage of the pitot tube, possibly due to ice, will cause the ASI not to
respond to changes of speed in level flight. The capsule will however behave as a
barometer or altimeter capsule, and will react to changes in the static pressure. If the
aeroplane climbs, the ASI will indicate an increase in airspeed (over-read) and if it
descends, it will indicate a decrease in airspeed (under-read).
Figure 8.113: ASI pitot blockages
If the static line is blocked, the ASI will over-read at lower altitudes, and under-read at
higher altitudes than that at which the line became blocked.
Figure 8.114: ASI static blockages

© Copyright 2012
Leaks - A leak in the pitot system will cause the ASI to under-read, whilst a leak in the
static line will cause the ASI to over-read in an unpressurised fuselage (cabin pressure is
usually lower than the atmospheric static pressure), and under-read in a pressurised
aeroplane (cabin pressure higher than static).
Whilst any under-reading of the ASI is undesirable, it is not necessarily dangerous, but
over-reading of the ASI is dangerous, since a stall will occur at a higher indicated airspeed
than that specified for the aeroplane.
Some modern ASIs also employ coloured flags and needles as attention getters, i.e. to
indicate any electrical or transmission failure, and also to draw attention to important
altitude indicators.

© Copyright 2012
Mach Indicator
During flight, aeroplanes emit pressure disturbances (sound waves), which radiate in all
directions at the speed of sound. As the speed of an aeroplane increases, it gets
progressively closer to the waves ahead of it until, at the speed of sound, the pressure
waves combine into a shock wave and attach themselves to the aeroplane. The effect of
the shock wave is to greatly increase the drag forces associated with the aeroplane, and to
significantly alter its stability and control characteristics. It is therefore extremely important
for the flight crew to know how close to the speed of sound the aeroplane is. The instrument
used to indicate this is the Mach meter, which measures the ratio of the aeroplane’s
airspeed (TAS) to the local speed of sound, and displays it as a Mach number.
A relationship exists between CAS, TAS and Mach Number under ISA conditions. With
increasing altitude the following graphs depict what will occur if one value remains constant:
Figure 8.115: Relationship between CAS, TAS and Mach
This is summarised in the following tabular format, including the effect of increasing altitude
on the Local Speed of Sound (LSS).

© Copyright 2012
Altitude versus IAS/Mach
Figure 8.116 illustrates the difference between indicated airspeed, true airspeed, and Mach.
True airspeed and indicated airspeed are the same at sea level; however, as altitude
increases, holding a constant indicated airspeed results in continually increasing true
airspeed. For an example, 400 KIAS at sea level becomes about 450 KTAS at 10,000 feet,
and about 550 KTAS at 20,000 feet.
The Mach numbered lines are drawn on the basis of a standard day air temperature chart;
0.9 times the speed of sound at sea level would be about 600 knots true airspeed, but from
about 36,000 feet on up, 0.90 Mach equals only 525 knots true airspeed.
If a particular aeroplane is not supposed to fly faster that 390 knots indicated, and not more
than 0.885 Mach, it could fly 390 knots indicated until it got to 21,000 feet. Above that
altitude, the indicated airspeed would have to decrease in order not to exceed maximum
Mach. Flying an indicated airspeed as high as 390 knots above 21,000 feet would result in
transonic or supersonic speeds.
Figure 8.116: Mach varies as a result of temperature and altitude.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.117: Maximum allowable airspeed indicator showing the barber pole
Aeroplanes that are not designed to fly at sonic airspeed must never be allowed to reach
their critical Mach number. That is, they must never be flown at a speed that will allow the
airflow over any part of the aircraft to reach sonic velocity. When this happens, shock
waves form and serious aerodynamic problems can result. Aeroplanes whose maximum
speed is limited by structural considerations have their never-exceed speed marked by a
fixed red line on the dial of the airspeed indicator. But if the maximum speed is limited by
the critical Mach number, the fixed red line is replaced by a red pointer (Barber pole) that is
driven as a function of altitude.
Overspeed Warning
The maximum operating limit speeds V mo /M mo is an airspeed or mach number which should
not be exceeded. A warning alerts the pilot if the limit is exceeded. For example: below
23,000 ft the airspeed is limited to 372 kts. Above this flight level the speed is limited to
Mach 0.88.
The warning can be triggered from an overspeed warning switch, mach airspeed indicator
or airdata computer.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.118: Overspeed Warning Switch
Figure 8.119: V mo , M mo versus Flight Level

© Copyright 2012
Mach Meter
When aeroplanes fly at or near the speed of sound, a measurement is needed that
compares the speed of the aeroplane with the speed of sound. This measurement is called
the Mach number. An indication of Mach 1 occurs when the aeroplane is flying at the speed
of sound. Below the speed of sound, the indication is given as a decimal fraction, and
above Mach one, the indication is an integer with a decimal. For example, flight at Mach
1.25 is flight at an airspeed of 1.25 times the speed of sound at that altitude. Mach 0.75 is
flight at an airspeed of 75% of the speed of sound.
Figure 8.120: Mach Meter
The speed of sound decreases at decreasing outside temperature (TAT). The Mach
number increases if the aircraft climbs with constant TAS.
Combination Airspeed Indicator

The increased value of instrument panel space aboard modem aircraft, and the need to
integrate as much of this information as possible has brought about one instrument that
combines the airspeed indicator with the Mach meter and also shows the maximum
allowable operating airspeed. This instrument also includes “bugs” which are small
indicators around the periphery of the dial that may be manually set to indicate the correct
speed for certain flight conditions such as that needed during takeoff or an approach to
landing.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.121: A combined IAS/Mach indicator with reference bugs
Figure 8.122: Mach Meter principle

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.123: Graph Relationship lAS, TAS, MACH and SAT

© Copyright 2012
Mach meter Construction and Operation
A typical Mach meter, as shown in Figure 8.122, consists of a sealed case containing two
capsule assemblies placed at 90° to each other, and a series of mechanical linkages.
The first capsule unit is an airspeed capsule, and is connected to the pitot pressure
pipeline, while the interior of the instrument case is fed with static pressure. The second
capsule unit is an aneroid capsule, which responds to changes in static pressure. The
airspeed capsule measures the difference between pitot and static pressure and expands
or contracts in response to air speed changes. The airspeed linkage transfers movement of
the capsule to the main shaft, and causes the shaft to rotate, thus moving a pivoted ratio
arm in the direction A-B.
The altitude (aneroid) capsule expands or contracts, and responds to changes in altitude.
Movement of the capsule is transferred to the ratio arm via a spring and pin, thus causing it
to move in the direction C-D.
The position of the ratio arm is therefore dependent on both pitot excess and static
pressure. Movement of the ratio arm controls the ranging arm which, through the linkage
and gearing.
This turns the pointer, and displays the Mach Number corresponding to the ratio of pitot
excess pressure and static pressure. Any increase in altitude and/or airspeed will result in a
higher Mach number. The Critical Mach number is indicated by a specially shaped lubber
mark, which is located over the Mach meter dial. It is adjustable so that the critical Mach
Number for the particular type of aeroplane may be displayed.

© Copyright 2012
Mach Meter Errors
Some older mechanical Machmeters not driven from an air data computer use an altitude
aneroid inside the instrument that converts pitot-static pressure into Mach number. These
systems assume that the temperature at any altitude is standard; therefore, the indicated
Mach number is inaccurate whenever the temperature deviates from standard.
These systems are called indicated Machmeters. Modern electronic Machmeters use
information from an air data computer system to correct for temperature errors. These
systems display true Mach number.
The early Mach meters that were used until the 1980s, and are still used in some business
jets today, were type A, designed based on the above formula. They work quite well but
must approximate compression (CAS to EAS correction) based on altitude. Modern Type
B Mach meters use an air data computer (ADC.) An ADC has a temperature sensor and is
able to correctly allow for temperature rise. It can therefore accurately calculate the speed
of sound and the true airspeed, and therefore the Mach number. Type B Mach meters
usually display Mach number to three decimal places and are very accurate. Type A
Mach meters are less accurate but adequate for safe flight operations
Mach Meter Blockages and Leakages

Blockages and leaks have the same effect as they do on the ASI, but the effects may be
increased due to the two capsules; a blockage in the static system will cause the Mach
meter to over-read during a descent and under-read during a climb.
Mach Meter Accuracy

The accuracy of the Mach meter is within +/- 0.01M during its normal operating range, but
decreases to +/- 0.02 M at the limits of that range.

© Copyright 2012
Air Data Computer (ADC)
General
An air data computer (ADC) is an essential avionics component found in modern glass
cockpits. This computer, rather than individual instruments, can determine the calibrated
airspeed, Mach number, altitude, and altitude trend from input data from sensors such as
an aircraft's pitot-static system, gyroscopes, GPS and accelerometers. In some very high
speed aircraft such as the Space Shuttle, equivalent airspeed is calculated instead of
calibrated airspeed.
Air data computers usually also have an input of total air temperature. This enables
computation of static air temperature and true airspeed.
In Airbus aircraft the air data computer is combined with attitude, heading and navigation
sources in a single unit known as the Air Data Inertial Reference Unit (ADIRU). This has
now been replaced by Global Navigation Air Data Inertial Reference System (GNADIRS).
The air data computer samples: discretes, total and static temperatures, total and static
pressures, barosetting and angle of attack.
All results are sent to the users such as instruments, displays, autoflight and navigation
systems.
Figure 8.124: Principle of the Air Data Computer (ADC)

© Copyright 2012
Air Data Modules
Airdata modules convert pitot or static pressure into digital output signal. The modules are
connected with a short piece of hose to the respective pitot-static probe. The output is
transmitted in ARINC 429 format to the airdata computer.
Figure 8.125: Air Data Module

© Copyright 2012
Air Data Systems
Figure 8.126: An Air Data Computer information flow diagram
Figure 8.127: An Air Data Computer LRU

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.128: Physical Instruments, Air Data Computer and other users

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.129: A Digital Air Data Computer (DADC) information flow diagram

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.130: Instruments getting air-data from Central Air Data Computer

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.131: Central Air Data Computer with EFIS and other systems.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.132: Pitot and Static Pressure from Air Data Modules

© Copyright 2012
Intentionally Blank

© Copyright 2012
Gyroscopic Instruments
A gyroscope is a small wheel with its weight concentrated at its rim. When it spins at a high
speed, it exhibits two interesting characteristics: rigidity in space and precession.
Directional gyros and gyro horizons are position gyros, and they make use of the
characteristic of rigidity in space. Rate gyros such as turn and slip indicators and turn
coordinators use the characteristic of precession.
Rigidity
Let us assume that a gyro having no friction in its bearings, but with a power source to keep
it spinning, positioned at a certain place on the equator, at noon we would see the tail of the
arrow. By the time the earth rotated 90 degrees, at 6 p.m., we would see the side of the
wheel with the arrow pointing to the right. At midnight we would again be in line with the
arrow, only this time it would be pointing at us. By 6 a.m., we would again see the side of
the wheel. Now, however, the arrow would be pointing to the left. This characteristic makes
the gyroscope valuable to us as a stable reference for determining both the attitude and the
direction of the aircraft carrying the gyro.
Figure 8.133: The Gyro’s relation to a rotating Earth

© Copyright 2012
Precession
If a force is applied to a spinning gyroscope, its effect will be felt, not at the point of
application, but at a point 90 degrees from the point of application in the direction of rotation
of the wheel. If a gyro is spinning in the plane and a force is applied to the top of the wheel,
it will not topple over as a static body would; it will rather rotate about its vertical axis. This
rotation is called the precession of the gyro. If one of the bearings which support the gyro
shaft has friction, it will produce a force that will cause precession.
Precession is not desired in a directional or attitude gyro, but it is used in a rate gyro
because the amount of precession is related to the amount of force that caused it. We use
rate gyros to measure the rate of rotation of the aircraft about one or more of its axes.
Figure 8.134: Rotating Mass
Figure 8.135: A Mass in motion is keeping its direction

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.136: A Mass in motion is keeping its direction

© Copyright 2012
Types of Gyro
Vertical Gyro (VG) (2 degrees of freedom)

• Sensing the angular displacement from vertically direction (Roll and Pitch Attitude)
• Artificial Horizons, Attitude Indication and Attitude reference for autopilots etc.
Directional Gyro (DG) (2 degrees of freedom)

• Sensing the angular displacement of a horizontal direction (Azimuth, Heading)
• Compass stabilisation, heading reference for autopilots etc.
Figure 8.137: Vertical and horizontal gyros
Rate Gyro (RG) (1 degree of freedom)

• Sensing of aircraft angular rate around all 3 axes (Yaw, Pitch and Roll)
• Turn and Slip Indicator, Turn Coordinator Indicator, Autopilot
Rate Integrating Gyro (RIG)(1 degree of freedom)

• Sensing the integral of the aircraft angular rate
• Platform stabilisation for Inertial Navigation Systems.
• (High accuracy and sensitivity)

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.138: Gyro orientations

© Copyright 2012
Vertical Gyro
The vertical gyro senses the relationship between the pitch and roll axes of the aircraft and
a vertical line through the centre of the earth, and it gives a stable reference so the actual
pitch and bank angle is known to keep the wings level.
Figure 8.139: A vertical gyro used to sense aircraft pitch and roll
The vertical gyro has two degrees of freedom. The axle of the wheel is always vertical.
Vertical gyros are located inside horizon indicators or built into separate units as “remote”
vertical gyros. Their roll and pitch signals are used for artificial horizons, autopilots, flight
directors and the weather radar antenna stabilisation.
Figure 8.140: A vertical gyro used as an indicator of pitch and roll (Attitude Indicator)

© Copyright 2012
Attitude Indicator
The example in
Figure 8.143 shows the indication the pilot has when the aeroplane is;
• flying straight and descending, level or climbing;

• banking to the left and descending, level or climbing;
• banking to the right and descending, level or climbing.
When the nose of the aircraft is pitched down, the horizon moves up. If the aircraft banks to
the right, the sphere moves toward the left. The instrument shows the horizon as it would
appear if we could actually see it.
Figure 8.141: Attitude indicator

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.142: Attitude indicator

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.143: Pilot indication of Pitch and Roll from an Attitude Indicator

© Copyright 2012
Above the horizon, the dial is light coloured, usually blue, to represent the sky, and below
the horizon, it is brown or black representing the ground. Short horizontal lines both above
and below the horizon help the pilot to establish pitch angles, and across the top of the
instrument, a pointer may be aligned with index marks to establish the desired bank angle.
These marks are located at 10, 20, 30, 60 and 90 degrees.
1. Sphere
2. Attitude gyro flag
3. Vertical deviation (GS)
4. Glideslope flag
5. Pitch trim
6. Inclinometer
7. Rate-of-turn
8. Roll trim
9. Horizontal deviation
10. Flight director flag
11. Horizontal reference
Figure 8.144: Attitude Indicator

© Copyright 2012
Erection of the Vertical Gyros
The vertical direction to the earth centre is sensed in unaccelerated flights with pendulums
or weights of two rotating balls. Any unbalance acts with force to the gyro to erect its spin
axis into the vertical.
By Air - The early artificial horizon used a rotor with its spin axis vertical. It is spun by a jet
of air. The housing which holds the rotor is mounted on two gimbals, allowing the aircraft to
freely pitch and roll about the gyro. When the gyro is erect, air leaving the gyro housing
exits equally through four vertical slots in the bottom of the housing. One-half of each of
these slots is covered with a pendulum valve, mounted in such a way that any tilt of the
rotor will open one valve and close the valve on the opposite side of the housing. Air now
leaving through the slot in one side and not in the other creates a precessive force that will
bring the gyro back to its upright, or erect position.
Figure 8.145: Gyro erection by jets / pendulum valves

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.146: Gyro erection by jets / pendulum valves

© Copyright 2012
Erection of electrically driven Gyros
Newer attitude gyros are driven by electric motors. For those gyros there is a need of
erection systems working with weights sensing the earth’s gravity.
Erection effect is caused when the unstable pendulum is accelerated ahead of the driving
lug due to a significant horizontal acceleration. This creates a torque causing the
precession in the corrective direction.
If the aircraft accelerates, erection suppression becomes operative, to prevent the vertical
gyro getting itself in a false vertical direction.
Figure 8.147: Horizon Indicator (Gyro Erected with Pendulum)

© Copyright 2012
Gyro Erection with Balls
Two small steel balls moving on a circular track are driven by a slow moving transport arm.
The eddy current drag reduces the speed from 18,000 RPM to 50 RPM. If the gyro spin
axis is vertical, the balltrack is situated horizontal. Both balls are situated in opposite
positions and are in balance. No force is presented to the gyro.
If the gyro spin axis is not vertical, assumed point A is downward.
• Ball 1 has to be raised up,

• Ball 2 rolls down toward the stop of the transport arm.
In this case, the force is no more in balance. A force acts on the gyro. The gyro’s
precession raises point A upward until both balls are in balance.
During turns, the balls are mechanically blocked, to prevent the gyro being tilted to a false
vertical.
Figure 8.148: Gyro Erection with slowly rotating Balls

© Copyright 2012
Electrical Gyro Erection
In order to maintain the spin axis vertically, two erection systems must be used, one in the
roll axis and one in the pitch axis. The reaction of a gyro to an applied force makes it
necessary to use erection forces at right angles to the desired direction of motion. This
accounts for the pitch erection torquer mounted in the roll axis and the roll erection torquer
mounted in the pitch axis.
A torquer is a frustrated motor. It never gets to turn anything, not even itself; but when
called upon to do so, will try. A gravity sensing liquid switch, constructed on the principle of
a carpenter’s level, provides power to the torquer when the switch is not level. The torquer
then provides the force to erect the spin axis vertically in one axis.
Roll erection torquing is cut off when the bank angle exceeds about 6 degrees and pitch
erection is cut off if the acceleration is more than 2 kts/sec2, to eliminate the tendency to
erect to a false vertical.
The erection control applies for the first 3 minutes of gyro operation, a higher voltage to the
torquer for fast erection at start up of the gyro.
Figure 8.149: Liquid Level Sensor and Torque Motor

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.150: Vertical Gyro with electrical Erection

© Copyright 2012
Remote Artificial Horizon Indicator
In larger aeroplanes the vertical gyro is a separate unit. The horizon indicator receives bank
and pitch signals via synchros from a VG. Amplifiers for the motors inside the horizon
indicator are located in a separate unit or also located inside the Attitude Direction Indicator.
The vertical gyro also serves other systems such as autopilots and the weather radar with
roll and pitch signals.
Figure 8.151: Remote Artificial Horizon Indicator

© Copyright 2012
Attitude Director Indicator (ADI)
An attitude director indicator (ADI), is an instrument used in an aircraft to inform the pilot of
the orientation of the aircraft relative to earth. It indicates pitch and bank or roll and is a
primary instrument for flight in instrument meteorological conditions. Attitude indicators also
have significant application under visual flight rules, though some light aircraft do not have
them installed.
Figure 8.152: Attitude director indicator with integrated localizer

and glideslope indicators, indicating brown earth below and
sky above, wings level with horizon, in a slight nose-down attitude
The essential components of the indicator are:

• "miniature wings", horizontal lines with a dot between them representing the actual
wings and nose of the aircraft.
• the centre horizon bar separating the two halves of the display, with the top half
usually blue in colour to represent sky and the bottom half usually dark to represent
earth.
• degree marks representing the bank angle. They run along the rim of the dial. On a
typical indicator, the first 3 marks on both sides of the centre mark are 10 degrees
apart. The next is 60 degrees and the mark in the middle of the dial is 90 degrees.
If the symbolic aircraft dot is above the horizon line (blue background) the aircraft is nose
up. If the symbolic aircraft dot is below the horizon line (brown background) the aircraft is
nose down. When the dot and wings are on the horizon line, the aircraft is in level flight.
Because it is the horizon that moves up and down and turns, while the symbolic aircraft is
fixed relative to the rest of the instrument panel, trainees get confused; a standard
corrective given by flight instructors is "Fly the little aeroplane, not the horizon."
The pitch angle is relative to the ground, which is not as helpful as knowing the angle of
attack of the wing, a much more critical measure of performance. The pilot must infer the
total performance by using other instruments such as the airspeed indicator, altimeter,
vertical speed indicator, and power instruments, e.g. an engine tachometer. "Performance =
Attitude + Power".

