ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

DEFINITION OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

 The endocrine system is the collection of glands that produce

hormones that regulate metabolism, growth and
development, tissue function, sexual function,
reproduction, sleep, and mood.

 The word endocrine derives from the Greek words "endo,"

meaning within, and "crinis," meaning to secrete.

 Although the hormones circulate throughout the body,

each type of hormone is targeted toward certain organs
and tissues.
 THE GENERAL FUNCTION

➢ The endocrine system gets

some help from organs such as
the kidney, liver, heart and
gonads, which have secondary
endocrine functions.

○ The kidney, for example,

secretes hormones such
as erythropoietin and
renin.
 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN

ENDOCRINE AND EXOCRINE GLANDS

ENDOCRINE GLAND: a gland that secretes hormones

directly into the bloodstream; a ductless gland.

EXOCRINE GLAND: a gland that secretes substances into

ducts which then leave the body (i.e. sweat/sebaceous glands)
or into an internal space or lumen (i.e. digestive glands).
 Relationship endocrine system and homeostasis

The Endocrine system secrete hormones that the body needs to

perform certain functions.

● They help people sleep and wake up.

● The adrenal glands give off adrenaline to help a person perform

in a potential.danger, and they release dopamine linked with
the body's reward system.

 Maintain homeostasis because it gives off the messengers to

help the body to  react to any threats to homeostasis
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NERVOUS SYSTEM
&

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

● The Nervous system & Endocrine system are both essential to

the communication and relay of messages throughout the body.

● They work together to regulate(Homeostasis) the activities of

the other systems.

● Both systems use chemical signals when they respond to

changes that might alter (Homeostasis).
 Feature Nervous System Endocrine System

Chemical impulses
Signals Electric impulses (hormones)

Pathways Transmission by neurons Transported by blood

Speed of information fast slow

Duration of effect Short lived Long lived

In a fight or flight response, there is a coordination of both the
nervous and endocrine systems.
The nervous system detects stimuli, either inside or out, for
example, danger like an oncoming car about to run someone over,
and that in turn sends an impulse to the endocrine system where a
response is carried out.
The response in this case is the release of adrenaline into
the bloodstream, by the endocrine glands called adrenal
glands.

Once in the bloodstream, this hormone can cause the heart

rate to increase, the muscles to become ready to either
react to an emergency situation by fighting or by flight
 DEFINITION OF HORMONES

Hormones are chemical substances that act like

messenger molecules in the body. After being made
in one part of the body, they travel to other parts
of the body where they help control how cells
and organs do their work.
Important Functions of hormones include

● Growth and development of Prompting cell or

tissue
● Food metabolism
● Initiating and maintaining sexual development
and reproduction
● Maintaining body temperature
● Controlling thirst
● Regulating mood and cognitive functioning
 TYPES OF HORMONES

Hormones are classified by various criteria:

•By Proximity of their site of synthesis to their site of action.

•By their chemical structure.

•By their degree of solubility in aqueous medium.

 Classification based on proximity of site of
Synthesis to Site of Action

1. Autocrine Hormones: those that act on the same cells that

synthesize them.
Examples : all kind of cytokines,
2. Paracrine Hormones: those that are synthesized very close to their
site of action.
Examples: Histamines, Nitric oxide, Somatostatin
3. Endocrine Hormones: those that are synthesized by endocrine
glands and transported in the blood to target cells that contain the
appropriate receptors. Insulin, T3,T4,Estrogen
 Classification based on chemical structure

1. Peptides or Protein hormones:

made of amino acids joined by peptide bonds.
most hormones belong to this group except hormones secreted by the
gonads (testis and ovary) and the adrenal cortex.

