Endocrinology: The study of ductless glands or tissues and their hormonal products.

Endocrine glands: Are ductless and secrete their products directly into the blood.

• Can include any group of cells that secrete a hormone.

• Do not have ducts.
• Secrete their hormones directly into the interstitial fluid that surrounds them.
• The hormones then diffuse into the blood stream through capillaries and are carried to target
cells throughout the body.

Exocrine glands: Secrete their products into ducts.

• Sebaceous (oil) glands
• Mucous glands
• Digestive glands
• one of these are hormonest

Hormones: Are chemicals that essentially function as messenger of the body .These chemicals
are secreted by special glands known as the endocrine glands Those endocrine glands are
distributed throughout the body .These chemical messages help to turn on or turn off cellular
process that control stress, appetite, growth, sleep cycles, blood sugar, sex drive, and sexual
function.
Properties of Hormones:

• Low molecular weight, easily pass through capillaries

• Act in low concentration
• Soluble in water so can be transported via blood.
• Non-antigenic.
• Organic catalysts. Act as coenzymes of other enzymes.
• In their first action, cause a limited number of reactions and do not influence any metabolic
activities of a cell
• After their function is over, they are readily destroyed, excreted or Inactivated,
• Hormonal activities are not hereditary.

Characteristics of Hormones:

• Endocrine cells release hormones into the body

• Circulating in bodily fluids, hormones are chemical messengers.
• They act on one portion of the body after being secreted in another.
• Hormones do not catalyze any reactions.
• They are not stored beforehand and are only secreted in minute amounts when necessary.
• The nervous system uses the feedback effect to control hormone secretion.
• The majority of the time, hormones have long-lasting impacts such as altered behaviours,
growth, etc.

Functions:

• Development and growth

• Metabolism of food items
• Sexual function and reproductive growth and health
• Cognitive (mental) function and mood
• Maintenance of body temperature e and thirst

According to Chemical Nature:

1. Protein or peptide hormones e.g. insulin, glucagon, antidiuretic hormone, oxytocin.

2. Steroid hormones e.g. glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, sex hormone.

3. Amino acid derivatives e.g. epinephrine, norepinephrine, thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3).

But more specifically it is divided into six classes, they are hormones steroid; amines; peptide; protein;
glycoprotein and eicosanoid.

According to Mechanism of Action:

1. Group | Hormones:
• Includes group of lipophilic hormones that derived from cholesterol
• Steroid hormones are lipophilic (fat loving) - meaning they can freely diffuse across the plasma
membrane of a cell.
• Bind to receptors in either the cytoplasm or nucleus of the target cell, to form an active receptor
hormone complex.
• This activated complex will move into the nucleus and bind to DNA, acting as a transcription
factor for gene expression.
• DNA-mRNA-protein causes biochemical changes in the cell.

• Examples of steroid hormones include those produced by the gonads (ie estrogen, progesteron e
and testosterone).

2. Group Il hormones:
➢ Peptide hormones
➢ (insulin, glucagon, ADH and oxytocin)
➢ Are hydrophilic and lipophobic (fat hating)-meaning they cannot freely cross the plasma
membrane.
➢ Bind to receptors on the surface of the cell (G proteins)
➢ The receptor complex activates a series of intracellular molecules called second
messengers
➢ This process is called signal transduction
➢ Examples of second messengers CAMP, Ca², nitric oxide (NO) and protein kinases.
Nature of hormones action:

1. General/Circulating hormone: Transported through circulation to local distal target tissue/organ,

eg: thyroid hormones and insulin.

2. Local hormone: Have a specific local effect through paracrine secretion, for example, testosterone.
Stimulation of endocrine glands:

1. Tropic hormones:

. Hormones that stimulate other endocrine gland for secretion examples are TSH which stimulate

secretion of thyroid gland for the production o f thyroid hormones.

2. Non-tropic hormone:

Hormones that usually exert their effect on no endocrine target tissues examples of these hormone are
Thyroid hormone which increases the rate of oxygen consumption and metabolic activity of different
cells in the body.

According to the Effect of hormones:

1. Kinetic hormones: May cause muscle contraction, pigment migration, glandular secretion and others,
example of these hormones is epinephrine

2. Metabolic hormones: Manly caused changes in the rate of metabolism and balance the reaction
examples include insulin, glucagon, parathyroid hormones.

3. Morphogenetic hormone:

Mainly involved in growth and differentiation in the body, examples are Follicle stimulation hormones,
luteinizing hormones and thyroid hormones.

According to signaling effects:

1. Autocrine: The hormone act on the cell that secreted it.

2. Paracrine: The hormone act on a nearby cell without having to enter the blood circulation

3. Intracrine: The hormone is produced in the cell and acts intracellularly means inside the cell.

4. Endocrine. The hormone act on the target cells once it is released from the respective glands into the
bloodstream

Major Endocrine Glands & Their Functions

Adrenal glands:

1. Aldosterone: Regulates salt and water balance, and blood pressure.

2. Corticosteroid: Controls key functions in the body; acts as an anti-inflammatory; maintains blood sugar
levels, blood pressure, and muscle strength; regulates salt and water balance.