© Copyright 2012
Directional Gyro
The most commonly used magnetic compass consists of a small permanent magnet
soldered to a metal float and suspended in a bowl of liquid. This primitive type of direction
indicator is quite adequate for visual flight when it is only occasionally referred to, but since
it oscillates back and forth so much, we cannot use it as a heading indicator when we are
flying on instruments.
If we have a freely spinning gyroscope set to align with the earth’s magnetic field, we can
visualize our heading and it does not oscillate. The main problem is that this instrument has
no north seeking tendency, and so it must be set to agree with the magnetic compass
manually every 15 minutes when the aircraft is in straight and level, unaccelerated flight.
Figure 8.153: A Directional Gyro’s operation on the aircraft
Directional Gyro Indicator

Early directional gyros resembled the magnetic compass with its gyro rotor suspended in a
double gimbal with its spin axis in a horizontal plane inside the calibrated scale. The rotor
was spun by a jet of air impinging on buckets cut into its periphery. The caging knob in the
front of the instrument could be turned to rotate the entire mechanism and bring the desired
heading opposite the reference mark, or lubber line. The rotor remains rigid in space, as the
aircraft turned about the gyro; the pilot had a reference between the heading of the aircraft
and the earth’s magnetic field.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.154: An old-style Directional Gyro
Vertical Card Directional Gyro

The vertical card compass has instead of a simple lubber line in front of the card, a symbol
of an aeroplane on its face, in front of the dial, with its nose pointing straight up,
representing straight ahead. The circular dial is connected to the gyro mechanism, so it
remains rigid in space and, as the aeroplane turns about it, the dial rotates. The knob in the
lower left-hand corner of the instrument may be pushed in and rotated, so the pilot can turn
the mechanism to get the dial under the nose of the symbolic aeroplane that corresponds to
the heading shown on the magnetic compass.
Figure 8.155: A modern Directional Gyro Indicator

© Copyright 2012
Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI)
The horizontal situation indicator (commonly called the HSI) is an aircraft instrument
normally mounted below the artificial horizon in place of a conventional heading indicator. It
combines a heading indicator with a VOR/ILS display, reducing pilot workload by lessening
the number of elements in the pilot's instrument scan to the six basic flight instruments.
Among other advantages, the HSI offers freedom from the confusion of reverse sensing on
a localizer backcourse approach. On a front course approach, the HSI needle is set to the
inbound track; on a back course approach, the HSI needle is set to the outbound rather
than the inbound track, causing needle deflection that mimics a front course approach
instead of displaying the normal reverse sensing.
On the HSI, the aeroplane is represented by a schematic figure in the centre of the
instrument - the VOR/ILS display is shown in relation to this figure. The heading indicator is
slaved to a remote compass, and the HSI is frequently interconnected with an autopilot
capable of executing an approach by following the localizer and glide slope.
On a conventional VOR indicator, left/right and to/from must be interpreted in the context of
the selected course. When an HSI is tuned to a VOR station, left and right always mean left
and right and TO/FROM is indicated by a simple triangular arrowhead pointing to the VOR.
If the arrowhead points to the same side as the course selector arrow, it means TO, and if it
points behind to the side opposite the course selector, it means FROM.
Figure 8.156: A conventional HSI

© Copyright 2012
Slaving of Directional Gyro
The directional gyro must be set to agree with the magnetic compass, and it too must be
periodically checked (at least every15 minutes) to be sure that it has not drifted out of
agreement with the compass.
Figure 8.157: Manual checking of gyro alignment

© Copyright 2012
Gyro Wander
Any deviation of the gyro spin axis from its set direction is known as ‘gyro wander’ (also
known as ‘drift’), and is classified as follows:-
Real Wander
Any physical deviation of the gyro spin axis is called real wander. A gyro should not wander
away from its preset direction, but various forces act on the rotating mass of a gyro and
cause it to precess. For example bearing friction, which is always present at the spin axis. If
this friction is symmetrical, it will merely slow down the rotor, but if it is asymmetrical it will
cause the gyro to precess. Similarly any friction in the gimbal bearings will cause the gyro to
precess. Wear on the gyro may result in movement of the C of G, which may also result in a
precessing force.
Such errors are not constant or predictable, and can therefore not be calibrated for, or
corrections applied to nullify this error.
Apparent Wander
In this case the gyro spin axis does not physically wander away from its pre-set direction,
but to an observer it will appear to have changed its direction. This is because the gyro
maintains its direction with respect to a fixed point in space,
The earth rotation is 360° in one day (15°/hour)
Directional Gyro Drift

Earth Rate Apparent Drift 15°/hour x sin Latitude
Table 8.3: Earth rate for a directional gyro
Vertical Gyro Drift

Earth Rate Apparent Drift = 15°/hour x cos Latitude
Table 8.4: Earth rate for a vertical gyro

© Copyright 2012
The apparent drift consists of:
• Earth Rate Earth rotation

• Transport Rate Aircraft moves around the earth’s surface
• Random Drift Mechanical error, friction in gimbal bearings
Figure 8.158: Apparent Drift of Directional Gyro
Figure 8.159: Apparent Drift of Vertical Gyro

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.160: Transport Drift

© Copyright 2012
Rate Gyro
Precession is the primary characteristic used by rate gyros. There are two basic rate gyros
used for flight instrumentation, the turn and slip indicator and the turn coordinator. Rate
gyros are also incorporated into a number of autopilot systems.
The basic difference between a rate gyro and an attitude gyro is in the mounting of the gyro
itself, or in the number of degrees of freedom the gyro is given. An attitude gyro is mounted
in a double gimbal and has freedom about two axes, while a rate gyro is mounted in a
single gimbal and has freedom about only one axis.
R = Curve Radius
ß = Bank angle
C = Centrifugal Force
N = Normal Force
G = Weight Force
g = Earth’s gravity = 9.81 m/sec2
v = velocity
tan ß = v2 / R x g
Figure 8.161: Rate Gyro
Figure 8.162: Turn Radius, Ground Speed and Bank angle

© Copyright 2012
Turn and Slip Indication
These are actually two instruments in one housing. The simpler instrument is an
inclinometer set into the dial. This is a curved glass tube filled with a damping liquid, and
riding in it is a black glass ball. When the aircraft is perfectly level and there are no other
forces acting on it, the ball will rest in the bottom centre of the tube between two marks. In
flight, the ball indicates the relationship between the pull of gravity G and centrifugal force Z
caused by a turn. The pull of gravity is affected by the bank angle: the steeper the bank, the
more the ball wants to roll toward the inside of the turn toward the low wing. Centrifugal
force, on the other hand, pulls the ball toward the outside of the turn. The greater the rate of
turn, the greater the centrifugal force. A coordinated, or balanced, turn is one in which the
bank angle is correct for the rate of turn, and the ball remains centred.
Figure 8.163: Indication of a turn when correctly flown
The gyroscopic part of the turn and slip indicator is a rotor, spun either by air or by an
electric motor. This rotor has its spin axis parallel to the lateral axis of the aircraft, and the
axis of the single gimbal is parallel to the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. A centring spring
holds the gimbal level when there is no outside force acting on it. When the rotor is spinning
and the aircraft rotates about its vertical, or yaw, axis, a force is carried into the rotor shaft
by the gimbal in such a way that one side of the shaft is moved forward while the other side
is moved back. Precession causes the rotor to tilt, as the force is felt, at 90 degrees to the
point of application in the direction of rotor rotation.
This tilt is opposed by both a dashpot which smoothes out the force and by a calibrated
spring which restricts the amount the gimbal can tilt. A pointer is driven by the gimbal in
such a way that it indicates not only the direction of yaw, but the amount of its deflection is
proportional to the rate of yaw.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.164: Rate Gyro inside Indicator
The dial of a turn and slip indicator is not graduated with numbers, but the amount of turn is
measured in needle widths, and there are two standard calibrations. Some instruments are
called two-minute turn indicators, and a standard rate turn of three degrees per second
(360 degrees in 120 seconds) is indicated by the pointer leaning over one needle width. In
a standard rate turn to the right, the left edge of the pointer aligns with the right edge of the
index mark. Most of the newer turn and slip indicators are calibrated as four-minute turn
indicators. With this calibration, the needle deflects one needle width for a turn of one-and-
a-half degree per second (half-standard rate). Instruments calibrated for four minute turns
have two small doghouse-shaped marks on top of the dial, one needle-width away from
either side of the centre index mark.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.165: Turn-rate indicator
These instruments may also be marked ‘FOUR MINUTE TURN’ When the aircraft is
rotating about its vertical axis at 1.5 degrees per second, the needle of the four-minute turn
indicator aligns with the appropriate doghouse.
Turn Rates
A standard rate turn for (light) aeroplanes is defined as a 3° per second turn, which
completes a 360° turn in 2 minutes. This is known as a 2-minute turn, or rate one (=
180°/minute).
For heavy aeroplanes a standard rate turn is a 4-minute turn.
Instruments, either the turn and bank indicator or the turn coordinator, have the standard
rate turn clearly marked. Light aircraft are equipped with 2-minute turn indicators while
heavy aircraft are equipped with 4-minute turn indicators. This is very useful to pilots who
are out of visual contact with the ground and for air traffic control when appropriate
separation of aircraft is desired. The pilot banks the aeroplane such that the turn and slip
indicator points to the standard rate turn mark and then uses a watch to time the turn. The
pilot can pull out at any desired direction depending on the length of time in the turn.
A rate half turn (1.5° per second) is normally used when flying faster than 250 kt. The term
rate two turn (6° per second) is used on some low speed aircraft.

© Copyright 2012
Turn Coordinator
A turn and slip indicator can show rotation about only the vertical axis of the aircraft yaw.
But since a turn is started by banking the aircraft, that is, by rotating it about its longitudinal
axis, a turn indicator would be of more value if it sensed this rotation also. The mechanism
of a turn coordinator is similar to that used in a turn and slip indicator, except that its gimbal
axis is tilted, usually about thirty degrees, so the gyro will precess when the aircraft rolls, as
well as when it yaws. This is especially handy since a turn and slip indicator is affected by
adverse yaw at the beginning of a turn, but a turn coordinator senses enough roll to cancel
any deflection caused by adverse yaw.
Rather than using a needle for its indicator, the turn coordinator uses a small symbolic
aeroplane with marks on the dial opposite its wing tips. When the aircraft is turned at a
standard rate to the left, the wings of the symbolic aeroplane align with the mark on the left
side of the instrument dial, the one marked “L”. When the rate of yaw is correct for the bank
angle, the ball will be centred between the two lines across the inclinometer.
Figure 8.166: Turn Coordinator indication and gyro rotor tilt
Figure 8.167: Example of Turn Coordinator indications

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.168: Turn and Slip, and Turn Coordinator mechanisms

© Copyright 2012
Instrument Pneumatic Systems
General
Some light aircraft have vacuum driven gyro instruments. Such instruments are marked on
the face of the instrument as “Vacuum” or “Suction”.
Some gyroscopic instruments are dual powered (electrical and vacuum).
Gyro-wheels in pneumatic instruments are made of brass and have notches, or buckets in
their periphery. Air blows through a special nozzle into the buckets and spins the gyro at a
high speed.
Venturi Tube Systems

Aircraft that do not have a pneumatic pump to evacuate the instrument cases can use
venturi tubes mounted on the outside of the aircraft, similar to the system shown in Figure
8.169. Air flowing through the tube speeds up in the narrowest part, and according to
Bernoulli’s principle, the pressure drops. This “suction” is fed to the instrument case by a
piece of tubing.
The two attitude instruments operate on approximately 4 in.Hg suction; the turn-and-slip
indicator needs only 2 in.Hg, so a pressure-reducing needle valve is used to decrease the
suction. Filtered air flows into the instruments through filters built into the instrument cases.
In this system, ice can clog the venturi tube and stop the instruments when they are most
needed.
This system is not suitable for aircraft that fly above 18,000 ft. For aircraft flying higher than
18,000 ft there is a compressor system which provides enough air-mass through the gyro.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.169: A venturi tube provides the low pressure
inside the instrument case to drive the gyros.
Figure 8.170: Venturi tube
Wet-Type Vacuum Pump Systems

Steel-vane air pumps have been used for many years to evacuate the instrument cases.
The discharge air is sometimes used to inflate rubber de-icer boots on the wing and
empennage leading edges. The vanes in these pumps are lubricated by a small amount of
engine oil metered into the pump and this oil is discharged with the air. To keep the oil from
deteriorating the rubber boots, it must be removed with an oil separator like the one in
Figure 8.171.
The vacuum pump moves a greater volume of air than is needed to supply the instruments
with the suction needed, so a suction-relief valve is installed in the inlet side of the pump.
This spring-loaded valve draws in just enough air to maintain the required low pressure
inside the instruments, as is shown on the suction gauge in the instrument panel. Filtered
air enters the instrument cases from a central air filter. As long as aircraft fly at relatively low

© Copyright 2012
altitudes, enough air is drawn into the instrument cases to spin the gyros at a sufficiently
high speed.
A suction-relief valve is used to maintain the correct low pressure inside the instrument
case for the proper operation of the gyros.
Figure 8.171: A single-engine instrument vacuum system

using a steel vane wet-type vacuum pump
Dry-Air Pump Systems

As flight altitudes increase, the air is less dense and more air must be forced through the
instruments. Air pumps that do not mix oil with the discharge air are used in high-flying
aircraft.
Steel vanes sliding in a steel housing need to be lubricated, but vanes made of a special
formulation of carbon sliding inside a carbon housing provide their own lubrication as they
wear in a microscopic amount.
Pumps
These use knife-edged carbon vanes which rotate inside a carbon housing. They need no
external lubrication. Some types can be easily damaged if the engine is turned backwards
(e.g. by turning the propeller backwards by hand).

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.172: Typical carbon vane dry-type vacuum pump
Figure 8.173: (a): Central (b): Suction relief valve (c):Suction gauge
air filter (incorporates an adjustment (minimum suction in in.Hg
underneath) at engine idle in green arc)

© Copyright 2012
Pressure Driven Instrument Systems
Although this is not a ‘vacuum’ system, it is described in this section because it is very
similar in operation to the vacuum system previously described. The only difference is the
direction in which the air flows, and of course, the instruments which are driven from the
system must be specifically designed for pressure flow rather than a suction flow.
Figure 8.174 is a diagram of the instrument pneumatic system of a twin-engine general

aviation aeroplane. Two dry air pumps are used with filters in their inlet to filter out any
contaminants that could damage the fragile carbon vanes in the pump. The discharge air
from the pump flows through a regulator, where excess air is bled off to maintain the
pressure in the system at the desired level. The regulated air then flows through inline filters
to remove any contamination that could have been picked up from the pump, and from
there into a manifold check valve. If either engine should become inoperative, or if either
pump should fail, the check valve will isolate the inoperative system and the instruments will
be driven by air from the operating system. After the air passes through the instruments and
drives the gyros, it is exhausted from the case. The gyro pressure gauge measures the
pressure drop across the instruments.
Figure 8.174: A twin-engine instrument pressure system using a carbon vane dry-type air
pump

© Copyright 2012
© Copyright 2012
Electric Motor Systems
General
In today’s commercial aircraft all gyros are driven by electric motors.
Their speed is between 6,000 and 20,000 RPM
Figure 8.175: A dual powered gyro rotor
The Disadvantages and Advantages of Air driven Gyro’s
The disadvantages of an air driven gyros are that:-
• Full rigidity is not be reached until the rotor speed has built up. Suction driven
gyroscopes normally take 4-5 minutes after starting the aeroplane engine to attain
the correct operating speed. The indications provided by the instrument are however
usable after 2 minutes. Conversely, venturi driven systems will not start to spin up
until the aeroplane begins its take-off run, and cloud penetration must be delayed for
a few minutes to allow the operating RPM to be reached.
• The speed of the rotor depends on the mass of air flowing through the system (mass
flow). As the aeroplane climbs, the air density falls and the mass flow reduces. The
rotor speed thus reduces and gyro rigidity deteriorates. The other thing about mass
flow is that it requires a clear unimpeded flow of air. If the filters on the inlet line are
blocked or partially blocked, this also will affect the gyro rigidity.
• A major drawback of the air driven gyro is the need to provide airtight joints where
the inlet pipes pass through the inner and outer gimbal axes, which severely limits
the degree of freedom around these axes.
• Ingested dust or moisture will cause corrosion and bearing wear.
The advantages of air driven gyros are that:-

© Copyright 2012
• They are cheap.
• They are easy to maintain.
• In the event of an emergency, they can operate without electrical power.
The Disadvantages and Advantages of Electrically Driven Gyros
The disadvantages of electrically driven gyros are that they:-
• Depend on their power supply, so standby air driven alternatives are normally fitted.
• Tend to be more expensive than air driven gyros.
The advantages of electrically driven gyros are that:-
• Higher rigidity is possible.

• Their operating rpm is more consistent.
• Their performance is not affected by altitude.
• Information can be transmitted easily to other systems.
• They have more freedom to rotate around their axes.
• The instrument case is completely sealed, which excludes dirt, and also prevents
heating/cooling effects by allowing the components to be maintained at a constant
temperature, if required.