Examples:
•Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone (TRH), made up of three amino
acid residues.
•Insulin, made up of 51 amino acid residues.
2. Steroid hormones.
● made of fatty acids using cholesterol as a functional group.
● only hormones secreted by the gonads and adrenal cortex
belong to this group .
Ex: Androgen,Progesterone, cortisone
3. Amino acid derivatives.
Ex: Epinephrine and norepinephrine (produced by the adrenal
medulla), thyroxine (produced by the thryoid gland)

4. Fatty acid derivatives.

Ex: prostaglandins, prostacyclins, leukotrienes and thrombaxanes.

 Classification based on solubility in aqueous medium

1. Hydrophilic Hormones.
• Hormones that are soluble in aqueous medium.

•They cannot cross the cell membrane.

Examples: Insulin, Glucagon, Epinephrine.

2. Lipophilic Hormones.

● Hormones that are not soluble in aqueous medium, but soluble in

lipid
● They can easily cross the cell membrane

Examples: Thyroid hormones, Steroid hormones

● Location of receptors for each class of hormone is different.

 MECHANISM OF HORMONES

As there are huge variety of hormones , there are two mechanism by

which hormone trigger changes in cells.They are :

● Direct Gene Activation

● Second-Messenger System
Direct Gene Activation .

● Steroid hormones use the mechanism of direct gene expression

because they are lipid-soluble molecules.

● First, they diffuse through the plasma membranes of their target

cells into their nucleus .
● Then they binds to a specific hormone receptor it
then further binds to specific sites on the cell's
DNA.

● Which activates certain genes to transcribe

messenger RNA . it then translates in the
cytoplasm.

● Resulting in the synthesis of new protein .

Second-Messenger System

● Water soluble and non-steroid hormones are unable to enter

targeted cells so they bind to hormone receptor.

● Which is situated on target cell's plasma membrane and utilize a

second-messenger system.
● The hormone binds to the membrane receptor and
activated receptor sets off a series of reaction that
activates an enzyme.

● The enzyme in turn, catalyze reactions that produce

second messenger molecules also known as cAMP.

● This promotes typical response of the target cell to

hormone.
Hormone Regulation: Feedback Mechanisms
 Most hormones are regulated by feedback mechanisms.

 A feedback mechanism is a loop in which a product feeds back

to control its own production.

Negative feedback occurs when a product feeds back to

decrease its own production
Positive feedback occurs when a product feeds back to increase
its own production
 CONTROL OF HORMONE RELEASE

 Endocrine Gland Stimuli

 The stimuli that activate the endocrine organs fall into three major
categories—hormonal, humoral, and neural
 HORMONAL STIMULI

 The most common stimulus is a hormonal stimulus, in

which endocrine organs exhibits its action by other
hormone.

 Changing blood levels of certain ions and nutrients may

also stimulate hormone release
 NEURAL STIMULI

 In isolated cases, nerve fibers stimulate hormone

release, and  the target cells are said to respond to
neural stimuli.

 The  classic example is sympathetic nervous system

stimulation of  the adrenal medulla to release
norepinephrine and  epinephrine during periods of
stress.
 HORMONE TRANSPORT IN BLOOD

 Hormones flow through the blood and then bind to their

receptors within the capillaries or diffuse out to reach the
receptors at the target cell.

 Water insoluble hormones must bind to plasma protein to be 

carried into the plasma, hormones remain bind to these protein 
for some time which act as a reservoir for the hormones.

 Water soluble hormones which can dissolve into the plasma by

itself and can easily diffuse out to their site of action. Water
soluble hormones act faster in a short period of time.
 THE PITUITARY GLAND
 The main endocrine gland. It is a small structure in the head.

 The pituitary gland is about the size of a bean, and it hangs by a

stalk from the hypothalamus.

 It is called the master gland because it produces hormones that

control other glands and many body functions including growth.
The pituitary consists of the anterior and posterior pituitary.
 The pituitary glands are made of the anterior
lobe and posterior lobe.

 The anterior lobe produces and releases

hormones.