3. Epinephrine: Increases heart rate, oxygen intake, and blood flow.

4. Norepinephrine: Maintains blood pressure.

Kidneys:

1. Renin and angiotensin: Controls blood pressure, both directly and also by regulating aldosterone
production from the adrenal glands.

2. Erythropoietin: Affects red blood cell (RBC) production

Pancreas:

1. Glucagon: Raises blood sugar levels.

2. Insulin: Lowers blood sugar levels; stimulates metabolism of glucose, protein, and fat.
Thyroid gland:

1. Thyroid hormone: Controls metabolism; also affects growth, maturation, nervous system activity,
and metabolism

Parathyroid glands:

1. Parathyroid hormone: Most important regulator of blood calcium levels.

Pineal gland:

1. Melatonin: Releases melatonin during night hours to help with sleep.

Thymus:

1. Humoral factors: Helps develop the lymphoid system

Testes (testicles):

1. Testosterone: Develop and maintain male sexual characteristics and maturation.

Ovaries:

1. Estrogen: Development of female sexual characteristics and reproductive development, important for
functioning of uterus and breasts, also protects bono health

2. Progesterone: Stimulates the lining of the uterus for fertilization, prepares the breasts for milk
production
Pituitary gland:

1. Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin): Affects water retention in kidneys, controls blood

Pressure.

2. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): Controls production of sex hormones (estrogen in women and
testosterone in men) and the production of eggs in women and sperm in men.

3. Growth hormone (GH): Affects growth and development, stimulates protein production, affects fat
distribution.

4. Luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle- stimulating hormone (FSH): Controls production of sex
hormones (estrogen in women and testosterone in men) and the production of eggs in women and

sperm in men .

5. Oxytocin: Stimulates contraction of uterus and milk ducts in the breast.

6. Prolactin: Initiates and maintains milk production in breasts; impacts sex hormone levels.

7. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): Stimulates the production and secretion of

thyroid hormones.

Hypothalamus:

1. Growth releasing hormone (GHRH): Regulates growth hormone release in the pituitary gland.

2. Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH): Regulates thyroid stimulating hormone release in the pituitary
gland .

3. Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH): Regulates LH/FSH production in the pituitary gland.
4. Corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH): Regulates adrenocorticotropic hormone release in the
pituitary gland.

Mechanism of Hormone action:

Hormones are chemical messenger secreted directly in the blood stream by endocrine gland. They are
target specific and bind to the specific receptor. On the basis of binding of hormone on their specific
receptor, the mechanism of hormonal action is categorized into two group.

They are- 1. Fixed membrane receptor mechanism.

2. Mobile receptor mechanism.

Fixed membrane receptor mechanism

The hormones that are protein or amines such as Growth hormone, ADH, oxytocin, Insulin, Adrenaline,
FSH, TSH etc shows this mechanism of action. These hormones are water soluble and cannot passes
through the lipid membrane and they have their target receptor on the cell membrane. The receptor are
fixed on the cell membrane, so hormone can bind on the specific receptor Binding of hormone on
specific receptor on target cell activates the enzyme Adenyl cyclase in the cell membrane and causes
production of cyclic AMP (CAMP) CAMP act as secondary messenger. It diffuse through the call
membrane and activates (Protein Kinase) various enzymatic reaction to cause biochemical changes. After
the target cell responded to the changes, CAMP is deactivated by a group of enzyme Phosphodiesterase.
Mobile receptor mechanism:

The lipid soluble hormones such as steroid hormones and Fatty acids hormones can easily passes
through the plasma membrane. They have their receptor inside the cell, freely floating in the

cytoplasm. Binding of hormone to the specific receptor activates the enzymatic activity of the cell for
biochemical changes. Some hormones (testosterone, progesterone, estrogen, cortisol, thyroxine) have
their receptor localized inside the nucleus, the hormone-receptor complex are carried inside the
nucleus. The hormone-receptor complex initiate transcription of the DNA to form specific mRNA. mRNA
initiate protein synthesis in the cytoplasm. The protein enzyme) causes biochemical changes in the cell.
ROLE OF HORMONE RECEPTOR:
Intracellular Hormone Receptors:

An intracellular nuclear receptor (NR) is located in the cytoplasm bound to a heat shock protein (HSP).
Upon hormone binding, the receptor dissociates from the heat shock protein and translocates to the
nucleus. In the nucleus, the hormone-receptor complex binds to a DNA sequence called a hormone
response element (HRE), which triggers gene transcription and translation. The corresponding protein
product can then mediate changes in cell function

Plasma Membrane Hormone Receptors:

The amino acid-derived hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine bind to beta-adrenergic receptors on
the plasma membrane of cells. Hormone binding to receptor activates a G-protein, which in turn
activates adenylyl cyclase, converting ATP to CAMP. CAMP is a second messenger that mediates a cell-
specific response. An enzyme called phosphodiesterase breaks down cAMP, terminating the signal.
HORMONAL IMBALANCE :

1. Hormonal stimuli:

• This refers to the influence of other hormones on the release of a specific

hormone. It's a complex interplay where hormones can either stimulate or inhibit
the production of other hormones.