© Copyright 2012
Intentionally Blank

© Copyright 2012
Magnetic Compasses
Earth’s Magnetic Field

The earth is a great sphere spinning in space, but it is also a huge permanent magnet with
a magnetic north and a magnetic south pole. A freely suspended permanent magnet on the
surface of the earth will align itself with the lines of flux linking the two magnetic poles, and
it will maintain this alignment anywhere on the surface of the earth. Because of this
alignment, navigation should be simple, but there are two problems with this alignment we
must understand before we can use a magnetic compass for navigation. The geographic
and the magnetic poles are not located together. The magnetic poles are located
somewhere around 74°N 101°W, 2000 km from the geographic poles and, to further
complicate the situation, they move around continually, not enough to cause a big problem,
but enough that our aeronautical charts must be periodically updated to give us the
correction we need to compensate for this difference in location.
Figure 8.176: The Earth’s magnetic field
Inclination - When the compass is pulled by the earth’s magnetic field, the compass’s
magnet tends to point North and the magnet also tends to pull toward the earth’s surface.
Near the poles this tilting force is the greatest, so the compass is not useable. It diminishes
as you approach the equator. To compensate for this tilting force, the compass float is
weighted on the side nearest the equator. For aircraft which fly in the northern hemisphere,
the weight is on the south end of the float.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.177: Magnetic Inclination (Dip)
Variation - Since all of our charts are laid out according to the geographic poles, and the
magnetic compass points to the magnetic poles, we have an error called variation. To
simplify the correction for this error, aeronautical charts are marked with lines of equal
variation, called isogonic lines (or isogonals). Anywhere along an isogonic line, there is a
constant angle between the magnetic and geographic north poles. The variation error is the
same on any heading we fly, and is determined only by the position on the surface of the
earth. The correction required for variation error is found on aeronautical charts.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.178: Variation: The difference between the Geographic North and the Magnetic
North
Figure 8.179: Lines of equal variation (Isogonals) shown on an Aeronautical chart

© Copyright 2012
Aeroplane Magnetism
According to the EASA it is a mandatory requirement that a direct reading compass be
fitted as standard on all aeroplanes, and must be fitted where the flight crew can easily read
it. The flight deck is however surrounded by magnetic material and electrical circuits, which
will influence the earth's magnetic field, and cause the compass needle to be deflected
away from the local magnetic meridian. This is known as compass deviation and can result
in either deviation east, or deviation west of magnetic north by an amount, which depends
on the aeroplane's heading and latitude. Fortunately any deviation can be analysed and
resolved into components acting along the aeroplane's major axes, and action taken to
minimise these effects. The causes of the deviation can be analysed and corrected for, by
carrying out a compass swing, although some residual deviation will remain, and this has to
be recorded on a deviation card.
Types of Aeroplane Magnetism

Aeroplane magnetism can be classified in a similar manner to that of hard iron and soft iron,
i.e. how readily the materials become magnetised.
Hard Iron Magnetism. This form of magnetism is of a permanent nature, and is due to the
presence of iron or steel parts used in the aeroplane structure, in power plants and other
equipments. The earth's magnetic field will influence the molecular structure of the ferrous
parts of the aeroplane during its construction when it lies on one heading for a long period
of time. Hammering and working of the materials will also play a major part in the
magnetism of the aeroplane components, whilst they are lying in the magnetic field.
Soft Iron Magnetism. This form of magnetism is of a temporary nature is caused by the
magnetically soft metallic parts becoming magnetised due to induction by the earth's
magnetic field. The effect of this type of magnetism is dependent on the aeroplane's
heading and the local Angle of Dip (magnetic latitude), and its geographical location
Letters normally indicate the components of aeroplane magnetism, which cause deviation;
capital letters indicate permanent hard iron magnetism, whilst small letters indicate induced
soft iron magnetism. Positive deviations (those deflecting the compass needle to the right)
are termed easterly, whilst negative deviations (deflection of the compass needle to the left)
are termed westerly.
Components of Hard Iron Magnetism

The overall effect of hard iron magnetism on the aeroplane compass can be assimilated to
bar magnets lying longitudinally, laterally and vertically about the compass position.
To analyse the effect of hard iron, the imaginary bar magnets are annotated as 'component
P', 'component Q' and 'component R' respectively. Assume that the magnetic strength of
these components will remain constant regardless of the aeroplane heading or latitude, but
may vary with time due to a weakening of the magnetism in the aeroplane. By convention if
the blue poles of the imaginary magnets are ‘forward of’, ‘to starboard of', or ‘beneath’ the
compass position, the components will be positive. If the blue poles however act in the
opposite direction, they will be negative by convention.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.180: Components P, Q and R
This occurs because in the Northern Hemisphere the vertical component of the earth's
magnetic field will induce magnetism into the airframe, which will cause the blue poles to be
attracted to the top of the aeroplane, and the red poles to be repelled to the bottom.
Figure 8.181: Vertical component of earth’s field (Northern hemisphere)
When the effect of this vertical magnetism is analysed in the horizontal plane through the
compass needle, it reveals a net blue pole to the front of the aeroplane, and net red pole to

© Copyright 2012
the rear. Similar effects occur in the lateral vertical planes, with the overall polarity
depending on the actual aeroplane design. The polarity and strength of the magnetism is
however not affected by the aeroplane heading.
If the aeroplane is heading north, the imaginary magnet due to component P will together
with the compass needle, be in alignment with the aeroplane’s fore and aft axis, and the
earth's directive force (H). P will thus be added to, or subtracted from H, but will not cause
any deviation. If the aeroplane is turned through 360°, then as the turn is commenced
(ignoring compass pivot friction and liquid swirl etc.) the magnet system will remain
attracted to the earth's H component. Component P will however continue to act along the
aeroplane's fore and aft axis, and will cause the compass needle to align itself in the
resultant position between the directive force (H), and the deflecting force (P), which will
cause the needle to point a number of degrees east or west of north, depending on the
polarity of P, as shown in Figure 8.182.
Figure 8.182: Compass needle alignment
The amount of deviation will increase during the turn, reaching a maximum value when
travelling east and west, and zero when travelling north and south. Deviation resulting from
a positive P can be represented by a sine curve, as shown in Table 8.5.

© Copyright 2012
Table 8.5: Deviation
This shows that the deviation due to P is proportional to the sine of the aeroplane's
Compass Heading, i.e.
Deviation = P sin Heading (C)
Component Q also produces a similar effect, but since it acts along the aeroplane's lateral
axis (wing tip to wing tip), the deviation resulting from Q will be a maximum value when
travelling north and south, and zero when travelling east and west, i.e. when the component
is aligned with the directive force (H). Deviations resulting from a negative Q (blue pole to
the left of the compass position) can be represented as a cosine curve, as shown in Figure
8.183.
Figure 8.183: Deviation

© Copyright 2012
This curve shows that the deviation due to Q is proportional to the cosine of the aeroplane's
Compass Heading, i.e.
Deviation = Q cos Heading (C)
Component R acts in the vertical plane and thus has no effect on the compass system
when the aeroplane is in level flight. If the aeroplane however flies with its lateral or
longitudinal axes away from the horizontal, the component R will be displaced from its
vertical position, and the resulting horizontal vector of this component will have an effect on
the compass system. This is demonstrated in Figure 8.184, which illustrates how an
element of R would affect the components P and Q.
Figure 8.184: R effect on P and Q
Notably a similar situation will exist with a tail wheel aeroplane when it is on the ground.
The value of R may however vary when the aeroplane is climbing and descending, but
because the angles involved are normally small, any deviation resulting from component R
will also be correspondingly small. Additionally the turning and acceleration errors
associated with a direct reading compass during turns will make the errors due to R of no
practical significance. The effect of component R will also be negligible in remote indicating
compasses, since the turning errors are virtually eliminated in this instrument, as a result of
its associated electronic circuitry.

© Copyright 2012
Components of Soft Iron Magnetism
Soft iron magnetism, which is present at the compass position, may be considered as
originating from soft iron rods placed adjacent to the compass in which magnetism is
induced by the earth's magnetic field. This field has two components, H and Z, but in order
to analyse the effect of soft iron the H component must be further split into two horizontal
components, X and Y. When these components are put together with the Z component of
the earth's magnetic field they relate directly to the three principle axes of the aeroplane.
The Figure 8.185 shows how the polarities and strengths of X and Y alter with a change in
aeroplane heading, as the aeroplane turns relative to the direction of component H.
Figure 8.185: Polarities and strengths of X and Y
Component Z acts vertically through the compass, and therefore does not affect the
directional properties of the magnet system. If the aeroplane is however moved to a new
geographic location, then because of the change in the earth's magnetic field strength and

© Copyright 2012
direction, all three components of soft iron magnetism will change. The sign of Z will
however only change if the aeroplane changes the magnetic hemisphere in which it is
operating.
The soft iron components, which mainly affect the compass are indicated conventionally by
the small letters, 'c' and 'f, and are related to the earth's field components X, Y and Z. Out of
the soft iron components, cZ and fZ are the most important, since their polarity remains the
same, regardless of the aeroplane heading. They also act in the same manner as the hard
iron components P and Q respectively. Pairs of vertical soft iron rods (VSI), which are
positioned respectively fore and aft, and laterally about the compass position represent the
components, cZ and fZ respectively. In the northern hemisphere (magnetic) the lower pole
of each rod would be induced with 'red' magnetism.
Deviation and its Compensation

The error inherent in magnetic compasses is called deviation, and it is caused by the
magnetic fields in the aircraft interfering with those of the earth. A magnetic field surrounds
any wire carrying electricity, and almost all of the steel parts of an aircraft and the engine
have some magnetism in them. Magnetos and both alternators and generators have strong
magnets in them, and these are all so close to the compass that they influence it.
Figure 8.186: Deviation: The difference between the compass reading and the Earth’s
magnetic field

© Copyright 2012
Determination of Deviation Coefficients
In order to minimise the effects of hard and soft iron magnetism on the aeroplane's
compass, it is necessary to firstly determine the deviations caused by the components of
aeroplane magnetism on various headings. The value of any deviations can then be
analysed into the 'coefficients of deviation'. Five coefficients exist, namely A, B, C, D and E,
of which D and E are purely due to soft iron, and will not be covered in this manual. The
remaining coefficients are important to aeroplane magnetism and are as follows:-
Coefficient A - This is usually constant on all headings and is caused by the misalignment
of the aeroplane compass. This coefficient is calculated by finding the average of the
algebraic sum of the deviations resulting from a number of equally spaced compass
headings. Readings are typically taken on the four cardinal and four quadrantal headings,
thus:-
Coefficient A = Deviation on N + NE + E + SE + S + SW +W + NW
8
Coefficient B - This is the result of the resultant deviation caused by the presence of hard
iron P and soft iron cZ, with the deviation being a maximum, when heading east or west.
This coefficient is calculated by dividing the algebraic difference between the deviations on
compass heading east and west by two, thus:-
Coefficient B = Deviation on east - Deviation on west

2
For any given heading, coefficient B may also be expressed as:-
Deviation = B x sin heading

© Copyright 2012
Coefficient C - This is the result of deviations caused by hard iron Q and soft iron fZ, with
the deviation being a maximum when heading north and south. This coefficient is calculated
by dividing the algebraic difference between the deviations on compass heading north and
south by two, thus:-
Coefficient C = Deviation on north - Deviation on south
2
For any given heading coefficient C may also be expressed as:-
Deviation = C x cos heading
The total deviation on an uncorrected compass for any given aeroplane compass heading
may be expressed as:-
Total deviation = A + B sin heading + C cos heading
Minimum Deviation
If Coefficient A is not present, minimum deviation will occur on the heading where the value
of B sin heading + C cos heading is minimum, thus:-
C
Tan heading = —
B
This heading is at right angles to that for maximum deviation, but if Coefficient A is present
the minimum deviation parameters have to be determined by a compass swing.
Maximum Deviation
If the deviation due to Coefficient A is constant on all headings, maximum deviation will
occur when the value of B sin heading + C cos heading is a maximum, thus:-
Tan heading = B
The value of the tangent derived for maximum deviation corresponds to two reciprocal
headings in opposing quadrants, thus to determine the correct heading it is necessary to
construct a swing circle, as shown in Figure 8.187.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.187: Swing circle
The above diagram illustrates the condition where coefficients A = +1, B = +3 and C = +2.
Maximum deviation thus occurs in the north-east quadrant. The actual value is:-
which corresponds to a maximum deviation heading of 056°
Substituting these values in the formula for maximum deviation gives:-
A + B sin heading + C cos heading = 1 + 3 sin 56° + 2 cos 56° = + 4.6°

© Copyright 2012
Regulation (EASA) Limits
EASA CS-25 requires that a compass residual deviation card (placard), showing the
calibration of the magnetic compass (Direction Indicator) in level flight with the engines
running, must be installed on or near the instrument. The placard must show each
calibration reading in terms of magnetic heading of the aeroplane in not greater than 45°
steps. Furthermore the compass, after compensation, may not have a deviation in normal
level flight of greater than 10° on any heading.
The following Requirements govern the positioning of the compass:

• The distance between a compass and any other item of equipment containing
magnetic material shall be such that the piece of equipment does not result in a
deviation of greater than 1°, nor shall the combined effect of any such equipment
exceed 2°. The same ruling also applies to installed electrical equipment and any
associated wiring when the systems are powered up.
• Any movement of the flight controls or undercarriage should not result in a change in
deviation of greater than 1°.
• The effect of the aeroplanes permanent and induced magnetism, as given by
coefficients B and C, together with any associated soft iron components shall not
exceed:-
Table 8.6: Maximum allowable Coefficient B and C
Note:
• a). After correction the greatest deviation on any heading shall be 3° for direct
reading compasses and 1° for remote indicating compasses.
• b). Emergency standby compasses and non-mandatory compasses need not fully
comply with EASA regulations, but evidence of satisfactory installation is required.

© Copyright 2012
Compass Swinging
This is a special calibration procedure, which is carried out in order to determine the
amount by which the compass readings are affected by hard and soft iron magnetism. This
process enables the deviations to be determined, the respective coefficients to be
calculated, and the deviations to be compensated for.
Compass swinging should be carried out:
• On acceptance of the new aeroplane from the manufacturer.

• When a new compass is fitted.
• Periodically, normally every three months.
• Following a major inspection.
• Following a change of magnetic material in the aeroplane.
• If the aeroplane is moved permanently or semi-permanently to another airfield
involving a large change of magnetic latitude.
• Following a lightning strike or prolonged flying in heavy static.
• After standing on one heading for more than four weeks.
• When carrying ferrous (magnetic) freight.
• Whenever specified in the maintenance schedule.
• For the issue of a Certificate of Airworthiness (C of A).
• At any time when the compass or residual deviation recorded on the compass card
are in doubt.
The Compass Swing Procedure

There are a number of methods by which a compass swing can be carried out, but the most
common method is to use an engineer with a landing or datum compass mounted on a
tripod. The specialised compass is positioned either in front, or behind the aeroplane, and is
aligned with the aeroplanes fore and aft axis. This process is normally carried out by an
experienced compass adjuster, and is split into two phases; the correcting and the check
swing, as follows:-
• Ensure that the compass is serviceable.

• Ensure that all equipment not normally carried in flight is removed from the
aeroplane.
• Ensure that all equipment normally carried in flight is correctly stowed.
• Take the aeroplane to a swing site (at least 50m from other aeroplane and 100m
from a hangar).
• Ensure that the flying controls are in their normal flying position, the engines are
running, and the radio and electrical equipments are switched on.
• Position the aeroplane on a heading of south (M) and note the deviation, i.e. the
difference between the datum compass and the aeroplane compass readings.
• Position the aeroplane on a heading of west (M) and note the deviation.
• Position the aeroplane on a heading of north (M) and note the deviation. Calculate
coefficient C and apply it directly to the compass reading.
• Insert the compass corrector key in the micro adjuster box, and turn the key until the
compass needle shows the corrected reading. Remove the key.

© Copyright 2012
• Position the aeroplane on a heading of east (M) and note the deviation. Calculate
coefficient B and correct for B in the same manner as for coefficient C.
• The correcting swing is now complete.
• Carry out a check swing on eight headings, starting on south-east (M), and note the
deviation on each heading.
• Calculate coefficient A on completion of the check swing and apply to the compass
reading. Loosen the compass, or, for remote indicating instruments, the detector
head retaining screws, and rotate the device until the compass needle indicates the
correct heading. Re-tighten the retaining screws.
• Having applied coefficient A algebraically to all deviations found during the check
swing, plot the (remaining) deviations, and make out a compass deviation card for
placing in the aeroplane.
An Example of a Compass Swing

The readings taken during a typical compass swing are as follows:-
1. The Correcting Swing
Table 8.7: Compass swing data

© Copyright 2012
2. The Check Swing.
Table 8.8: Check swing data
The resultant readings enable a deviation card to be produced, showing residual deviations
against magnetic headings, which are placed in the aeroplane adjacent to the compass
position.
Deviation Compensation Devices

Following the compass swing procedure, the resultant coefficients C, B and A, are used to
correct or offset the compass needle by an amount in degrees equivalent to the existing
deviation using one of the following methods:-
Mechanical Compensation - The majority of these devices consist of two pairs of

magnets, which are fitted in a bevel gear assembly made of a non-magnetic material, and
are mounted above each other, as shown in Figure 8.189. This device is known as a 'micro-
adjuster', and it ensures that when the magnets are in their neutral position one pair is
parallel to the aeroplanes fore and aft axis to compensate for any Coefficient C corrections,
whilst the other pair lies athwartships to compensate for any Coefficient B corrections.
Using the compass correction key enables a small pinion to be turned, which in turn will
rotate one pair of bevel gears.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.188: Compensation (Flinders) Bars
Each pair of magnets will be displaced from their neutral position, as shown in the diagram
above, and will deflect the compass needle to correct for Coefficient B or C, depending on
which pair of magnets is used.
Electrical Compensation -This type is used in the remote indicating compass and uses
two variable potentiometers, which are connected to the coils of the flux detector unit. The
potentiometers correspond to the Coefficient B and C magnets of a mechanical
compensator and when moved with respect to calibrated dials, insert small DC signals into
the flux detector coils. The resulting magnetic fields produced by these signals are sufficient
to oppose those causing deviations and correspondingly modify the output from the
detector head via the synchronous transmission link. This in turn drives the gyro and hence
the heading indicator to display the corrected readings.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.189: Local compass compensator with magnets
Figure 8.190: Compass error card

© Copyright 2012
Summary of Deviation and Variation
• Deviation is the difference between:

Direction to Magnetic North Pole MN (approx. 2000 km away from TN) and Indicated
compass heading.
The deviation can be compensated and/or with an error chart corrected.
• Variation is the direction difference between:

True North (TN) (Geographic North pole) and Magnetic North Pole (MN) (approx.
2000 km away from TN)
The variation depends on aircraft position and is not compensable.
Figure 8.191: Deviation and Variation

© Copyright 2012
Direct Reading (Standby) Magnetic Compass
The magnetic compass is one of our simpler instruments. Its main body is a cast aluminium
housing, and one end is covered with a glass lens. Across this is a vertical reference mark
called a lubber line. Inside the housing and riding on a steel pivot in a jewel post is a small
brass float surrounded by a graduated dial which is part of a cone. Around the full 360
degrees of the dial are 36 marks, representing the tens of degrees. Above every third mark
is either a one or a two-digit number representing the number of degrees with the last zero
left off. Zero is the same as 360 degrees and is north. Nine is east, or 90 degrees, 18 is
south (180 degrees), and 27 is 270 degrees, or west. Two small bar-type permanent
magnets are soldered to the bottom of the float, aligned with the zero and 18 marks, north
and south. The housing is filled with compass fluid, which is a hydrocarbon product very
similar to kerosene, but with certain additives that keep it clear. The housing must be
completely full, with no bubbles, and to prevent damage to the housing when the fluid
expands due to heat, an expansion diaphragm or bellows is mounted inside the housing. A
set of compensator magnets (sometimes known as Flinders Bars) is located in a slot in the
housing outside of the compass bowl, and a small instrument lamp screws into the front of
the housing and shines inside the bowl to illuminate the lubber line and the numbers on the
card.
The compass heading is correct only if;
• the aircraft is horizontal;

• there is no acceleration;
• the reading is corrected in accordance with the associated card.
Figure 8.192: Standby compass and deviation card (B737)

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.193: Magnetic compass indication and mechanism

© Copyright 2012
The Direct Reading Magnetic Compass (DRC) is based on a simple magnetic needle, and
points towards the northern end of the earth's magnetic field. It is also installed in an
instrument of dimensions and weight that makes it suitable for use in aeroplanes. Under
EASA CS-25 it is a mandatory requirement that all modern civil transport aeroplanes carry
a direct reading non- stabilized magnetic compass as a standby direction indicator. The
most commonly found direct reading compass is the "E" type, which is illustrated in Figure
8.194.
Figure 8.194: “E” type magnetic compass
Properties of a Direct Reading Compass