 The posterior lobe does not produce

hormones, as its not glandular but it serve
as a site for the secretion
of neurohypophysial hormones.
 The Anterior Pituitary

 The anterior lobe releases hormones upon receiving releasing

or inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus.

 These hypothalamic hormones tell the anterior lobe whether

to release more of a specific hormone or stop production
of the hormone.
 Anterior Lobe Hormones

Growth hormone (GH):

● GH is essential in early years to maintaining a healthy body
composition and for growth in children.

● In adults, it aids healthy bone and muscle mass (increases

bone and muscle growth) . It also affects fat distribution and
increases protein synthesis.
 Prolactin (PRL):

Prolactin stimulates breast milk production after childbirth

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH):

• FSH works with LH to ensure normal functioning and development
of the ovaries and testes.

• It stimulates the production of egg and sperm.

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH):
TSH stimulates the thyroid gland to produce hormones.
Luteinizing hormone (LH):
• LH works with FSH to ensure normal functioning of the
ovaries and testes.
• It triggers ovulation in females and stimulates testosterone
production in male.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH):

ACTH stimulates the adrenal glands to produce hormones.

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH):

TSH stimulates the thyroid gland to produce hormones.

 Posterior Lobe Hormones

 The posterior pituitary (or neurohypophysis) comprises the

posterior lobe of the pituitary gland and is part of the endocrine
system.

 The posterior lobe contains the ends of nerve cells coming

from the hypothalamus.

 The hypothalamus sends hormones directly to the posterior

lobe via these nerves, and then the pituitary gland releases
them.
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH):

 Antidiuretic hormone, also known as vasopressin, acts

to maintain blood pressure, blood volume and tissue
water content.

 Regulate the amount of water and hence the urine out

put is descreased by the kidney.

 This hormone prompts the kidneys to increase water

absorption in the blood.
Oxytocin:

Oxytocin is involved in a variety of processes, such as

contracting the uterus during childbirth and stimulating breast
milk production.
Hypersecretion- Too much of any hormone secreted into the
body is usually caused by a secretory pituitary gland tumor.

● More prolactin secretion leads to infertility, discharge from

breasts and menstrual abnormality.
● Tumors of adrenal glands, due to oversecretion of
hormones, which stimulates them and cause a hormone
imbalance.
● Oversecretion of the pituitary hormone human growth
hormone can cause gigantism
Hyposecretion -

● Hyposecretion can also happen with surgery or radiation therapy for

a pituitary gland tumor.

● Undersecretion of human growth hormone can lead to dwarfism if

experienced during childhood, and decreased endocrine function
accompanied by lethargy and loss of sexual capacity in the adult.
 THE PINEAL GLAND
 The pineal gland, also known
as the "pineal body," is a small
endocrine gland.

 It is located on the back

portion of the third cerebral
ventricle of the brain, which is
a fluid-filled space in the
brain. This gland lies in-
between the two halves of the
brain.
The gland is named for its shape, which resembles a pinecone (in Latin,
"pinea").
Functions:
 It also has a part in controlling circadian rhythms (biological
processes), the body’s internal clock that affects such actions as when
we wake and sleep.

 The pinealocytes create and secrete melatonin, a hormone that

helps maintain the body’s internal clock.

 Melatonin also helps regulate female reproductive hormones,

including when women menstruate.
Oversecretion:
 The main consequences of swallowing large amounts of melatonin
are drowsiness and reduced core body temperature.

 Very large doses have effects on the performance of the human

reproductive system (delay in sexual maturation).

Undersecretion:
 Reduced melatonin production is not known to have any effect on
health.
 THYROID GLAND
Location :
The thyroid gland is located at the base of the
throat, just inferior to the Adam’s apple.
Structure :
It is a fairly large gland consisting of two lobes
joined by a central mass, or isthmus .
Hormons :
● Thyroid hormone (thyroxine [T4] and
triiodothyronine [T3]) .
● calcitonin
 Thyroid gland is composed of hollow
structures called follicles , which
store a sticky colloidal material.
 Thyroid hormone is derived from this
colloid.