Hormonal stimuli affecting hormone secretion

• For example, when the level of thyroid hormone in the blood rises, it sends a
signal to the pituitary gland to stop producing thyroid-stimulating hormone
(TSH). This is a negative feedback loop that helps maintain hormonal balance.
• Hormonal stimuli can also involve the release of releasing hormones, which
trigger the production of other hormones. For example, the hypothalamus
releases gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), which stimulates the pituitary
gland to produce luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH).

2. Humoral stimuli:

• This refers to the influence of chemicals in the blood on hormone release. These
chemicals can be ions, nutrients, waste products, or even other hormones.
 Humoral stimuli affecting hormone secretion

• For example, a decrease in blood sugar levels triggers the release of glucagon
from the pancreas. Glucagon then raises blood sugar levels back to normal.
• Another example is the release of erythropoietin from the kidneys in response to
low oxygen levels. Erythropoietin stimulates the production of red blood
cells, which helps to increase the amount of oxygen carried in the blood.

3. Neural stimuli:

• This refers to the influence of the nervous system on hormone release. The
hypothalamus, a part of the brain, plays a key role in this process by sending
signals to the pituitary gland through nerve fibers.
 Neural stimuli affecting hormone secretion

• For example, the hypothalamus releases oxytocin in response to childbirth or

breastfeeding. Oxytocin promotes bonding and milk letdown.
• The hypothalamus also releases vasopressin in response to low blood pressure
or dehydration. Vasopressin helps to conserve water by increasing urine
reabsorption in the kidneys.

• Effects or signs of hormonal imbalance

Hormonal imbalances can trigger a domino effect, impacting various aspects of your
health. Here's how it can play out for the conditions you mentioned:

1. Irregular Menstruation:

• The Culprit: Fluctuations in estrogen, progesterone, and other hormones

governing the menstrual cycle.

2. Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS):

• The Culprit: Elevated androgen levels and insulin resistance disrupt ovulation
and egg development.

3. Infertility:
 • The Culprit: Hormonal imbalances like inadequate progesterone or imbalanced
LH/FSH ratio can prevent ovulation or fertilization.

4. Hormonal Acne:

• The Culprit: Androgen surges stimulate oil glands and hair follicles, leading to
breakouts.

5. Diabetes Type 1 and 2:

• The Culprit: In Type 1, insulin production is impaired; in Type 2, cells become

resistant to insulin's effects.

6. Hyperthyroidism:

• The Culprit: Excess thyroid hormone production revs up metabolism.

7. Hypothyroidism:

• The Culprit: Underactive thyroid hormone production slows down metabolism.

8. Obesity:

• The Culprit: Complex interplay of hormonal, genetic, and lifestyle factors.

Hormone Imbalance Diseases:

Hormonal imbalances can present through a wide range of diseases, each with its
unique set of symptoms and impacts on the body. Let's delve into the ones you
mentioned:

1. Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes:

• Imbalance: Pancreas dysfunction affects insulin production (Type 1) or its

utilization (Type 2).
• Effect: High blood sugar levels, leading to excessive thirst, fatigue, weight
loss, and long-term complications like vision problems and neuropathy.

2. Diabetes Insipidus:
 • Imbalance: Insufficient production or action of antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
• Effect: Excessive urine production, dehydration, thirst, and electrolyte imbalance.

3. Hypothyroidism:

• Imbalance: Underactive thyroid gland causes insufficient thyroid hormone

production.
• Effect: Fatigue, weight gain, sensitivity to cold, dry skin, hair
loss, depression, and menstrual irregularities.

4. Hyperthyroidism:

• Imbalance: Overactive thyroid gland produces excess thyroid hormone.

• Effect: Weight loss, anxiety, tremor, rapid heartbeat, sweating, difficulty
sleeping, and bulging eyes.

5. Hyperfunctioning Thyroid Molecules:

• Imbalance: Autonomous nodules or tissues within the thyroid produce excess

thyroid hormone independent of TSH control.
• Effect: Similar to hyperthyroidism with potentially localized symptoms like
swelling in the neck.

6. Cushing Syndrome:

• Imbalance: Excess cortisol production from the adrenal glands.

• Effect: Weight gain, round face, high blood pressure, fragile skin, muscle
weakness, stretch marks, and diabetes.

7. Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH):

• Imbalance: Enzyme deficiency in cortisol production leads to excess production

of male hormones.
• Effect: In females, ambiguous genitalia and premature puberty. In males, early
virilization.

8. Addison's Disease:

• Imbalance: Autoimmune destruction or other causes damage the adrenal

glands, leading to insufficient cortisol and aldosterone production.
 • Effect: Fatigue, weight loss, low blood pressure, muscle weakness, nausea, and
electrolyte imbalance.

9. Hypogonadism:

• Imbalance: Inadequate sex hormone production by the gonads (ovaries or

testes).
• Effect: In males, decreased libido, erectile dysfunction, infertility, and reduced
muscle mass. In females, irregular periods, infertility, and hot flashes.

***************