For a direct reading compass to function efficiently, the magnetic element must possess the
following properties:-
Horizontality - This ensures that the magnet system remains as near horizontal as
possible, thereby sensing only the horizontal or directive component of the earth's magnetic
field. This is achieved by making the magnet system pendulous, by mounting the magnet,
below the needle pivot, as shown in the diagram above. The magnet system when freely
suspended in the earth's magnetic field will tend to align itself with the direction of that field,
i.e. align itself in the direction of the total field (T), where T is the resultant of the earth's
horizontal (H), and vertical (Z) fields. If the system is tilted the C of G will move out from
beneath the pivot, and will introduce a righting force upon the magnet system, which will
tend to oppose and reduce the overall 'Z' component. The compass will thus take up a
position along the resultant of the two forces, 'H' and the reduced effect of 'Z', thus
minimizing the effect of dip. In temperate latitudes the final inclination of the needle will be
approximately 2° to 3° to the horizontal, but this inclination will increase when flying nearer
the poles, such that, by about 70° north or south, the compass is virtually useless. The
displacement of the C of G is purely a function of the system's pendulosity, and is not a
mechanical adjustment, so it will work in either hemisphere, without further adjustment.
Sensitivity - This ensures that the DRC is capable of operating effectively down to low 'H'
values, and is achieved by increasing the pole strengths of the magnet being used, so that
it remains firmly aligned with the local magnetic meridian. Sensitivity is also aided by
keeping pivot friction to a minimum by using an iridium-tipped pivot, which is free to move in

© Copyright 2012
a sapphire jeweled cup. The compass bowl is additionally filled with a liquid, which reduces
the overall effective weight of the magnet system, and also helps to lubricate the pivot.
Aperiodicity - This ensures that the oscillation of the sensitive element about a new
heading, following a turn, is minimized, i.e. a 'Deadbeat Return' characteristic. If a
suspended magnet is deflected from its position of rest and then released, it will tend to
oscillate around the correct direction for some time before stabilizing. This is obviously
undesirable, as it could, at worst, lead to the pilot chasing the needle. The compass needle
should thus come to rest with minimal oscillation, which is achieved by:-
• Filling the bowl with methyl alcohol or a silicon fluid, and fitting damping filaments to
the magnet system.
• Keeping the lever arm of the magnet system as short as possible, but keeping its
strength high. This has the effect of maximizing its directional force, whilst reducing
its moment of inertia.
• Using the fluid to reduce the apparent weight of the system.
• Concentrating the weight as close to the pivot point as possible, to further reduce the
turning moment.
"E" Type Compass

The majority of standby compasses in use today are of the card type, an example of which
is shown in Figure 8.195.
The compass consists of a single circular cobalt steel magnet, to which a light metal
compass card is attached, and is mounted so that it rotates as close as possible to the
inner face of the bowl, thus keeping parallax errors to a minimum during reading. The card
is graduated with white markings on a black background, every 10°, with any intermediate
indications being estimated by interpolation. Figures are also shown every 30° and the
cardinal points are marked with appropriate letters, N, S, E and W. A white, vertical lubber
line is engraved on the inner face of the bowl, against which the actual heading is observed.
The system is suspended on an iridium-tipped pivot that revolves in a sapphire jeweled cup,
which is in turn secured to a central stem, and is firmly attached by a bracket to the base of
the bowl. This gives the magnet system freedom of movement of + 20° from the horizontal,
and 360° in azimuth.
The bowl is molded from plastic, and is painted on the outside with black enamel, except for
a small area at the front through which the vertical card can be seen. This part of the bowl
is also molded so that it has a magnifying effect on the compass card.
The bowl is filled with a silicone fluid, which has no detrimental effect on the plastic bowl,
and also because its properties are not significantly affected by its temperature/viscosity.
The liquid used in the compass bowl is also transparent and has a high resistance to
corrosion. It must also not discolour during its use. Furthermore a bellows type expansion
chamber is located at the rear of the bowl and compensates for changes in liquid volume,
due to any variation in temperature, which ensures that the liquid neither bursts a seal, or
contracts, leaving vacuum bubbles in the fluid.

© Copyright 2012
One disadvantage of using a liquid in the compass bowl however is that, in a prolonged
turn, it will tend to turn with the aeroplane, thus taking the magnet system with it, and
affecting the compass readings. This is known as 'Liquid Swirl', which is minimized by
providing a good clearance between the damping wires, and the sides of the compass
bowl. Liquid swirl also tends to delay the immediate settling of the system when a new
compass heading is selected.
The effects of deviation co-efficient B and C are compensated for by permanent magnet
corrector assemblies, which are secured to the compass mounting plate.
.
Figure 8.195: “E” type magnetic compass

© Copyright 2012
Pre-flight Checks
Prior to flight the flight crew should carry out the following checks:
• Check the security of the compass.

• Carry out a visual check for signs of any external damage.
• Check that the liquid is free from bubbles, discoloration and sediment.
• Check that the compass illumination system is serviceable.
• Test for pivot friction by deflecting the magnet system through 10-15 ° each way, and
note the readings on return, which should be within 2° of each other.
Principle of a Pendulum
Consider a plain pendulum that is freely suspended in the aeroplane fuselage. If the
aeroplane maintains a constant direction and speed, the pendulum will remain at rest, but if
the aeroplane turns, accelerates or decelerates the pendulum will be displaced from its true
vertical position. This will occur because the inertia of the pendulum will cause the centre of
gravity to lag behind the pendulum pivot, thus deflecting it away from its normal vertical
position, directly beneath its point of suspension.
The magnet system (in the compass) is pendulous, so any acceleration or deceleration in
flight will similarly result in a displacement of the C of G away from its normal position. This
will result in a torque being established about the vertical axis of the compass, and unless
the compass is on the magnetic equator, where the earth's field vertical component 'Z' is
zero, it will be subject to dip.

© Copyright 2012
Direct Reading Compass Errors
Acceleration Errors
The force applied by an aeroplane when accelerating or decelerating on a fixed heading is
applied to the magnet system at the pivot, which is the magnet's only connection with the
rest of the instrument. The reaction to this force will be equal and opposite, and will act
through the C of G of the magnet system, which is below and offset from the pivot (except
at the magnetic equator), as shown in Figure 8.196. The two forces will thus constitute a
couple which, dependent on the aeroplane's heading, will cause the magnet system to alter
its angle of dip, i.e. attempt to restore the magnet to its horizontal position, or to rotate it in
azimuth.
Figure 8.196: Acceleration errors of a pendulum
Figure 8.197 shows how the forces affect a magnet system when an aeroplane is
accelerating on a northerly heading. The resulting acceleration force is similarly applied to
the magnet system at the pivot, whilst an equal and opposite reaction 'R' will act through
the C of G, which is below, but offset from the pivot. The resultant couple will cause the
northern end of the magnet system to dip further, thus increasing the angle of dip without
any rotation in azimuth. This will occur because the pivot 'P', and C of G, are both in the
plane of the local magnetic meridian.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.197: Acceleration errors
Conversely, if the aeroplane decelerates when flying in a northerly direction, the resultant
couple will tilt the magnet system down at its southern end. The opposite will be observed
when accelerating/decelerating in a northerly direction along the magnetic meridian in the
Southern Hemisphere. If the aeroplane is flying in either hemisphere, any changes in speed
on headings other than northerly or southerly, will also result in azimuth rotation of the
magnet system, and will produce errors in the heading indication, as shown in Figure 8.197.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.198: Acceleration error

© Copyright 2012
Acceleration errors are also caused by the vertical component of the earth's magnetic field,
which occurs because of the magnet systems pendulous mounting, and causes the
compass card to tilt during changes of speed. This deflection will cause a further error,
which will be most apparent on easterly and westerly headings. When an aeroplane is
operated in the Northern Hemisphere and accelerates on either of these headings, the
resulting error will cause the magnet system to rotate, and the compass to indicate a turn to
the north. Conversely if an aeroplane decelerates on either of these headings, the resulting
error will cause the magnet system to rotate, and the compass to indicate a turn to the
south.
These indications will however be reversed in the Southern Hemisphere. If the aeroplane
decelerates when flying in a westerly direction, the action and reaction of 'P' and 'R'
respectively, will have the opposite effect, and will cause the assembly to turn in the
opposite direction, with all of the forces again turning in the same direction.
Figure 8.199: Acceleration error
The errors due to acceleration and deceleration are summarised in Table 8.9:-
Table 8.9: Compass errors – acceleration and deceleration
Note:
• In the Southern Hemisphere, the errors are in the opposite sense.
• Similar errors can occur in turbulent flight conditions.
• No errors occur at the magnetic equator, as the value of "Z" is zero and hence the
pivot point and C of G will be co-incident with each other.

© Copyright 2012
Turning Errors
During a turn, the compass pivot is carried along the same curved path as the aeroplane.
The centre of gravity (of the magnet system), being offset from the pivot, which is used to
counter the effect of 'Z', is thus subject to centrifugal acceleration. Furthermore, in a
correctly banked turn the magnet system will tend to maintain a position parallel to the
athwartships (wingtip to wingtip) axis of the aeroplane, and will thus be tilted in relation to
the earth's magnetic field. This will place the pivot and C of G out of alignment with the local
magnetic meridian. The magnet system will thus be subject to a component of 'Z', and this
will cause it, when turning through North in the Northern Hemisphere, to rotate in the same
direction as the turn. This will further increase the turning error, and will cause the compass
to under-indicate, as shown in Figure 8.200.
TURNS W-N-E AND E-N-W ALL ERRORS WITH TURN HENCE UNDER INDICATION
The magnitude and direction of the turning error is thus dependent on the aeroplane's
heading, its angle of bank (the degree of tilt of the magnet system), and the local value of
'Z' (dip). The turning error will be a maximum value on northerly/southerly headings, and will
be particularly significant within 35° of these headings.
If an aeroplane turns east, as soon as the turn is commenced, the magnet system's C of G
will be subject to a centrifugal acceleration, and will cause the system to rotate in the same
direction as the turn. This will in turn tilt the magnet system, and will allow the earth's
vertical component 'Z' to exert a pull on the northern end, which will cause further rotation of
the system. The same effect will occur if the heading change is from north to west in the
Northern Hemisphere.
Figure 8.200: Turning error
The speed of rotation of the system is a function of the aeroplane's bank angle and rate of
turn.
As a result of these factors, the following indications may be registered by the compass:

© Copyright 2012
• A turn in the correct sense, but smaller than that carried out when the magnet
system turns at a slower rate than the aeroplane.
• No turn when the magnet system turns at the same rate as the aeroplane.
• A turn in the opposite sense because the magnet system turns at a faster rate than
the aeroplane.
When turning from a southerly heading in the Northern Hemisphere onto an easterly or
westerly heading, the rotation of the system and indications registered by the compass will
be the same as when turning from north, except that the compass will over-indicate the
turn.
TURNS W-S-E AND E-S-W ACCN Z NOW AGAINST TURN SWIRL WITH TURN ALWAYS
The effects of turning through North and South in the Northern Hemisphere are
summarised in the following table:-
Table 8.10: Compass turning errors
The liquid in the bowl not only provides damping, but it also tends to turn with, and in the
same direction as the turn. This is referred to as 'Liquid Swirl', and its motion will either
add to, or subtract from, the overall needle error, which is dependent on its relative
movement.
In the Southern Hemisphere the south magnetic pole will dominate and, in counter-acting
its downward pull on the compass magnet system, the C of G will move to the northern side
of the pivot. The errors will thus be in the opposite sense. If an aeroplane turns from a
northerly heading onto a easterly heading, the centrifugal acceleration acting on the C of G
will cause the needle to rotate more rapidly in the opposite direction to the turn, thus
indicating a turn in the correct sense but of greater magnitude than that actually carried out.
The turn will thus be over- indicated. Turning from a southerly heading onto an easterly or
westerly heading in the Southern Hemisphere will, because of its C of G, which is still north
of the compass pivot, result in the same effect as turning through north in the Northern
Hemisphere.
Note:
• In the Southern Hemisphere, the errors are opposite to those occurring in the
Northern Hemisphere.
• The Northerly turning error is greater than southerly, as liquid swirl is additive to the
compass magnet system movement.

© Copyright 2012
Other Errors
The magnet aligns with the earth's magnetic field, its vertical, as well as its horizontal
component. Near the poles the vertical component becomes appreciable enough for the
magnet to cause the float to tilt. To compensate for this, the float is weighted slightly on the
end nearest the equator (south end, in the northern hemisphere). When the aeroplane
banks, the weight acts along the vertical axis of the aeroplane because the bank is
coordinated, but the attraction on the magnet still acts toward the centre of the earth, and it
will pull the card around. When the aeroplane banks toward the south, the pull on the card
is in the same direction as the turn and the compass will lead the aeroplane. If the turn is
made toward the North, the force on the card will cause it to rotate in the direction opposite
the turn, and the compass will lag behind the aeroplane.
The dip-compensating weight has another bad effect. On a heading of east or west, when
the nose drops or rises and the aeroplane accelerates or decelerates, the inertia of the
weight will cause the card to rotate. When the aeroplane accelerates, the compass will
indicate a turn to the north and when it decelerates, it looks as though the aeroplane is
turning to the south.
Both turning and acceleration errors will be in the opposite direction when flying in the
southern hemisphere.
Index error
Causes: Misaligned installation of compass or flux valve.
Correction: Alignment of compass or flux valve.

Remote compensators with special adjustment (INDEX)
One cycle error

Causes: Magnetic fields induced by electric wires or magnetized steel parts.
Correction: Compensating magnets or calibrated currents through the flux valve.

Remote compensators with special adjustment (N-S/E-W)
Two cycle error

Causes: Deflection of the earth magnetic field lines by steel parts like screws.
Asymmetric impedance of the cable from flux valve to the system.
Correction: Using special screws and non ferromagnetic materials around the compass.
Remote compensators with special adjustment (TRANSMISSION)
Coriolis
Causes: Rotation of the earth deflecting the compass of a N-S moving aircraft’s
compass or flux valve.
Correction: None. This small influence cannot be compensated.

© Copyright 2012
Flux Valve
The flux valve is mounted in a wing tip or other location on the aircraft that has a minimum
of magnetic interference caused by various electrical circuits. It has a highly permeable iron
frame, or spider, made in the form of a segmented circle with three legs radiating out from
its centre. An excitation coil is wound around the centre of the spider, and pick-up coils are
wound around each of the three legs.
The excitation coil is excited with 400 Hertz whose field periodically saturates the arms of
the spider and lowers its permeability. When no current flows, the arms are unsaturated
and are able to accept lines of flux from the earth’s magnetic field, but when they are
saturated, they will not.
The position of the flux valve is on a heading of magnetic north. The earth’s magnetic field
enters the arm of the spider during that portion of the cycle when it can accept this flux and,
as the field is alternately accepted and rejected, it cuts across the windings of the pick-up
coils and generates a voltage in them. This voltage is amplified and used to drive the
slaving torque motor. As the aircraft turns to another magnetic heading, the relationship
between the flux lines in each of the three arms of the spider changes, and for every
heading there is a different phase relationship generated in the pick-up coils.
The varying three-phase AC voltage in the pick-up coils is carried into the slaved gyro
instruments (such as an RMI, RDI or HIS) has where its output controls the variable phase
voltage that is sent into a two-phase slaving torque motor in the directional gyro. This
slaving torque motor applies a precise force on the directional gyro that causes it to turn
until it satisfies the signal being sent from the flux valve. The synchro system rotates the
dial of the RMI until it agrees with the signal from the flux valve.
Figure 8.201: Cut-away view of a Flux Valve

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.202: Cut-away view of a Flux Valve

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.203: Flux Valve Spider
Figure 8.204: Spider and Earth Magnetic Field

© Copyright 2012
Slaved Gyro Compass
The modern directional gyro, like the gyro horizon, has been combined with other
instruments to make it the versatile flight instrument it is today. One of the most useful
combinations has been that of slaving the gyro to a magnetic compass. A flux gate, or flux
valve, picks up an induced voltage from the earth’s magnetic field and after processing it,
directs it to a slaving torque motor in the instrument that precesses the gyro and rotates the
dial until the aeroplane’s magnetic heading is under the nose of the symbolic aeroplane on
the face of the instrument. This slaving gives the directional gyro all of the advantages of a
magnetic compass without its most disturbing faults. In the more exotic direction-indicating
instruments, the slaved directional gyro is combined with radio navigation systems so it will
display information from the VOR, ILS, ADF or Area-Navigation system.
Figure 8.205: A slaved HSI
The direction-seeking portion of the system consists of a flux valve that picks up a
directional signal from the earth’s magnetic field. This signal is amplified and sent into a
slaving torque motor in the remotely-mounted directional gyro. This motor causes the DG to
precess until it indicates the relationship between the nose of the aircraft and the earth’s
magnetic field. When the gyro precesses, it drives the rotor of a synchro transmitter which
is electrically connected to a synchro motor inside the compass indicator (Radio Magnetic
Indicator - RMI, Radio Direction Indicator - RDI or Horizontal Situation Indicator - HSI) that
drives the heading indicator. By using this mechanism, the actual magnetic heading of the
aircraft at any time is shown by the position of the heading dial against the lubber line.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.206: A slaved Direction Indicator diagram

© Copyright 2012
Compass Systems
Light Aircraft
The flux valve is located in the aircraft tail or wing tip to prevent any influence of magnetic
field induced by electric currents. The flux valve senses the direction (heading) of the earth
magnetic field.
The heading is routed to a synchro. If the directional gyro is not coinciding with the earth
magnetic field, a synchro output voltage is applied to a slaving amplifier. The gyro torque
motor produces a force to the gyro gimbal. The DG moves by precession to the actual
magnetic heading direction.
As long the compass is not synchronized with the earth magnetic field, the synchronisation
indicator is deflected toward + or -. For quick synchronisation the pilot rotates the DG
direction by SYN knob in + or - direction until the synchronisation indicator is centred. Then
the heading dial coincides with the flux valve angle information.
Figure 8.207: A light aircraft compass system with flux valve and synchronisation indicator

© Copyright 2012
MD-80 Compass System
For redundancy, two independent compass systems are installed.
• Captains RDI and first officers RMI is provided from compass 1

• Captains RMI and first officers RDI is provided from compass 2
If one or both system fails, each crew member has still one compass read-out. If both
systems fail, both pilots must read the heading from a magnetic stand-by compass.
The instrument amplifier gets the flux valve heading and slaves the directional gyro as long
as the mastershaft does not coincide. The direction of the directional gyro is repeated to the
mastershaft. Four heading synchros feeding the heading to the display and other systems.
Figure 8.208: Lay-out of a large aircraft compass system

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.209: Gyro stabilized compass

© Copyright 2012
Manual synchronisation of compass system
The previous example has a disadvantage.
The slaving rate of the directional gyro is very slow (2° - 5° per minute). This causes a very
long synchronisation time after applying electrical power. Let’s assume the position of
mastershaft is 170° apart from the flux valve signal. The synchronisation will take more than
one hour.
To fast synchronize the compass, the user may manually rotate the DG output signal. After
this is done the gyro is not directed to magnetic north but together with the rotation angle of
the differential synchro it represents the heading reference. The synchronisation
annunciator shows a plus or dot if the compass is not synchronized. Rotating the knob
located on the RDI in the same direction will synchronize to the correct direction. If the knob
is rotated opposite the annunciated + or dot, the compass will show 180° wrong because of
the second (wrong) null position of a synchro control transformer.
Figure 8.210: Indicator with synchronizing knob and annunciator

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.211: Compass with Synchronisation

© Copyright 2012
New Technology
The IRS part of the ADIRU provides aircraft heading to the EFIS and the Digital Distance
Radio Magnetic Indicator (DDRMI). The magnetic heading is derived from true heading.
Magnetic variations are stored inside FMS memory. No flux valves are used any more. The
DDRMI shows magnetic heading from ADIRU 1 or ADIRU 3.
Figure 8.212: Layout of PFD and ND showing the magnetic or depending of aircraft and
operation mode the true (directed to geographic north) or magnetic heading. If the ND
operates in PLAN mode, the horizontal situation is directed true north upward.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.213: Glass Cockpit indication of PFD and ND

© Copyright 2012
Remote Compensator
Installed in commercial aircraft, and makes compensation of compass errors easier.
Figure 8.214: Index, One Cycle and Two Cycle Error

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.215: Remote Compensator

© Copyright 2012
Intentionally Blank

© Copyright 2012
Flight Data Recording (FDR) Systems
Requirements
The European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) requires that all turbine powered aircraft with
a take-off weight greater than 5,700 kg and with seating for more than nine passengers
shall be equipped with a flight data recorder. The device must be capable of retaining data
recorded during at least the last 25 hours of aircraft operation, although this figure may be
reduced to 10 hours for aircraft with a take-off weight of less than 5,700 kg.
The data recorded must be sufficient to establish the following flight parameters:
• Altitude
• Airspeed
• Heading
• Attitude in pitch and roll
• Acceleration
• Thrust or power on each engine
• Configuration of lift or drag devices
• Radio transmission keying
• Use of automatic flight control systems
• Angle of attack
• Air temperature
For aircraft with a take-off weight in excess of 27,000kg, it is required that additional data
must be recorded in order to be able to establish the following parameters, as well as those
listed above:
• Primary flight control positions

• Pitch trim
• Primary navigation information as displayed to the flight crew
• Flight deck warnings
• Landing gear position
• Radio altitude
The data recorded must be from essentially the same sources as those which supply the
information displayed to the flight crew and it must include any parameters that are peculiar
to the operating characteristics of the aircraft design.
The flight data recorder must automatically begin recording all the above data before the
aircraft is capable of moving under its own power and must automatically cease recording
after the aircraft is no longer capable of moving under its own power. In practical terms, this
usually means that recording starts with start of the first engine and ceases at shut-down of
the last engine. The recorder must be contained within a container painted in a distinctive
orange or yellow colour and its recovery must be assisted by reflective material and an
underwater locating device that is automatically activated upon immersion.