 Calcitonin hormone is made by the

parafollicular cells found in the
connective tissue between the
follicles .
Thyroxine (T4): is the major hormone secreted by the thyroid
follicles.

Triiodothyronine (T3): is formed at the target tissues by

conversion of thyroxine to triiodothyronine.

Each is constructed from two tyrosine amino acids linked

together, but thyroxine has four bound iodine atoms, whereas
triiodothyronine has three .
Function :

● It is the body’s metabolic hormone

● Thyroid hormone controls the rate at which glucose is

“burned,” or oxidized, and converted to body heat and

chemical energy.

● necessary for normal growth and development.

 Hyperthyroidism
(Excessive levels of thyroid hormones in the blood)

Graves' disease : is an immune system

disorder where the thyroid gland enlarges
and the eyes may bulge, or protrude
anteriorly , high basal metabolic rate,
intolerance of heat, rapid heartbeat, weight
loss, nervous and agitated behavior, and a
general inability to relax.
 Hyporthyroidism
(Low levels of thyroid hormones in the blood)

Myxedema
which is characterized by both
physical and mental sluggishness
,Other signs are puffiness of the
face, fatigue, poor muscle tone, low
body temperature (the person is
always cold), obesity, and dry skin.
(in adult ).
Cretinism : it results
Goiter :It is an enlargement of
in dwarfism in which
the thyroid gland that results
adult body
when the diet is deficient in
proportions remain
iodine.
childlike.
Calcitonin hormone

● made by the so-called parafollicular cells found in the connective

tissue between the follicles

● decreases blood calcium levels by causing calcium to be deposited

in the bones.

● It acts antagonistically to parathyroid hormone,

● It is released directly to the blood in response to increasing levels

of blood calcium.
 PARATHYROID GLANDS

● The parathyroid glands are four

small glands located on the
posterior aspect of the thyroid
gland.

● Low blood levels of calcium

stimulate the parathyroid glands to
release parathyroid hormone
(PTH). It causes bone calcium to PTH also stimulates the
kidneys and intestine to
be liberated into the blood.
absorb more calcium
● Hyposecretion of PTH results tetany

If blood calcium levels fall too low, neurons become

extremely irritable and overactive. They deliver
impulses to the muscles so rapidly that the muscles
go into uncontrollable spasms (tetany), which may
be fatal.

● Hypersecretion leads to extreme bone

wasting and fractures.
 HYPOTHALAMUS

 The hypothalamus is a secretion of the brain responsible for

the production of many of the body's essential hormones.

 It's not an endocrine gland but regulates the secretion of

some pituitary gland hormones.
Location:
The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus and
above the pituitary gland and brain stem
 Functions of hypothalamus

● The primary function of the hypothalamus is homeostasis

● The hypothalamus govern temperature regulation

● The hypothalamus also governs thirst and hunger

● It also governs sleep, mood, and blood pressure

 PANCREAS

 The pancreas is a large gland that lies alongside the stomach and the
small bowel.
 It is divided into the head, body and tail.

Functions of the pancreas

 It makes digestive juices, which consists of powerful

enzyme.

 It makes hormones that control blood glucose levels

 Hormones secreted by the pancreas

● Gastrin: This hormone aids digestion by stimulating certain cells

● Glucagon: This helps insulin maintain normal blood glucose by

working in the opposite way of insulin

● Insulin: This hormone regulates blood glucose by allowing many

of your body's cell to absorb and use glucose
 Disorders of the pancreas

● Type 1 diabetes

● Type 2 diabetes

● Hyperglycemia

● Hypoglycemia
 GONADS

● The female and male gonads produce sex cells (an exocrine
function).
● They also produce sex hormones that are identical to those
produced by adrenal cortex cells.
● The major differences from the adrenal sex hormone production
are the source and relative amounts of hormones produced.
 OVARIES

● The female sex organ that serves as an endocrine gland

● The female gonads or ovaries, are paired, almond-sized organs

located in the pelvic cavity.