© Copyright 2012
It must be so installed in the aircraft that the probability of damage to the recorded data
from shock, heat or fire is minimised. This is usually satisfied by locating the flight data
recorder as far aft as practicable, typically in the vicinity of the rear pressure bulkhead.
The electrical supply to the recorder must be from a bus bar that can be expected to
provide power under all circumstances, without jeopardising essential or emergency
services. There must also be a pre-flight testing facility to check the serviceability of the
recorder.
Figure 8.216 shows a block diagram of the typical inputs to the flight data recorder of a
large transport aircraft.
Figure 8.216: Inputs to a DFDR
Types of Flight Data Recorder

Flight data recorders are classified according to the amount of information to be retained
and the length of aircraft operating time over which data are to be recorded and stored.
Recorders meeting the EU-OPS requirements for aircraft with a maximum take-off weight in
excess of 27,000kg must be capable of recording at least 32 parameters and these are
classified as Type-I flight data recorders. Type-II recorders meet the JAR-OPS
requirements for smaller aircraft (take-off weight of 5,700 kg) and these must be capable of
recording at least 15 parameters. Type IIA recorders only have a 30-minute recording span,
but must be capable of retaining data recorded during the preceding take-off.
System Monitoring
The flight data recorder system has its own built-in test equipment (BITE) and the
serviceability of this and the recorder should be checked before the first flight of the day.
FDRs are subject to annual inspection and to calibration on a 5-year cycle. Dedicated
airspeed and altitude sensing equipment is subject to bi-annual inspection and calibration.

© Copyright 2012
Aircraft Integrated Data System (AIDS)
Many of the larger transport aircraft types are equipped with data gathering and retention
systems for monitoring the health and performance of the engines and aircraft systems.
The system most commonly used is known as the aircraft integrated data system (AIDS),
which provides the option of a real time display of current operating conditions, or
downloading and printout of the data when the aircraft is on the ground. Some operators
make use of an extension to AIDS known as the aircraft communication addressing and
reporting system (ACARS), whereby the system can be interrogated from the operator’s
ground base and technical data downloaded whilst the aircraft is in flight. The data recorded
and stored by AIDS can be interchanged with the flight data recorder and the FDR data can
be printed out during aircraft maintenance.
The flight data recorder is crash proof in order to withstand an accident, records the
mandatory parameters. Early recorders etched the vertical acceleration, altitude, speed,
heading and time in a heat resistant and impact protected metal foil. Today the digital
recorder gets about 50 mandatory parameters via flight data interface unit and the
parameter are stored for 25 -50 hours on a magnetic tape or solid state memory.
The underwater locator beacon will transmit a 37 kHz tone if it is immersed in water to
locate the recorder after an accident.
Figure 8.217: AIDS

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.218: Flight Data Recorder

© Copyright 2012
Parameters
The Flight Data Acquisition Unit collects many different mandatory parameters for
recording. Today about 300 parameters are recorded. In earlier versions, between 6 and 50
parameters were recorded.
Here some example:

• 21: Temperatures, Pressures, Airflows
• 22: Engagement and Operational Modes
• 23: HF VHF Transmission Activities
• 24: Power Distribution Configuration, Switching
• 26: Fire and Smoke Warnings
• 27: Various Flight Controls
• 28: Configuration, Quantities
• 29: Pressure, Quantity, Temperatures
• 30: Configuration, Pressure, Temperatures
• 31: Warnings, Time
• 32: Configuration, Brake
• 34: Airdata, Position, Heading, ILS, Warnings
• 36: Configuration, Pressure, Temperature
• 70: EGT, EPR, N1, N2, Oil Temp, Thrust

© Copyright 2012
The parameter input is in following format;
• analogue
• digital
• discrete
Figure 8.219: Data Source

© Copyright 2012
Three Axis Accelerometer
The three axes accelerometer detects acceleration along the longitudinal, the lateral and
the vertical axes. The unit is at the centre of gravity of the aircraft.
The unit has, for each axes, a sensor. The sensor has a bar which bends when there is
acceleration. The resistance value of the strain gauge changes when the bar bends. The
strain gauge is a part of a resistance bridge and results in a change in the output voltage.
In an alternative method, the acceleration force moves a pendulum in the sensing

mechanism. The detector always forces the sensing-mass to the centre position. The
current from the amplifier is proportional to the acceleration.
Figure 8.220: Three-Axis accelerometer system

© Copyright 2012
Underwater Locator Beacon
You find the underwater locator beacon on the front panel of the flight data recorder. The
beacon has a high impact case which contains; a mercury battery; a water sensitive switch;
an electronic timer module and piezo-electric transducer.
After water entry it transmits a 37.5 kHz pulse every second. The range of the beacon is 2
miles in any direction and the system operates for about 30 days. At one side of the beacon
is an end cap with the name BATTERY ACCESS, the other end cap contains the water
switch. Keep the switch end of the beacon clean and replace the battery when the label
“REPLACE BATTERY BY:” tells you to do so.
Figure 8.221: ULB

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.222: Flight Data Recorder and Tape Cassette (mechanical)
Flight data recorders have developed markedly since World War II. In the 1960s the
recorder scratched most parameters with diamond needles into a heat resistant metal foil.
The metal foil had to be replaced when it was filled up with data.
For accident research, it was a time consuming work to find all the missing tape fragments
and read them.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.223: Functional Principle of ancient Flight Data Recorder

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.224: Digital Flight Data Recorder DFDR (with Tape)
• Recording Capacity: 25 Hour

• Heat resistant: 1,100°C for 30 minutes
• Shock resistance: Tape: 100 G Solid State: 3,400 G for 6 ms
• Saltwater proof: 6,000 meter for 1 month
• Mean Time Between Failure MTBF: Tape 7,000 hrs. Solid State 15,000 hrs.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.225: Solid State Digital Flight Data Recorder (SSDFDR)

© Copyright 2012
Typical Flight Data Recording System
The purpose of the Digital Flight Data Recorder System (DFDRS) is to record various
critical flight parameters in a solid state memory to fulfil the mandatory requirements of
crash recording.
The DFDRS basically includes a Flight Data Acquisition Unit, a Flight Data Recorder (FDR),
a Linear Accelerometer, an EVENT push button and a control panel to meet the minimum
requirements.
The Flight Data Acquisition Unit is a computer which collects various basic aircraft system
parameters and converts them by internal processing.
The flight data recorder is located in the rear part of the aircraft. It stores, in a solid state
memory the data of the last 25 hours collected by the FDAU. The memory board is located
in a mechanical protected box. The front face of the FDR includes an Underwater Locator
Beacon.
The aircraft systems send basic parameters to the Flight Data Acquisition Unit (FDAU) via
various system computers. The information about the aircraft is provided to the FDAU
directly by pin programming.
The Linear Accelerometer is installed at the aircraft centre of gravity to provide the three
axes acceleration data.
When pushed, the EVENT push button is used to record an event mark in the Flight Data
Recorder (FDR) memory. The EVENT push button is located on the pedestal.
Power Interlock - The Flight Data Recorder is automatically supplied with power when one
engine is started and will stop five minutes after the last engine shutdown.
For test and maintenance purposes on ground as well as for pre-flight check, it is possible
to supply power to the FDR by pressing the ground control push button on the overhead
panel.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.226: FDR System

© Copyright 2012
Glass Cockpit
A glass cockpit is an aircraft cockpit that features electronic (digital) instrument displays,
typically large LCD screens, rather than the traditional style of analogue dials and gauges.
While a traditional cockpit relies on numerous mechanical gauges to display information, a
glass cockpit uses several displays driven by flight management systems that can be
adjusted to display flight information as needed. This simplifies aircraft operation and
navigation and allows pilots to focus only on the most pertinent information. They are also
popular with airline companies as they usually eliminate the need for a flight engineer. In
recent years the technology has become widely available in small aircraft.
As aircraft displays have modernized, the sensors that feed them have modernized as well.
Traditional gyroscopic flight instruments have been replaced by electronic Attitude and
Heading Reference Systems (AHRS) and Air Data Computers (ADCs), improving reliability
and reducing cost and maintenance. GPS receivers are usually integrated into glass
cockpits.
Early glass cockpits, found in the McDonnell Douglas MD-80/90, Boeing 737 Classic, 757
and 767-200/-300, and in the Airbus A300-600 and A310, used Electronic Flight Instrument
Systems (EFIS) to display attitude and navigational information only, with traditional
mechanical gauges retained for airspeed, altitude and vertical speed. Later glass cockpits,
found in the Boeing 737NG, 747-400, 767-400, 777, A320 and later Airbuses, Ilyushin Il-96
and Tupolev Tu-204 have completely replaced the mechanical gauges and warning lights in
previous generations of aircraft.
In Commercial Aviation
Unlike the previous era of glass cockpits - where designers merely copied the look and feel
of conventional electromechanical instruments onto cathode ray tubes - the new displays
represent a true departure. They look and behave very similarly to other computers, with
windows and data that can be manipulated with point-and-click devices. They also add
terrain, approach charts, weather, vertical displays, and 3D navigation images.
The improved concepts enable aircraft makers to customize cockpits to a greater degree
than previously. All of the manufacturers involved have chosen to do so in one way or
another, such as using a trackball, thumb pad or joystick as a pilot-input device in a
computer-style environment. Many of the modifications offered by the aircraft
manufacturers improve situational awareness and customize the human-machine interface
to increase safety.
Modern glass cockpits might include Synthetic Vision (SVS) or Enhanced Vision systems
(EVS). Synthetic Vision systems display a realistic 3D depiction of the outside world (similar
to a flight simulator), based on a database of terrain and geophysical features in
conjunction with the attitude and position information gathered from the aircraft navigational
systems. Enhanced Vision systems add real-time information from external sensors, such
as an infrared camera.
All new airliners such as the Airbus A380, Boeing 787 and private jets such as Bombardier
Global Express and Learjet use glass cockpits.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.227: Airbus A380 glass cockpit
In General Aviation
Many modern general aviation aircraft are available with glass cockpits. Systems such as
the Garmin G1000 are now available on many new GA aircraft, including the classic
Cessna 172. Many small aircraft can also be modified post-production to replace analogue
instruments.
Glass cockpits are also popular as a retrofit for older private jets and turboprops such as
Dassault Falcons, Raytheon Hawkers, Bombardier Challenger, Cessna Citations,
Gulfstreams, King Airs, Learjets, Astras and many others. Aviation service companies work
closely with equipment manufacturers to address the needs of the owners of these aircraft.
Figure 8.228: Garmin G1000 displays in a Cessna 182

© Copyright 2012
Electronic Flight Instrument Systems (EFIS)
The EFIS is fully integrated with digital computer-based navigation systems, and utilizes
colour CRT types of ADI and HSI. Compared to a conventional analogue and mechanical
flight display system, it is far more sophisticated not only in terms of physical construction,
but also in the extent to which it can present attitude and navigational data to the flight crew
of an aircraft.
Figure 8.229: An early ADI (top) and HSI (bottom) on the Boeing 737
Components
As in the case of conventional flight director systems, a complete EFIS installation is made
up of left (Captain) and right (First Officer) systems. Each system in turn is comprised of
two display units: an electronic attitude director indicator (EADI) and an electronic horizontal
situation indicator (EHSI), a control panel, a symbol generator (SG), and a remote light
sensor unit. A third (centre) SG is also incorporated so that its drive signals may be
switched to either the left or right display units in the event of failure of the corresponding
SGs. The signal switching is accomplished within the left and right SGs, using
electromechanical relays powered from an aircraft’s dc power supply via pilot-controlled
switches. The interface between EFIS units, data busses, and other systems is shown in
Figure 8.230.
Display units
Each display unit consists of the sub-units shown in Figure 8.231. The power supply units
provide the requisite levels of AC and DC power necessary for overall operation; the
supplies are automatically regulated and monitored for undervoltage and overvoltage
conditions.
The video/monitor card contains a video control microprocessor, video amplifiers and
monitoring logic for the display unit. The main tasks of the processor and associated ROM
and RAM memories are to calculate gain factors for the three video amplifiers (red, blue
and green), and perform input and sensor and display unit monitor functions. The
input/output interface functions for the processor are provided by analogue multiplexers, an
A/D converter and a D/A converter.

© Copyright 2012
© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.230: EFIS units and signal interfacing
The function of the convergence card is to take X and Y deflection signals and to develop
drive signals for the three radial convergence coils (red, blue and green) and the one lateral
convergence coil (blue) of the CRT. Voltage compensators monitor the deflection signals in
order to establish on which part of the CRT screen the beams are located (right or left for
the X comparator, and top or bottom for the Y comparator).
Signals for the X and Y beam deflections for stroke and raster scanning are provided by the
deflection amplifier card. The amplifiers for both beams each consist of a two-stage
preamplifier and a power amplifier. Both amplifiers use two supply inputs, 15 V DC and 28
V DC; the former is used for effecting most of the stroke scanning or writing, while the latter
is used for repositioning and raster scanning.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.231: Display unit
The interconnect card serves as the interface between the external connector of a display
unit and the various cards. Digital line receivers for the signals supplied by the SGs are also
located on this card.
In a typical system, six colours are assigned for the display of the many symbols, failure
annunciators, messages and other alphanumeric information, and are as follows:
White Display of present situation information.

Green Display of present situation information where contrast with white symbols is
required, or for data having lower priority than white symbols.
Magenta All ‘fly to’ information such as flight director commands, deviation pointers,
active flight path lines.
Cyan Sky shading on an EADI and for low-priority information such as non-active
flight plan map data.
Yellow Ground shading on an EADI, caution information display such as failure
warning flags, limit and alert annunciators and fault messages.
Red For display of heaviest precipitation levels as detected by the weather radar.
Symbol generators (SGs)

These provide the analogue, discrete and digital signal interfaces between an aircraft’s
systems, the display units and the control panel, and they perform symbol generation,
system monitoring, power control and the main control functions of the EFIS overall. The

© Copyright 2012
interfacing between the card modules of an SG is shown in Figure 8.232, and card
functions are given in Table 8.11.
Figure 8.232: Symbol generator and card interfacing
Control Panel
A control panel is provided for each system, and, as shown in Figure 8.233, the switches
are grouped for the purpose of controlling the displays of their respective EADI and EHSI
units as listed in Table 8.11.
Remote Light Sensor

This is a photodiode device which responds to flight deck ambient light conditions and
automatically adjusts the brightness of the CRT displays to a compatible level.
Display Presentations
The EADI displays traditional pitch and roll attitude indications against a raster-scanned
background, and as may be seen from the example illustrated in figure 8.187, the upper
half is in cyan and the lower half in yellow. Attitude data is provided by a gyro system. Also
displayed are flight director commands, localizer and glide slope deviation, selected
airspeed, ground speed, AFCS and autothrottle system modes, radio altitude and decision
height.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.188: illustrates a display representative of an automatically-controlled approach to
land situation together with the colours of the symbols and alphanumeric data produced via
the EFIS control panel and SGs. The autoland status, pitch, roll-armed and engaged modes
are selected on the AFCS control panel, and the decision height is selected on the EFIS
control panels. Radio altitude is digitally displayed during an approach, and when the
aircraft is between 2,500 and 1,000 ft above ground level. Below 1,000 ft the display
automatically changes to a white circular scale calibrated in increments of 100 ft, and the
selected decision height is then displayed as a magenta-coloured marker on the outer
scale.
Card Function
I/O I & 2 Supply of input data for use by the main processor
Main processor Main data-processing and control for the system
Main RAM Address decoding, read/write memory and I/O functions for the
system
Main PROM Read-only memory for the system
Display controller Master transfer bus interface
WXR input Time scheduling and interleaving for raster, refresh, input and
standby functions of weather radar input data
WXR memory RAM selection for single-input data, row and column shifters for
rotate/translate algorithm, and shift registers for video output
Display sequencer Loads data into registers on stroke and raster generator cards
Stroke generator Generates all single characters, special symbols, straight and
curved lines and arcs on display units
Raster generator Generates master timing signals for raster, stroke. EADI and
EHSI functions
Display driver Converts and multiplexes X and Y digital stroke and raster
inputs into analogue for driver operation, and also monitors
deflection outputs for proper operation
Table 8.11:
The radio altitude also appears within the scale as a digital readout. As the aircraft
descends, segments of the altitude scale are simultaneously erased so that the scale
continuously diminishes in length in an anticlockwise direction.

© Copyright 2012
At the selected decision height plus 50 ft, an aural alert chime sounds at an increasing rate
until the decision height is reached. At the decision height, the circular scale changes from
white to amber and the marker changes from magenta to amber; both the scale and marker
also flash for several seconds. A reset button is provided on the control panel and when
pressed it stops the flashing and causes the scale and marker to change from amber back
to their normal colour.
Figure 8.233: Control panel
If during the approach the aircraft deviates beyond the normal ILS glide slope and/or
localizer limits (and when below 500 ft above ground level), the flight crew are alerted by
the respective deviation pointers changing colour from white to amber; the pointers also
start flashing. This alert condition ceases when the deviations return to within their normal
limits.

© Copyright 2012
Switch Function
EADI section:
BRT Controls levels of display brightness.
DH SET Setting of decision height.
RST Manually resets decision height circuits after aircraft has passed
through decision height.
EHSI section:
RANGE Selects range for displayed WXR and navigation data.
MODE SELECT Selects display appropriate to mode required.
BRT Outer knob controls main display brightness; inner knob controls
WXR display.
WXR When pushed in, WXR data displayed during all modes except
PLAN.
MAP switches Used in MAP mode, and when pushed in they cause their
placarded data to be displayed. Illuminate white.
Table 8.12: EADI and EHSI controls

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.234: EADI display
The EHSI presents a selectable, dynamic colour display of flight progress and plan view
orientation. Four principal display modes may be selected on the control panel: MAP,
PLAN, ILS and VOR. Figure 8.235 illustrates the normally-used MAP mode display which,
in conjunction with the flight plan data programmed into a flight management computer,
displays information against a moving map background with all elements positioned to a
common scale.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.235: EHSI in MAP mode

© Copyright 2012
The symbol representing the aircraft is at the lower part of the display and an arc of the
compass scale, or rose, covering 30° on either side of the instantaneous track is at the
upper part of the display. Heading information is supplied by the appropriate IRS, and the
compass rose is automatically referenced to magnetic north (via a crew-operated
‘MAG/TRUE’ selector switch) when between latitudes 73° N and 65° S, and to true north
when above these latitudes. When the selector switch is set at ‘TRUE’, the compass rose is
referenced to true north regardless of latitude.
Tuned VOR/DME stations, airports and their identification letters, and the flight plan entered
into the flight management system computer are all correctly oriented with respect to the
positions and track of the aircraft, and to the range scale (nm/in) selected on the EFIS
control panel. Weather radar ‘returns’ may also be selected and displayed when required,
at the same scale and orientation as the map.
Figure 8.236: EHSI in ‘PLAN’ mode.
Indications of other data such as wind speed and direction, lateral and vertical deviations
from the selected flight profile, distance to waypoint, etc., are also displayed.
The map display also provides two types of predictive information. One combines current
ground speed and lateral acceleration into a prediction of the path over the ground to be
followed over the next 30, 60 and 90 seconds. This is displayed by a curved track vector,
and since a time cue is included the flight crew are able to judge distances in terms of time.

© Copyright 2012
The second prediction, which is displayed by a range to altitude arc, shows where the
aircraft will be when a selected target altitude is reached.
In the PLAN mode, a static map background with active route data oriented to true north is
displayed in the lower part of the HSI display, together with the display of track and heading
information as shown in Figure 8.236. Any changes to the route are selected at the
keyboard of the flight management system display unit, and appear on the EHSI display so
that they can be checked by the flight crew before they are entered into the flight
management computer.
The VOR and ILS modes present a compass rose (either expanded or full) with heading
orientation display as shown in Figure 8.237. Selected range, wind information and system
source annunciation are also displayed. If selected on the EFIS control panel, weather
radar returns may also be displayed, though only when the mode selected presents an
expanded compass rose.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.237: VOR and ILS mode displays

© Copyright 2012
Failure Annunciation
Failure of data signals from such systems as the ILS and radio altimeter, are displayed on
each EADI and EHSI in the form of yellow flags ‘painted’ at specific matrix locations on their
CRT screens. In addition, fault messages may also be displayed: for example, if the
associated flight management computer and weather radar range disagree with the control
panel range data, the discrepancy message ‘WXR/MAP RANGE DISAGREE’ appears on
the EHSI.
Data Source Selection

In the type of system described, means are provided whereby the pilots can, and
independently of each other, connect their respective display units to alternate sources of
input data, e.g. left or right ADCs, flight management computers, flight control computers,
and standby IRS.
Figure 8.238: Source selector switch panel.

© Copyright 2012
Each pilot has a panel of selector switches arranged as shown in Figure 8.238. The upper
rotary type of switch connects the left, centre or right flight control computer to the EADI as
the source of attitude data. The other switches are of the illuminated push type and are
guarded to prevent accidental switching. In the normal operating configuration of systems
they remain blank, and when activated they are illuminated white.
Display of Air Data

In a number of EFIS applications, the display of such air data as altitude, airspeed and
vertical speed is provided in the conventional manner, i.e. separate indicators servo-
operated from ADCs are mounted adjacent to the EFIS display units in the basic ‘T’
arrangement . With the continued development of display technology, however, CRTs with
much larger screen areas have been produced and, as may be seen from the Boeing 737
aircraft flight deck layout in Figure 8.239, such displays make it unnecessary to provide
conventional primary air data instruments for each pilot.
Figure 8.239: Flight deck layout of the Boeing 737 series aircraft.

© Copyright 2012
PFD and ND
General
The primary flight display (PFD) is usually located in a prominent position, either centrally
or on either side of the cockpit. It will in most cases include a digitized presentation of the
attitude indicator, air speed and altitude indicators (usually as a tape display) and the
vertical speed indicator. It will in many cases include some form of heading indicator and
ILS/VOR deviation indicators. In many cases an indicator of the engaged and armed
autoflight system modes will be present along with some form of indication of the selected
values for altitude, speed, vertical speed and heading. It may be pilot selectable to swap
with the ND.
A navigation display (ND), which may be adjacent to the PFD, shows the current route
and information on the next waypoint, current wind speed and wind direction. It may be pilot
selectable to swap with the PFD.
On the left side of the cockpit (Captain’s side), the PFD is on the left of the ND. On the right
side of the cockpit (First Officer’s side), the PFD is on the right of the ND. This is to ensure
that the PFD, which is the more important of the two for controlling the attitude of the
aeroplane) is always directly opposite the Captain’s and F/O’s line of vision. However.
These arrangements can be changed at the discretion of the pilots.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.240: The captain’s PFD and ND
Figure 8.241: Instrument layout
Figure 8.242: Electronic Instrument System switching panel

© Copyright 2012
Primary Flight Display (PFD)
A primary flight display or PFD is a modern aircraft instrument dedicated to flight
information. Much like multi-function displays, primary flight displays are built around an
LCD or CRT display device. Representations of older six pack or "steam gauge"
instruments are combined on one compact display, simplifying pilot workflow and
streamlining cockpit layouts.
Most airliners built since the 1980s — as well as many business jets and an increasing
number of newer general aviation aircraft — have glass cockpits equipped with primary
flight and multi-function displays.
Mechanical gauges have not been completely eliminated from the cockpit with the onset of
the PFD; they are retained for backup purposes in the event of total electrical failure.
While the PFD does not directly use the pitot-static system to physically display flight data,
it still uses the system to make altitude, airspeed, vertical speed, and other measurements
precisely using air pressure and barometric readings. An air data computer analyzes the
information and displays it to the pilot in a readable format. A number of manufacturers
produce PFDs, varying slightly in appearance and functionality, but the information is
displayed to the pilot in a similar fashion.
The details of the display layout on a primary flight display can vary enormously, depending
on the aircraft, the aircraft's manufacturer, the specific model of PFD, certain settings
chosen by the pilot, and various internal options that are selected by the aircraft's owner
(i.e., an airline, in the case of a large airliner). However, the great majority of PFDs follow a
similar layout convention.
Figure 8.243: A typical PFD layout

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.244: PFD layout detail
The centre of the PFD usually contains an attitude indicator (AI), which gives the pilot
information about the aircraft's pitch and roll characteristics, and the orientation of the
aircraft with respect to the horizon. Unlike a traditional attitude indicator, however, the
mechanical gyroscope is not contained within the panel itself, but is rather a separate
device whose information is simply displayed on the PFD. The attitude indicator is designed
to look very much like traditional mechanical AI's. Other information that may or may not
appear on or about the attitude indicator can include the stall angle, a runway diagram, ILS
localizer and glide-path “needles”, and so on. Unlike mechanical instruments, this
information can be dynamically updated as required; the stall angle, for example, can be
adjusted in real time to reflect the calculated critical angle of attack of the aircraft in its
current configuration (airspeed, etc.). The PFD may also show an indicator of the aircraft's
future path (over the next few seconds), as calculated by onboard computers, making it
easier for pilots to anticipate aircraft movements and reactions.
To the left and right of the attitude indicator are usually the airspeed and altitude indicators,
respectively. The airspeed indicator displays the speed of the aircraft in knots, while the
altitude indicator displays the aircraft's altitude above mean sea level (AMSL). These
measurements are conducted through the aircraft's pitot system, which tracks air pressure
measurements. As in the PFD's attitude indicator, these systems are merely displayed data
from the underlying mechanical systems, and do not contain any mechanical parts (unlike
an aircraft's airspeed indicator and altimeter). Both of these indicators are usually presented
as vertical “tapes”, which scroll up and down as altitude and airspeed change. Both

© Copyright 2012
indicators may often have “bugs”, that is, indicators that show various important speeds and
altitudes, such as V speeds calculated by a flight management system, do-not-exceed
speeds for the current configuration, stall speeds, selected altitudes and airspeeds for the
autopilot, and so on.
The vertical speed indicator, usually next to the altitude indicator, indicates to the pilot how
fast the aircraft is ascending or descending, or the rate at which the altitude changes. This
is usually represented with numbers in "thousands of feet per minute." For example, a
measurement of "+2" indicates an ascent of 2000 feet per minute, while a measurement of
"-1.5" indicates a descent of 1500 feet per minute. There may also be a simulated needle
showing the general direction and magnitude of vertical movement.
At the bottom of the PFD is the heading display, which shows the pilot the magnetic
heading of the aircraft. This functions much like a standard magnetic heading indicator,
turning as required. Often this part of the display shows not only the current heading, but
also the current track (actual path over the ground), current heading setting on the autopilot,
and other indicators.
Other information displayed on the PFD includes navigational marker information, bugs (to
control the autopilot), ILS glideslope indicators, course deviation indicators, altitude
indicator QFE settings, and much more.
Although the layout of a PFD can be very complex, once a pilot is accustomed to it the PFD
can provide an enormous amount of information with a single glance.
The great variability in the precise details of PFD layout makes it necessary for pilots to
study the specific PFD of the specific aircraft they will be flying in advance, so that they
know exactly how certain data are presented. While the basics of flight parameters tend to
be much the same in all PFDs (speed, attitude, altitude), much of the other useful
information presented on the display is shown in different formats on different PFDs. For
example, one PFD may show the current angle of attack as a tiny dial near the attitude
indicator, while another may actually superimpose this information on the attitude indicator
itself. Since the various graphic features of the PFD are not labelled, the pilot must learn
what they all mean in advance.
A failure of a PFD deprives the pilot of an extremely important source of information. While
backup instruments will still provide the most essential information, they may be spread
over several locations in the cockpit, which must be scanned by the pilot, whereas the PFD
presents all this information on one display. Additionally, some of the less important
information, such as speed and altitude bugs, stall angles, and the like, will simply
disappear if the PFD malfunctions; this may not endanger the flight, but it does increase
pilot workload and diminish situational awareness.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.245: PFD and ND mode control panel

© Copyright 2012
Navigation Display (ND)
The Navigation Display is located next to the PFD and displays horizontal situation data to
the pilot, and is able to be superimposed with the weather radar and/or TCAS.
Figure 8.246: Navigation Display
ND display features include:
Groundspeed and True Airspeed

Displays aeroplane speeds in green as determined by ADIRS.
Wind Direction / Speed

Displays wind direction and speed with respect to true north in numeric form and wind
direction in respect to magnetic north in green arrow form. Dashes indicate no wind data
received.
APP Massages
Displayed in green when an ILS or VOR approach has been selected on the MCDU.
• TO Waypoint Information
• Identification (e.g. LGW) - Displays in white.
• Track To Go (e.g. 011) - Displays in green.
• Distance To Go (e.g. 5.5nm) - Displays in green.

© Copyright 2012
• Estimated Time of Arrival (e.g. 05:36) - Displays in green.
Arc Mode Range Marks
Displays range scale selected on the EFIS control panel (10 to 320 nm) in white.
Weather Radar Image

Displays when radar is operating in all modes except PLAN. The echo colours correspond
to the precipitation rate.
Chronometer Indication
Displays elapsed time in white when on-side chronometer is started.
ILS Marker Beacon

Flashes blue for outer marker, amber for middle marker and white for inner marker.
Runway
Displays selected Runway as oriented runway symbol. Down to scale if range 10, 20 or 40
nm is selected.
Holding Pattern
Displays active Holding Pattern.
VOR/DME Navaid
Displays green if a current waypoint, white if it is the TO waypoint, blue when tuned for
display and magenta when not a part of the flight plan but displayed as option as selected
on the FCU.
Left/Right Navaid Displays

Display the following information for the selected Navaid, the left side for receiver one and
the right side for receiver two:
• Type of Navaid (ADF in green or VOR in white).

• Shape and colour of the associated bearing pointer.
• Navaid identification (or frequency if no identification is available).
• DME distance if a DME is co-located to the selected VOR.
• Method of tuning
• M for Navaid manually tuned through the MCDU
• R for Navaid tuned from an RMP.
Aeroplane Symbol
Waypoints
Active waypoint displays white, all others green. Others magenta when WPT display
selected.
Various display options are available, selectable from the mode control panel Figure 8.245,
as shown in the following figures.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.247: ND ARC mode (with weather radar)
Figure 8.248: ND ROSE/NAV mode

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.249: ND PLAN mode
Figure 8.250: ND ROSE/ILS mode

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.251: ND with TCAS

© Copyright 2012
Intentionally Blank

© Copyright 2012
EICAS and ECAM
Introduction
The display of the parameters associated with engine performance and airframe systems
control by means of CRT-type display units has, like those of flight instrument systems,
become a standard feature of many types of aircraft. The display units form part of two
principal systems designated as engine indicating and crew alerting system (EICAS)
and electronic centralized aircraft monitoring (ECAM) system, which were first
introduced in Boeing 757 and 767 aircraft and the Airbus A310 respectively. At the time of
their introduction, there were differing views on the approach to such operating factors as
flight deck layouts and crews’ controlling functions, the extent to which normal, alerting and
warning information should be displayed, and in particular, whether engine operating data
required to be displayed for the whole of a flight, or only at various phases.
In respect of EICAS, engine operating data is displayed on its CRT units, thereby
eliminating the need for traditional instruments. The data, as well as those relevant to other
systems, are not necessarily always on display but in the event of malfunctions occurring at
any time, the flight crew’s attention is drawn to them by an automatic display of messages
in the appropriate colours. The ECAM system, on the other hand, displays systems
operation in checklist and schematic form, and as this was a concept based on the view
that engine data needs to be displayed during the whole of a flight, traditional instruments
were retained in the Airbus A310. It is of interest to note, however, that in subsequent types
produced by this manufacturer, e.g. A320, the ECAM system is developed to include the
display of engine data in one of its display units.
The basic system comprises two display units, a control panel, and two computers supplied
with analogue and digital signals from engine and system sensors as shown in the
schematic functional diagram of Figure 8.252. The computers are designated ‘Left’ and
‘Right’, and only one is in control at a time; the other is on ‘standby’, and in the event of
failure it may be switched in either manually or automatically.

© Copyright 2012
Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System (EICAS)
Operating in conjunction with the system are discrete caution and warning lights, standby
engine indicators and a remotely-located panel for selecting maintenance data displays.
The system provides the flight crew with information on primary engine parameters (full-
time), with secondary engine parameters and advisory/caution warning alert messages
displayed as required.
Figure 8.252: EICAS: functional diagram.

Display Units
These units provide a wide variety of information relevant to engine operation, and
operation of other automated systems, and they utilize colour shadow mask CRTs and
associated card modules whose functions are identical to those of the EFIS units. The units
are mounted one above the other as shown in Figure 8.253.

© Copyright 2012
The upper unit displays the primary engine parameters - speed, EGT, and warning and
caution messages. In some cases this unit can also display EPR depending on the type of
engines installed and on the methods of processing data by the thrust management control
system. The lower unit displays secondary engine parameters, i.e. N 2 speed, fuel flow, oil
quantity, pressure and temperature, and engine vibration. In addition, the status of non-
engine systems, e.g. flight control surface positions, hydraulic system, APU, etc., can also
be displayed together with aircraft configuration and maintenance data. Rows of ‘V’s shown
on the upper display unit only appear when secondary information is being displayed on the
lower unit.
Figure 8.253: EICAS: engine data displays
Seven colours are produced by the CRTs and they are used as follows:
White All scales, normal operating range of pointers, digital readouts.

Red Warning messages, maximum operating limit marks on scales, and digital
readouts.
Green Thrust mode readout and selected EPR/N 1 speed marks or target cursors.
Blue Testing of system only.
Yellow Caution and advisory messages, caution limit marks on scales, digital
readouts.
Magenta During in-flight engine starting, and for cross-bleed messages.
Cyan Names of all parameters being measured (e.g. N 1 oil pressure, TAT, etc.) and
status marks or cues.

© Copyright 2012
The displays are selected according to an appropriate display selection mode.

© Copyright 2012
Display Modes
EICAS is designed to categorize displays and alerts according to function and usage, and
for this purpose there are three modes of displaying information: (i) operational, (ii) status,
and (iii) maintenance. Modes (i) and (ii) are selected by the flight crew on the display select
panel, while mode (iii) is selected on the maintenance panel which is for the use of
engineers only.
• Operational mode
This mode displays the engine operating information and any alerts required to be
actioned by the crew in flight. Normally only the upper display unit presents
information; the lower one remains blank and can be selected to display secondary
information as and when required.
• Status mode
When selected this mode displays data to determine the dispatch readiness of an
aircraft, and is closely associated with details contained in an aircraft’s Minimum
Equipment List. The display shows positions of the flight control surfaces in the form
of pointers registered against vertical scales, selected sub-system parameters, and
equipment status messages on the lower display unit. Selection is normally done on
the ground either as part of pre-flight checks of dispatch items, or prior to shut-down
of electrical power to aid the flight crew in making entries in the aircraft’s Technical
Log.
• Maintenance mode
This mode provides maintenance engineers with information in five different display
formats to aid them in trouble-shooting and verification testing of the major sub-
systems. The displays, which are presented on the lower display unit, are not
available in flight.
Figure 8.254: EICAS: display select panel

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.255: Status mode display
Display Select Panel
This panel, as indicated in Figure 8.254, permits control of EICAS functions and displays
and can be used both in flight and on the ground. It is normally located on the centre
pedestal of an aircraft’s flight deck, and its controls are as follows:
1. Engine display switch This is of the momentary-push type for removing or

presenting the display of secondary information on the lower display unit.
2. Status display switch Also of the momentary-push type, this is used to display the
status mode information referred to earlier, on the lower display unit. The display is
known as a ‘status page’, an example of which is shown in Figure 8.255.
3. Event record switch This is of the momentary-push type is used in the air or on the
ground, to activate the recording of fault data relevant to the environmental control
system, electrical power, hydraulic system, performance and APU. Normally, if any
malfunction occurs in a system, it is recorded automatically (called an ‘auto event’)
and stored in a non-volatile memory of the EICAS computer. The push switch also
enables the flight crew to record a suspect malfunction for storage, and this is called
a ‘manual event’. The relevant data can only be retrieved from memory and
displayed when the aircraft is on the ground and by operating switches on the
maintenance control panel.
4. Computer select switch In the ‘AUTO’ position it selects the left, or primary,
computer and automatically switches to the other computer in the event of failure.
The other positions are for the manual selection of left or right computers.
5. Display brightness control The inner knob controls the intensity of the displays,
and the outer knob controls brightness balance between displays.
6. Thrust reference set switch Pulling and rotating the inner knob positions the
reference cursor on the thrust indicator display (either EPR or N 1 ) for the engine(s)
selected by the outer knob.
7. Maximum indicator reset switch If any one of the measured parameters, e.g. oil
pressure, EGT, should exceed normal operating limits, this will be automatically
alerted on the display units. The purpose of the reset switch is to clear the alerts
from the display when the excess limits no longer exist.