● Ovaries produce female sex cells ( ova or eggs) and two groups

of steroids hormones estrogens and progesterone.

 PRODUCTION

● An ovarian follicle (and ovum) start to mature each month

following puberty under the influence of FSH (Follicle-stimulating
hormone ) .
● The developing follicle secretes estrogen

● Luteinizing hormone (LH) causes the follicle to rupture and

release the ovum (ovulation); the follicle becomes the corpus
luteum.
● The corpus luteum secretes progesterone.
 FUNCTIONS
➢ ESTROGENS

a)The estrogens are responsible for the

 Development of sex characteristics in women (primarily growth and

maturation of the reproductive organs)

 The appearance of secondary sex characteristics (hair in the pubic

and axillary regions)at puberty.

 Acting with progesterone, estrogens promote breast development and

cyclic changes in the uterine lining (the menstrual cycle).
 FUNCTIONS

➢ PROGESTERONES

 Progesterone as already noted, acts with estrogen to bring about

the menstrual cycle.

 During pregnancy, it quiets the muscles of the uterus so that an

implanted embryo will not be aborted and helps prepare breast tissue
for lactation
 Dysreglation of Ovarian hormones

 Hyposecretion of the ovarian hormones severely hampers a

woman’s ability to conceive and bear children

 Extreme hypersecretion of ovarian hormones by the ovaries is a

rare clinical entity.

 Because excessive secretion of estrogens automatically decreases the

production of gonadotropins by the pituitary, and this limits the
production of ovarian hormones.
 TESTES
● The male sex organ that also serves as an endocrine gland.

● The paired oval testes of the male are suspended in a sac, the
scrotum, outside the pelvic cavity.
● Testes produce male sex cells or sperm and male sex hormones
testosterone.

● FSH( follicle-stimulating hormone) causes the production of sperm.

● LH causes the production of testosterone

 FUNCTIONS
TESTOSTERONE

● At puberty, testosterone promotes the growth and maturation

of the reproductive system organs to prepare the young man
for reproduction.

● It also causes the male’s secondary sex characteristics (growth of

facial hair, development of heavy bones and muscles, and
lowering of the voice) to appear and stimulates the male sex drive.

● In adults, testosterone is necessary for continuous production of

sperm.
 HYPOSECRETION OF TESTOSTERONE

Leads to a lack of male sex characteristics.There are two types:

● Primary:
This type of hypogonadism (also known as primary testicular failure)
originates from a problem in the testicles.
Examples: Klinefelter Syndrome, Mumps Orchitis, hemachromatosis

● Secondary:
This type indicates a problem in the Hypothalamus or the pituitary gland.

In cases of hyposecretion, the man becomes sterile; such cases are

usually treated by testosterone injections.
 ADRENAL GLANDS

Location: They are flat pyramidal shaped, curved over the top of each
kidney.

Structure: Although it looks like a single organ, they are actually two
endocrine organs; Adrenal Medulla and Adrenal Cortex.

Hormones:

● Epinephrine and norepinephrine are released by adrenal medulla.

● 3 classes of hormones are released by the adrenal cortex;
Mineralocorticoids, Glucocorticoids and sex hormones.
 Function of Adrenal cortex hormones

Hormones of Adrenal cortex are collectively called

corticosteroids.
1. Mineralocorticoids: (mainly Aldosterone).

● Regulares the mineral ( or salt) content of the blood.

● Their target is the kidney tubules.
● When aldosterone is released, Na+ ions are reabsorbed and K+ are
released into the urine.
● When Na+ are reabsorbed, water is reabsorbed too(osmosis).
● In this way, blood volume and B.P are adjusted.
2. Glucocorticoids:(corticosterone, cortisone but mainly cortisol)

● Maintain normal cell metabolism.