© Copyright 2012
Alert messages
The system continuously monitors a large number of inputs (typically over 400) from engine
and airframe systems’ sensors and will detect any malfunctioning of systems. If this should
occur, then appropriate messages are generated and displayed on the upper display unit in
a sequence corresponding to the level of urgency of action to be taken. Up to 11 messages
can be displayed, and at the following levels:
• Level A — Warning requiring immediate corrective action. They are displayed in red.
Master warning lights are also illuminated, and aural warnings (e.g. fire bell) from a
central warning system are given.
• Level B — Cautions requiring immediate crew awareness and possible action. They
are displayed in amber, and also by message caution lights. An aural tone is also
repeated twice.
• Level C — Advisories requiring crew awareness. Also displayed in amber. No
caution lights or aural tones are associated with this level.
The messages appear on the top line at the left of the display screen as shown in Figure
8.256. In order to differentiate between a caution and an advisory, the latter is always
indented one space to the right.
Figure 8.256: Alert message levels
The master warning and caution lights are located adjacent to the display units together
with a ‘Cancel’ switch and a ‘Recall’ switch. Pushing the ‘Cancel’ switch removes only the
caution and advisory messages from the display; the warning messages cannot be
cancelled. The ‘Recall’ switch is used to bring back the caution and advisory messages into
the display. At the same time, the word ‘RECALL’ appears at the bottom of the display.
A message is automatically removed from the display when the associated condition no
longer exists. In this case, messages which appear below the deleted one each move up a
line.

© Copyright 2012
When a new fault occurs, its associated message is inserted on the appropriate line of the
display. This may cause older messages to move down one line. For example, a new
caution message would cause all existing caution and advisory messages to move down
one line.
If there are more messages than can be displayed at one time, the whole list forms what is
termed a ‘page’, and the lowest message is removed and a page number appears in white
on the lower right side of the list. If there is an additional page of messages it can be
displayed by pushing the ‘Cancel’ switch. Warning messages are carried over from the
previous page.
Display Unit Failure

If the lower display unit should fail when secondary information is being displayed on it, an
amber alert message appears at the top left of the upper display unit, and the information is
transferred to it as shown in Figure 8.257. The format of this display is referred to as
‘compact’, and it may be removed by pressing the ‘ENGINE’ switch on the display select
panel. Failure of a display unit causes the function of the panel ‘STATUS’ switch to be
inhibited so that the status page format cannot be displayed.
Figure 8.257: Compact format

© Copyright 2012
Display Select Panel Failure
If this panel fails the advisory message ‘EICAS CONTROL PANEL’ appears at the top left
of the upper display unit together with the primary information, and the secondary
information automatically appears on the lower display unit. The ‘cancel/recall’ switches do
not operate in this failure condition.
Standby Engine Indicator

This indicator provides primary engine information in the event that a total loss of EICAS
displays occurs. As shown in Figure 8.258, the information relates to N 1 and N 2 speeds and
EGT; the displays are of the LCD type. Operating limit values are also displayed.
Figure 8.258: Standby engine indicator.
The display control switch has two positions: ‘ON’ and ‘AUTO’. In the ‘ON’ position, the
displays are permanently on. In the ‘AUTO’ position the internal circuits are functional, but
the displays will be automatically presented when the EICAS displays are lost due to failure
of both display units or both computers.
The test switch has three positions, and is spring-loaded to a centre off position. It is
screwdriver-operated and when turned to the left or right, it changes over power supply
units within the indicator to ensure that they each provide power for the displays. The test
can be performed with the display control switch in any position.
Maintenance Control Panel

This panel is for use by maintenance engineers for the purpose of displaying maintenance
data stored in system computer memories during flight or ground operations. The layout of
the panel and the principal functions of each of the controls are shown in Figure 8.259.

© Copyright 2012
The five display select switches are of the momentary-push type, and as each one is
activated, a corresponding maintenance display page appears on the lower display unit
screen. The pages are listed together with two example displays in Figure 8.260. The upper
display unit displays data in the ‘compact’ format (see Figure 8.257) with the message
‘PARKING BRAKE’ in the top left of the screen.
System failures which have occurred in flight and have been automatically recorded (‘auto
event’) in computer memory, as also data entered as ‘manual event’, can be retrieved for
display by means of the ‘event record’ switch on the panel.
Figure 8.259: Maintenance control panel

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.260: Examples of maintenance mode displays.
A self-test of the whole system, which can only be activated when an aircraft is on the
ground and its parking brake set, is performed by means of the ‘TEST’ switch on the
maintenance control panel. When the switch is momentarily pressed, a complete test
routine of the system, including interface and all signal-processing circuits, and power
supplies, is automatically performed. For this purpose an initial test pattern is displayed on
both display units with a message in white to indicate the system being tested, i.e. ‘L or R
EICAS’ depending on the setting of the selector switch on the display select panel. During
the test, the master caution and warning lights and aural devices are activated, and the
standby engine indicator is turned on if its display control switch is at ‘AUTO’.
The message ‘TEST IN PROGRESS’ appears at the top left of display unit screens and
remains in view while testing is in progress. On satisfactory completion of the test, the
message ‘TEST OK’ will appear. If a computer or display unit failure has occurred, the
message ‘TEST FAIL’ will appear followed by messages indicating which of the units has
failed.
A test may be terminated by pressing the ‘TEST’ switch a second time or, if it is safe to do
so, by releasing an aircraft’s parking brake. The display units revert to their normal primary
and secondary information displays.

© Copyright 2012
ECAM
ECAM is actually a series of systems designed to work in unison to display information to
the pilots in a quick and effective manner. Sensors placed throughout the aircraft,
monitoring key parameters, feed their data into two SDACs (System Data Acquisition
Concentrator) which in turn process the data and feed it to two FWCs (Flight Warning
Computers.) The FWCs check for discrepancies in the data and then display the data on
the ECAM displays through the three Display Management Computers (DMC). In the event
of a fault the FWCs generate the appropriate warning messages and sounds. More vital
systems are routed directly through the FWCs such that failures in them can still be
detected even with the loss of both SDACs. The whole system can continue to operate
even with a failure of one SDAC and one FWC.
The units comprising this system, and as originally developed for the Airbus A310, are
shown in the functional diagram of Figure 8.261. As far as the processing and display of
information are concerned, it differs significantly from EICAS in that data relate essentially
to the primary systems of the aircraft, and are displayed in check-list and pictorial or
synoptic format. Engine operating data are displayed by conventional types of instruments
as noted in the introduction to this chapter. Other differences relate to display locations and
selection of system operating modes.
Using a colour coded scheme the pilots can instantly assess the situation and decide on the
actions to be taken. It was designed to ease pilot stress in abnormal and emergency
situations, by designing a paperless cockpit in which all the procedures are instantly
available. This reduces the required cockpit crew to two pilots.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.261: ECAM system functional diagram.

© Copyright 2012
Display Units
These units are mounted side-by-side; the left-hand unit is dedicated to information on the
status of systems, warnings and corrective action in a sequenced check-list format, while
the right-hand unit is dedicated to associated information in pictorial or synoptic format.
Figure 8.262: ECAM display units

Display Modes
There are four display modes, three of which are automatically selected and referred to as
flight phase-related, advisory (mode and status), and failure-related modes. The fourth
mode is manual and permits the selection of diagrams related to any one of 12 of the
aircraft’s systems for routine checking, and also the selection of status messages provided
no warnings have been ‘triggered’ for display. The selections are made by means of
illuminated push-button switches on the system control panel.
In normal operation the automatic flight phase-related mode is used, and in this case the
displays are appropriate to the current phase of aircraft operation, i.e. pre-flight, take-off,
climb, cruise, descent, approach, and after landing. An example of a pre-flight phase is
shown in Figure 8.263; the left-hand display unit displays an advisory memo mode, and the
right-hand unit displays a diagram of the aircraft’s fuselage, doors, and arming of the
escape slides deployment system.

© Copyright 2012
The failure-related mode takes precedence over the other two modes and the manual
mode. An example of a display associated with this mode is shown in Figure 8.264. In this
case, while taxiing out for take-off, the temperature of the brake unit on the rear right wheel
of the left main landing gear bogie has become excessive. A diagram of the wheel brake
system is immediately displayed on the right-hand display unit, and simultaneously the left-
hand unit displays corrective action to be taken by the flight crew. In addition, an aural
warning is sounded, and a light (placarded ‘L/G WHEEL’) on a central warning light display
panel is illuminated. As the corrective action is carried out, the instructions on the left-hand
display are replaced by a message in white confirming the result of the action. The diagram
on the right-hand display unit is appropriately ‘redrawn’.
Figure 8.263: Pre-flight phase-related mode display
In the example considered, the warning relates to a single system, and by convention such
warnings are signified by underlining the system title displayed. In cases where a failure
can affect other subsystems, the title of the sub-system is shown ‘boxed’, as for instance in
the display shown in Figure 8.265. Warnings and the associated lights are cleared by
means of ‘CLEAR’ push-button switches on either the ECAM control panel or a warning
light display panel.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.264: Failure-related mode display
Status messages, which are also displayed on the left-hand display unit, provide the flight
crew with an operational summary of the aircraft’s condition, possible downgrading of
autoland capability, and as far as possible, indications of the aircraft status following all
failures except those that do not affect the flight. The contents of an example display are
shown in Figure 8.266.
Figure 8.265: Display of failure affecting a sub-system.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.266: Example of status display
Failures are classed by importance ranging from level 1 failures to level 3 failures. In the
event of simultaneous failures the most critical failure is displayed first. The warning
hierarchy is as follows:
• Level 1 Failures – red warnings, situations that require immediate crew action and
that place the flight in danger. For example an engine fire or loss of cabin pressure.
They are enunciated with a red master warning light, a warning (red) ECAM
message and a continuous repetitive chime or a specific sound or a synthetic voice.
The chime can be silenced by pressing the master warning push button.
• Level 2 Failures – amber cautions, failures that require crew attention but not
immediate action. For example air bleed failure or fuel fault. They have no direct
consequence to flight safety and are shown to the crew through an amber master
caution light, a caution (amber) ECAM message and a single chime.
• Level 3 Failures – Cautions, failures and faults that lead to a loss of system
redundancy, they require monitoring but present no hazard. Examples include the
loss of DMC3 when not in use. Level 3 failures are enunciated by a caution (amber)
ECAM message only (no aural warning).

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.267: ECAM Engine parameters, Synoptic displays and Status displays

© Copyright 2012
Control Panel
The layout of this panel is shown in Figure 8.268; all switches, with the exception of those
for display control, are of the push-button, illuminated caption type.
1. SGU selector switches Control the respective symbol generator units, and the
lights are off in normal operation of the system. The ‘FAULT’ caption is illuminated
amber if a failure is detected by an SGU’s internal self-test circuit. Releasing a switch
isolates the corresponding SGU, and causes the ‘FAULT’ caption to extinguish, and
the ‘OFF’ caption to illuminate white.
2. Synoptic display switches Permit individual selection of synoptic diagrams
corresponding to each of 12 systems, and illuminate white when pressed. A display
is automatically cancelled whenever a warning or advisory occurs.
Figure 8.268: Control panel
3. CLR switch Light illuminated white whenever a warning or status message is

displayed on the left-hand display unit. Pressed to clear messages.
4. STS switch Permits manual selection of an aircraft status message if no warning is
displayed; illuminated white. Pressing the switch also causes the CLR switch to
illuminate. A status message is suppressed if a warning occurs or if the CLR switch
is pressed.
5. RCL switch Enables previously cleared warning messages to be recalled provided
the failure conditions which initiated them still exist. Pressing the switch also causes
the CLR switch light to illuminate. If a failure no longer exists the message ‘NO
WARNING PRESENT’ is displayed on the left-hand display unit.

© Copyright 2012
System Testing
Each flight warning computer of the system is equipped with a monitoring module which
automatically checks data acquisition and processing modules, memories, and the internal
power supplies as soon as the aircraft’s main power supply is applied to the system. A
power-on test routine is also carried out for correct operation of the symbol generator units.
During this test the display units remain blank.
In the event of failure of the data acquisition and processing modules, or of the warning light
display panel, a ‘failure warning system’ light on the panel is illuminated. Failure of a
computer causes a corresponding annunciator light on the maintenance panel, captioned
‘FWC FAULT’, to illuminate. A symbol generator unit failure causes a ‘FAULT’ caption on
the appropriate push-button switch on the system control panel to illuminate.
Manual self-test checks for inputs and displays are carried out from a maintenance panel
shown in Figure 8.269. When the ‘INPUTS’ switch is pressed, a ‘TEST’ caption is
illuminated white, and most of the inputs to each computer are checked for continuity. Any
incorrect inputs appear in coded form on the left-hand display unit. The right-hand display
unit presents a list of defective parameters at the system’s data analogue converter. The
diagrams of systems appear on the right-hand display unit with the caption ‘TEST’ beside
the system title, as each corresponding push-button switch is pressed. Calibrated outputs
from the data analogue converter are also displayed. Any defective parameters are
identified by a flag display.
Figure 8.269: Maintenance panel
A ‘DISPLAYS’ push-button switch is provided on the maintenance panel and when pressed
it initiates a check for correct operation of the symbol generator units, and the optical
qualities of the display units by means of a test pattern display. The ‘LOAD’ caption is
illuminated each time a failure is memorized in the relevant test circuits of the SGUs.
The annunciator lights on the maintenance panel illuminate white simultaneously with a
failure warning system light on the central warning light display panel when a corresponding
computer fails.
The ‘INHIB OVRD’ switch enables inhibited warnings to be displayed.

© Copyright 2012
Intentionally Blank

© Copyright 2012
Vibration Measurement and Indication
A turbine engine has an extremely low vibration level and a change in vibration, due to an
impending or partial failure, may go unnoticed. Many engines are therefore fitted with
vibration indicators that continually monitor the vibration level of the engine.
Vibration Transducer
Early vibration transducers were of the moving coil type and up to three could be located at
strategic locations around the engine (HP Compressor case, LP Turbine case etc). The
units of vibration for these systems were in terms of Relative Amplitude
Figure 8.270: Vibration monitoring system
An alternative system consists of a piezo-electric crystal and a mass inside a casing. As

the engine vibrates, the mass will exert a force upon the crystal which will emit a small
alternating current of a frequency equal to the frequency of vibration. This is then amplified
and displayed in the flight deck via an ammeter.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.271: Piezo-electric vibration transducer
Airborne Vibration Monitoring (AVM) System

A modern system has a pair of piezoelectric crystals contained within one housing. This
provides for dual channel redundancy. Each transducer detects a broadband vibration
signal that reflects all the vibrations in the engine. This broadband signal is processed by a
micro-processor and the frequency of the rotating spools (N1, N2 and for RR engines N3)
so that the amplitude of vibration of these major assemblies can be displayed, usually on
EICAS or ECAM
Figure 8.272: AVM System Operation

© Copyright 2012
Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS)
Warnings
It has been proven that a human voice can attract a person’s attention more quickly than a
warning light or other visual indication. For this reason aural warnings are used in the
GPWS when the aircraft is in a dangerous position relative to the ground.
During operation, a GPWS senses the nearness of the ground and warns the pilot if the
aircraft is too near the ground when it is not in a configuration for landing. It does this by
monitoring the radio altimeter to determine the actual height above the ground. It also
monitors the air data computer, instrument landing system, and landing gear and flap
position to determine if the aircraft is properly configured for its distance from the ground. If
it is too near the ground for its location or configuration, the system will warn the pilot.
A typical GPWS in an aircraft will warn the flight crew of five types of hazards:
Mode 1 warnings occur when the aircraft is below

2,450 feet radio altitude and the barometric altimeter
shows an excessive rate of descent. When excessive
descent rate is detected, the warning light will
illuminate and the aural warning sounds. “SINKRATE”
or ‘WHOOP’ WHOOP! PULL UP!”
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m-a_2WBgB0o
Mode 2 warnings occur when the terrain is rising at an

excessively fast rate. When this is encountered the
light illuminates and the aural warning says the word
“TERRAIN” or “WHOOP! WHOOP! PULL UP!”
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IXAWpjdxSbQ
Mode 3 warnings occur when the aircraft has initiated

a climb after takeoff or after a missed approach. If
there is a loss of altitude under these conditions, the
GROUND PROXIMITY light will illuminate and the
aural warning will say “DON’T SINK
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fnp-cif6kaE

© Copyright 2012
Mode 4 warnings occur during the landing phase of a
flight. If there is insufficient terrain clearance when the
landing gear is up or the flaps are not in land configu-
ration. The warning will sound TOO LOW GEAR or
TOO LOW FLAPS and the GROUND PROXIMITY light
illuminates.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dzRTyZYV3m8
Figure 8.273: Warnings Modes 1 - 4
Mode 5 warnings occur when the aircraft is on ILS approach. If the aircraft sinks below the
glideslope, the amber GS light will illuminate and the aural warning will repeat “GLIDE
SLOPE GLIDE SLOPE.”
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bJFxmTYzr7g
Call-Outs
Mode 6 provides alerts and callouts for descent below predefined altitudes, Decision Height
(DH), Minimums and Approaching Decision Height, Approaching Minimums.
Alerts for excessive roll or bank angle are also provided as part of this mode. The
“Excessive Bank Angle” aural alerts are given twice, and then suppressed unless the roll
angle increases by an additional 20%.
Bank Angle Alert
Specific callouts are selected via program pin from predefined menus. Mode 6 alerts and
callouts produce aural and ARINC 429 output indications, but do not produce visual
indications.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.274: Call-outs and bank angle warnings
Windshear Alerting
Mode 7 produces optional alerts for flight into an excessive Windshear conditions during
takeoff or final approach. The Windshear warning produces aural, visual and ARINC 429
output indications.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9yjtbUO4GUc
Windshear detection is active during the initial takeoff and final approach phases of flight.
Alert and warnings are provided when the level of windshear exceeds predetermined
threshold values.
The actual windshear value measured represents the vector sum of inertial acceleration
versus air mass accelerations along the flight path and perpendicular to the flight-path.
These shears result from vertical winds and rapidly changing horizontal winds.
Windshear warnings are given for decreasing head wind (or increasing tail wind) and
severe vertical down drafts. Windshear alerts are given for increasing head wind (or
decreasing tail wind) and severe up drafts. The windshear microburst phenomenon and
windshear caution and warning levels are illustrated in Figure 8.275.

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.275: Windshear warnings
EGPWS Terrain Alerting and Display

The Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System (EGPWS) incorporates terrain alerting
and display functions. These functions use aircraft geographic position, aircraft altitude, and
an internal terrain data base to predict potential conflicts between the aircraft flight path and
the terrain, and to provide graphic displays of the conflicting terrain.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TUZbOoQrlXQ
The Caution and Warning envelopes use the Terrain Clearance Floor as a baseline, and
virtually “look ahead” of the aircraft in a volume which is calculated as a function of
airspeed, roll attitude and flight path angle.
If the aircraft penetrates the Caution Envelope boundary, the aural message “Caution
Terrain. Caution Terrain” is generated, and alert discretes are activated for visual
annunciation. Simultaneously, the conflicting terrain areas are shown in solid yellow colour
on the Terrain Display.
If the aircraft penetrates the Warning envelope boundary, the aural message “Terrain
Terrain - Pull Up!” is generated, and alert discretes are activated for visual annunciation.
Simultaneously the conflicting terrain areas are shown in solid red colour on the Terrain
Display.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=frqYcbfKb4s

© Copyright 2012
Figure 8.276: EGPWS height shading
EGPWS Terrain Picture

The ND presents the terrain picture. The terrain appears in different colours and densities
according to its relative height.
Figure 8.277: EGPWS shadings displayed on a ND

© Copyright 2012
• Solid Red Warning Terrain (approximately 30 seconds from impact)
• Solid Yellow Caution Terrain (approximately 60 seconds from impact)
• 50% Red Dots More than 2000 feet above reference altitude
• 50% Yellow Dots 1000 to 2000 feet above reference altitude
• 25% Yellow Dots 500 feet below to 1000 feet above reference altitude
• 25% Green Dots 500 feet below to 1000 feet below reference altitude
• 12.5% Green Dots 1000 to 2000 feet below reference altitude
• Black No close terrain
• Magenta Unknown Terrain
Terrain Clearance Floor (TCF)

A number of airports throughout the World have approaches or departures that are not
entirely compatible with standard GPWS operation. These airports are identified in the
database in such a way that when the GPWS recognizes such an airport, it modifies the
profile to avoid nuisance warnings.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IJr8SSyStLQ
The Terrain Clearance Floor (TCF) creates an increasing terrain clearance envelope
around the intended airport runway directly related to the distance from the runway it is
active during takeoff, cruise and final approach.
Figure 8.278: Terrain Clearance Floor

© Copyright 2012
Terrain Database
Local Terrain Processing extracts and formats local topographic terrain data from the
EGPWS Terrain Database. This Database divides the earth’s surface into grid sets
referenced horizontally on the geographic (lat/long) coordinate. Elements of the grid sets
record the highest terrain elevation.
Grid sets vary in resolution depending on geographic location. Because the overwhelming
majority of “Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT)” accidents occur near an airport, and the
fact that aircraft operate in closer proximity to terrain near airports, higher resolution grids
are used around airports. Lower resolution grids are used outside of airport areas where
enroute aircraft altitude makes accidents unlikely and for which detailed terrain features are
not of importance to the flight crew.
Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) are available for most of the airports around the World
today. The global EGPWS Terrain Database is organized in a flexible and expandable
manner. Using digital compression techniques, the complete database is stored in non-
volatile memory of 20 MByte within the LRU. Updates and additions are easily done by
inserting a single PCMCIA card in a card slot on the LRU front-panel. Status LEDs on the
LRU front-panel allow the operator to monitor the database load progress and completion.
Obstacle Database
Provisions are also made for future use of an Obstacle Database providing obstacle data in
the vicinity of major airports. This database will provide altitude data for man-made
obstacles or groups of obstacles that protrude above the EGPWS terrain protection floors.
System Block Diagram

The Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System (EGPWS) generates aural voice and
visual warnings when one of the following conditions occurs between radio altitudes 30 feet
and 2,450 feet for modes 2, 4, 5 and between 10 feet and 2,450 feet for modes 1 and 3.
• Mode 1: excessive rate of descent

• Mode 2 : excessive terrain closure rate
• Mode 3 : altitude loss after takeoff or go around
• Mode 4 : unsafe terrain clearance when not in landing configuration
• Mode 5 : excessive deviation below glideslope.
In addition to the basic GPWS functions the GPWS has an enhanced function (EGPWS)
which provides, based on a worldwide terrain database:
• A Terrain Awareness Display (TAD), which predicts the terrain conflict, and displays
the terrain on the ND.
• A Terrain Clearance Floor (TCF), which improves the low terrain warning during
landing.

© Copyright 2012
The cockpit loudspeakers broadcast, even if turned off, the aural warning or caution
messages associated with each mode. The audio volume of these messages is not
controlled by the loudspeaker volume knobs. (These knobs allow adjustment of audio
volume for radio communication only).
GPWS lights come on to give a visual warning for modes 1 to 4. For mode 5 the glideslope
(G/S) lights illuminate on the captain and first officer instrument panel.
Figure 8.279: EGPWS inputs and outputs

© Copyright 2012
Central Warning Systems (CWS)
A central warning system is an automatic signalling system which provides an 'attention
getting’ display in response to fault signals from specified systems. Urgency of crew action
is normally indicated by the colour of the display, and/or audio tone.
If warning, caution, or advisory lights are installed in the cockpit, they must, unless
otherwise approved by the aviation Authority, be:-
• Red, for warning lights (lights indicating a hazard, which may require immediate
corrective action);
• Amber, for caution lights (lights indicating the possible need for future corrective
action);
• Green, for safe operation lights
Figure 8.280: Typical central warning panel (on test)
Origination of a fault signal will cause flashing of the relevant alert or caution lamps
mounted on the main instrument panels, illumination of the relevant inscription of the
display unit and, in certain cases, lighting of warning lamps incorporated in, or adjacent to,
control levers. Complete identification of the indicated fault will generally necessitate
reference to warning indicators and instruments associated with the system at fault, as
more than one fault condition can usually cause illumination of any one display unit
inscription. Response to alert warnings should, however, normally be instinctive and should
generally result in cessation of operation of the fault source.
Display signals other than major failure warning lamps, can usually be cancelled by
operating a cancel switch. Integral self-test equipment is normally provided for in-flight
testing of the system and may also provide an altitude inhibit control system which
extinguishes and inhibits certain centralised warning captions during automatic landings,
approach, and go-round procedures.
In addition some central warning systems are also equipped with advisory lights, normally
coloured blue, that advise when a system which is operated intermittently has been
activated.

© Copyright 2012
Glossary of Terms
Accelerometer: An instrument that measures the force of the attraction of gravity on a body. It is
calibrated in G units.
Agonic line: An imaginary line across the surface of the earth along which the magnetic and
geographic poles are in line and where there is "a-gonic"--"no angle"—or no variation error.
Airspeed, calibrated: Indicated airspeed corrected for instrument and position error.
Airspeed, indicated: Airspeed as indicated on the airspeed indicator with no corrections applied.
Airspeed, true: Calibrated airspeed corrected for altitude and temperature.
Altimeter, pneumatic: A form of aneroid barometer calibrated in feet, used to measure height
above a given pressure level.
Altimeter setting: Station pressure corrected to sea level. When this number is placed in the
barometric window of an altimeter, the instrument will read indicated altitude.
Autosyn system: A form of AC remote-indicating system using an electromagnet excited by 400
Hz AC as its rotor and having a three- phase stator.
Axial flow: The straight-through flow of a fluid. In an axial flow compressor, the air flows through the
compressor parallel to the engine, and the stages of compression do not essentially change the
direction of the flow.
Barometer, mercury: A closed glass tube partially filled with mercury, used to determine the
pressure exerted by the atmosphere.
Bezel: The rim which holds the glass in an instrument case.
Bourdon tube: The mechanism in a pressure gage consisting of a flat or elliptical cross- sectioned
tube bent into a curve or spiral. When pressure is applied, the tube attempts to straighten.
Cable, tachometer [chain]: The flexible cable used to drive a mechanical tachometer from the
engine. It is made of two layers of steel wire, spiralled in opposite directions about a central core.
Capacitance bridge: A null-type measuring instrument used to measure capacitance.
Capacitor: Another name for condenser. A device used to store an electrical charge.
Constantan: An alloy of copper and nickel used as the negative lead in thermocouples for
reciprocating engines.
Dashpot: A mechanical damper used to cushion or slow down movement by restricting the flow of
viscous fluid.
Deviation: A compass error which is caused by the compass magnets attempting to align with
extraneous magnetic fields in the aeroplane. Deviation error changes with the aeroplane's heading
rather than the geographic location.
Dielectric constant [k]: The characteristic of an insulator that determines the amount of electrical
energy that can be stored in the form of electrostatic fields.
Digital read-outs: Presentation of information by an instrument in a digital form such as light-
emitting diodes or drums, rather than by the movement of a pointer over a numbered dial.
Directional gyro [D.G.]: An attitude-type gyroscopic instrument with a dial calibrated in 360
degrees of azimuth. It is set to agree with the magnetic compass and will provide directional
information without the oscillation and lead and lag errors inherent in the magnetic compass.

© Copyright 2012
Dog house: A mark on a four-minute turn and slip indicator which resembles a dog house. It is
located one needle-width away from the centre, and when the pointer aligns with it, a standard rate
of turn is being made.
Drag cup, magnetic: The aluminium or copper cup surrounding the rotating magnet in a simple
mechanical tachometer. Eddy currents are generated in this cup causing magnetic fields which
oppose those of the rotating magnet.
Drift magnet: A small permanent magnet in a fixed-coil ratiometer indicator, used to drift or pull the
pointer off scale when the instrument is not energized.
Earth Induction compass: A form of direction indicator which derives its signal from the lines of
flux of the earth cutting across the windings of the flux valve mounted in the aeroplane.
Electrodynamic damping: The diminishing of oscillations of the pointer of an electrical meter by
the generation of electromagnetic fields in the frame of the moving coil.
Encoding altimeter: A form of pneumatic altimeter which codes the transponder differently for each
one hundred feet of altitude.
EPR [engine pressure ratio]: The ratio between the compressor inlet pressure and the turbine
discharge pressure. It is used as a parameter of power output measurement of an axial-flow turbine
engine.
Fluid: A substance, gaseous or liquid, that will conform to the shape of the container that holds it. A
gaseous fluid will expand to fill the entire container, while a liquid fluid will fill only the lower part of
the container.
Gimbal: The frame in which a gyro spins. Rate gyros use a single gimbal, while attitude gyros are
universally mounted in a double gimbal.
G unit: The unit of acceleration. One G is the attraction of gravity for a body.
Gyroscope: A device utilizing a rapidly spinning wheel with its weight concentrated around its rim.
This wheel exhibits the characteristics of rigidity in space and precession.
Helical spring: A spring wound in the form of a spiral.
Hourmeter: An odometer-type instrument used to measure hours of operating time. When
incorporated into a mechanical tachometer, it is accurate only at a specified RPM.
Hydraulic: Pertaining to force transmitted by a non-compressible fluid.
Inches of mercury: A measure of pressure; the height of a column of mercury the pressure will
support.
Incrementally: Moving in steps rather than in continuous motion.
Indicated altitude: Height above existing sea level pressure. It is read on an altimeter when the
altimeter setting is placed in the barometric window.
Inertial force: A force due to inertia, or the resistance to acceleration or deceleration.
Linear movement: A type of movement or progression in which the output or result is directly
proportional to the input.
Lines of flux: Lines of magnetic force connecting the poles of a magnet.
LOC mode: The mode, or operating position, of an automatic pilot when it is receiving its signals
from the localizer portion of an instrument landing system (ILS).
Lubber line: The reference line of a magnetic compass or directional gyro. The line represents the
nose of the aeroplane.

© Copyright 2012
Mach number: The ratio of the speed of an aeroplane to the speed of sound in the same
atmospheric conditions.
Magnesyn system: An AC remote-indicating system in which a permanent magnet is used as the
rotor. The stator is a saturable core, toroidal-wound coil, excited with low-voltage AC. When the core
is saturated it will not accept lines of flux from the rotor.
Manifold pressure: The absolute pressure that exists in the intake manifold of a reciprocating
engine.
Millibar: A unit of barometric pressure equal to approximately 0.75 millimetres of mercury.
Nonlinear output: An output that is not directly proportional to the input.
Omni station: The ground station of a very high frequency omnirange (VOR) navigation system.
Out-of-rig: The condition in an aeroplane in which straight and level, hands-off flight is not possible
because the controls are not properly rigged.
Out-of-trim: The condition in an aeroplane in which straight and level, hands-off flying is not
possible because of an aerodynamic load caused by an improperly adjusted trim device.
Partial panel flight: Flight by reference to instruments using the turn and slip indicator, clock, and
airspeed indicator instead of the artificial horizon and directional gyro.
Pawl: A pivoted stop in a mechanical device which allows motion one way but prevents it in the
opposite direction. It is commonly used in a ratchet mechanism.
Pendulum valve: Gravity-operated air valves over the discharge ports of the rotor housing of a
pneumatic gyro horizon. When the gyro tilts, the pendulum valves change the airflow from the
housing and cause a precessive force which erects the gyro.
Pick-off: That portion of a device or system which removes a signal from a sensor.
Pinion gear: A small gear on a shaft driven by either a sector gear or a toothed rack.
Pitot pressure: Ram or impact pressure used in the measurement of airspeed.
Pneumatic altimeter: A form of altimeter that measures height above a given pressure level. Its
calibration is based on a specified lapse rate, or change in pressure with height.
Position error: The error in an airspeed indicator caused by the static air source not being exposed
to absolutely still air.
Potentiometer: A form of variable resistor with terminals at both ends of the resistance strip as well
as the wiper.
Precession: One of the characteristics of a gyroscope which causes an applied force to be felt, not
at the point of application, but ninety degrees from that point in the direction of rotation.
Pressure: Force per unit area.
Pressure, absolute: Pressure measured relative to zero pressure or a vacuum. Absolute pressure
is often measured in inches of mercury, as, for example, manifold pressure.
Pressure, differential: A pressure difference between two pressures. The measurement of
airspeed is an example of the use of a differential pressure.
Pressure, gauge: Pressure measured relative to the existing atmospheric pressure.
Pressure port: The opening in an aircraft instrument through which pressure is introduced.
Radar altimeter: A form of absolute altimeter that measures the distance of the aeroplane from the
terrain below it by measuring the time required for a pulse of electrical energy to travel from the
aeroplane to the ground and back.

© Copyright 2012
Radial: A line of radio bearing radiating out from a VOR station. Each VOR station has 360 radials.
Ram air pressure: See pitot pressure.
Ratiometer indicator: A form of DC remote- indicating system whose pointer movement is
determined by the ratio of current flow between two resistors, or portions of a special variable
resistor.
Repeater indicator: An instrument that repeats the information produced by a master indicator.
Rocking shaft: A shaft or rod in an instrument that changes the direction of a movement, usually by
ninety degrees.
Rotary pick-off: A device that is rotated by some object whose movement is to be measured. The
pick-off generates a signal proportional to the amount of movement.
Rotary solenoid: An electromagnet whose movable core is rotated by current through the coil.
Sector gear: A portion of a large diameter gear which meshes with a much smaller pinion gear to
amplify angular movement.
Sensitive altimeter: A form of pneumatic altimeter in which a pointer makes a complete revolution
for each thousand feet, and which has an adjustable barometric scale by which the instrument may
be adjusted to the existing barometric pressure.
Servo altimeter: An altimeter in which the aneroid mechanism moves a rotary pick-off whose signal
is amplified to drive a servo motor which moves the drums and pointers.
Slaved gyro: A directional gyro which is "slaved'' to the output of a flux valve. In this way, a
directional gyro can be given direction- seeking tendencies.
Spider: The framework around which the three pick-up coils of a flux valve are wound. The highly
permeable material of which the spider is made accepts the lines of flux from the earth's magnetic
field.
Stagnation point: The point on the leading edge of an airfoil where the airflow separates, some
going over the surface and some below.
Stator: The stationary part of an electrical machine such as a motor or alternator.
Synchro: A form of synchronous device in which a movable element is caused to follow a similar
element in a master unit or transmitter.
Tachometer: An instrument for measuring the rotational speed of an engine. It is calibrated in
revolutions per minute {RPM).
Toroidal-wound coil: An electrical coil wound around a ring- or doughnut-shaped core.
Total pressure: The pressure a moving fluid would have if it were stopped. No losses are
considered.
Transponder [radar beacon transponder]: A radar transmitter-receiver which transmits a coded
signal every time it is interrogated by a ground radar facility.
Tumble limit: The number of degrees of pitch or roll a gyro will tolerate before it reaches its gimbal
stops. Beyond this point the gyro will tumble.
Turbine discharge pressure [P t7 ]: The total pressure at the discharge of the low-pressure turbine
in a dual axial flow engine.
Turn and slip indicator: A flight instrument consisting of a rate gyro, to indicate the rate of yaw,
and a curved glass clinometer, to indicate the relationship between gravity and centrifugal force. It
indicates the relationship between angle of bank and rate of yaw.

© Copyright 2012
VOR: Very high frequency omnirange navigation system. The common system of navigation used in
the contiguous United States. It is a phase-comparison form of radio navigation.
Vacuum: A negative pressure, or one below atmospheric pressure. In aviation use, vacuum is
usually measured in inches of mercury.
Variation: A compass error caused by the compass magnet aligning with magnetic poles and the
aeronautical charts and maps oriented to the geographic poles. Variation is determined by the
geographic location of the aeroplane is not affected by the aeroplane's heading.
Venturi: A specially shaped restrictor placed in a fluid flow which speeds up the flow of fluid and
decreases its pressure at the point of maximum velocity.
Wheatstone bridge: An electrical measuring circuit in which the current through the indicator is
determined by the ratio of the resistances of the four resistors which form the legs of the bridge.

© Copyright 2012

13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module 13

Aircraft Aerodynamics, Structures

For Training Purposes Only

Module 13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 8-2

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft

Module 13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 8-3

Module 13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 8-4

Module 13.8 Instruments Systems (ATA 31) ____________________________________ 11

Module 13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 8-5

Module 13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 8-6

Module 13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 8-7

Module 13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 8-8

Module 13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 8-9

Module 13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 8-10

Position Measuring Instruments

Variable Resistance Systems

Figure 8.1: Linear and non linear

Figure 8.2: Resistance Temperature Sensor in a Circuit

Module 13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 8-11

Figure 8.4: Resistor, Rheostat and Potentiometer

Figure 8.5: Rheostat and Potentiometer

Module 13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 8-12

Figure 8.6: Synchro Arrangement

Module 13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 8-13

Module 13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 8-14

Figure 8.8: A complete Torque Synchro system

Module 13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 8-15

Figure 8.9: Servo System

Figure 8.10: Synchro receiver and synchro transmitter

Module 13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 8-16

Figure 8.11: Resolver

Figure 8.12: Sine and Cosine Signal depending of existing Angle

Module 13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 8-17

Figure 8.14: Resolvers

Module 13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 8-18

Refer to Figure 8.16.

Figure 8.15: Various LVDTs used in control surface position indication

Module 13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 8-19

Module 13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 8-20

Module 13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 8-21

Figure 8.19: Photograph of an E-and-I bar (marked), operated by a position gyro.

Module 13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 8-22

• a primary stator coil

Figure 8.20: RVDT

Rotary Variable Differential Transducers (RVDTs), also known as Rotary Variable

Module 13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 8-23

Zero Position: The position of the iron core is zero. The

Rotated clockwise: The iron core has turned clockwise.

Rotated counter clockwise: The iron core has turned counter-

Module 13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 8-24

Figure 8.22: Servo-loop with DC Motor

Figure 8.23: Servo loop with AC Motor

Module 13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 8-25

Figure 8.24: 2 Phase Motor running CCW and CW

Counter Clockwise Rotation CCW

Servo Motor Loop using a Control Synchro Input

Module 13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 8-26

Figure 8.25: AC drag-cup rate generator

Figure 8.26: The components of an AC drag-cup rate generator

Module 13.8 Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 8-27