● Promote Protein breakdown, lipolysis and gluconeogenesis.
● Helps the body fight long term stressors.
● When glucocorticoids are released, fats and even
proteins are broken down to glucose.
● Anti-Inflammatory: Inhibit WBC hence they slow down
wound healing.
● Depression of Immune system: High doses can depress
immune response hence they are prescribed during
organ transplant.
3. Sex hormones: (or Androgens)

● In both male and female Androgens are released but in relatively

small quantities.
● Mainly testosterone, but some estrogen is also produced.

● In females after menopause, ovarian secretion of estrogen ceases

and all estrogen is derived from adrenal androgens.
 Function of Adrenal Medulla hormones

1. Epinephrine (Adrenaline) and Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

● Enhances and prolongs the effects of “ fight or flight” response of the

sympathetic nervous system
● Increases Heart rate, B.P, Blood glucose level and dilate small
passageways of the lungs.
● These events result in more oxygen and faster circulation of blood,
mainly to brain, heart and muscles.
 Regulation
● Epinephrine and norepinephrine are released when adrenal medulla is
stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system during “fight or flight”
response.
● Glucocorticoids are released from adrenal cortex in response to
rising levels of ACTH in blood. ACTH is secreted from the anterior
pituitary lobe by the release of CRF from hypothalamus, which is
controlled by steroid level in blood.
● Aldosterone release is stimulated by humoral factors, such as
fewer Na+ ions in blood.
Renin from kidneys also causes release of aldosterone
when Blood pressure drops.

A hormone of heart ANP prevents aldosterone release,

to reduce blood pressure.
 Deficiency of Adrenal cortex hormones

Under-secretion of all adrenal cortex hormones leads to Addison’s

disease.
Because of low aldosterone, Na+ and water all lost from the body,
leading to:
● Electrolyte and water imbalance
● Muscle weakness
● Hypoglycemia
● Arrhythmia
● Lessened ability to, cope with stress. Eg.cold, which is normally
easy to overcome, become life threatening.
 Oversecretion of Adrenal cortex hormones

 Hypersecretion may results from a tumor of Pituitary or Adrenal cortex.

 Hyperactivity of the outermost cortical area results in

Hyperaldosteronism.

When tumor is in the middle cortical area, Cushing’s syndrome results.

Excessive glucocorticoids results in:

● ‘Buffalo hump’ on the upper back

● High blood pressure
● Hyperglycemia
● Bone weakness
● Severe depression of immune
system.
 Oversecretion of Adrenal Medulla hormones

Hypersecretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine leads to a prolonged

“ fight or flight response” including:
● Sweating
● High Blood pressure
● Increased heart rate
● High metabolism
● High Glucose.
 THYMUS GLAND

Location:The thymus gland is located in the

thoracic cavity, behind the sternum.

Hormones:Thymosin and other hormones:

Thymic humoral factor, thymic factor and
Thymopoietin.

Function of Thymus gland: Promotes the maturation of T-cells WBCs.

 Other endocrine Tissues and Organs

Placenta:

● Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin

● Estrogen and progesterone.

Kidney
•Renin -restore normal blood pressure,
thereby increasing filtration rates of
water and solutes in the kidney tubules.

•Erythropoietin –stimulates the

production of red blood cells,
Calcitriol- stimulates active transport of
dietary calcium across intestinal cell
membranes in the intestine
Stomach

•Gastrin –stimulates glands to release hydrochloric acid.

Heart

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

 Kidney: inhibits sodium ion reabsorption and renin release.

 Adrenal cortex: inhibits secretion of aldosterone, thereby

decreasing blood volume and blood pressure.
Adipose tissues
•Leptin-suppresses appetite and increases energy expenditure
in the brain.

•Resistin-causes resistance of peripheral tissues to insulin.