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NED UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING &TECHNOLOGY, KARACHI-75270

QUESTIONS TO UNDERSTAND THE COURSE

 What is Soil Mechanics-I?

SOIL MECHANICS-II  What is Soil Mechanics-II?
 What is the scope of Mechanics-II?

 What the students can learn from Soil

By Mechanics-II?
Dr. Amanullah Marri
Professor

INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION

 In the department of civil engineering for its Soil mechanics-II course is designed to provide
undergraduate program, there are two courses the potential applications of the basic
of soil mechanics which are named as: principles of soil mechanics for the solution of
 Soil Mechanics-I and Soil Mechanics-II geotechnical problems.
 Soil Mechanics-I is the basic or fundamental of  It uses the principles of soil mechanics and

the basic principles related to soil properties rock mechanics for the solution of its
and behaviour. respective engineering problems.

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INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION

Exploring the soil properties for :  Stability of Slopes and Land Sliding
 Building foundations

 Highway subgrades

 Earthen dams

 Dynamic response of soil

 Underground excavations and tunnels

 Groundwater extraction and recharge

5 6

TEACHING COMPONENTS ASSESSMENT COMPONENTS

 Lecture  Class Attendance

 Student involvement in discussion  Involvement in the class

 Group discussion  Assignments and tests before midterm

 Assessment (question answer, MCQ’s tests,  Midterm

Comprehensive test, assignments)  Assignments and tests after midterm
 Student feedback  Final Examination

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SYLLABUS COURSE DISTRIBUTION

1. SUB SOIL INVESTIGATION 1. SUB SOIL INVESTIGATION

2. SETTLEMENT ANALYSIS 2. SETTLEMENT ANALYSIS
3. BEARING CAPACITY 3. BEARING CAPACITY
4. LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE 4. LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE (MARRI)
5. STABILITY OF SLOPES 5. STABILITY OF SLOPES (MARRI)
6. SOIL PROPERTY MODIFICATION 6. SOIL PROPERTY MODIFICATION

9 10

SYLLABUS SYLLABUS
SUB SOIL INVESTIGATION SETTLEMENT ANALYSIS
1) Purpose 1) Settlement by elastic theory,
2) Preliminary and detailed investigation 2) Settlement analysis of a thin stratum of clay from
3) Boring methods, spacing and depth of borings index properties,
4) soil sampling 3) Thick clay stratum settlement,
5) In situ testing 4) analysis by strain versus Logarithm of pressure test
6) Standard penetration test, static cone penetration data,
test 5) Construction period correction,
7) Presentation of boring information 6) Secondary consolidation.
8) Preparation of bore logs
11 12

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SYLLABUS SYLLABUS
BEARING CAPACITY LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE
1) Stability of soil masses 1) Types of lateral soil pressure
2) Rankine’s, Terzahgi’s and Meyerhof’s analysis
3) Ultimate and safe bearing capacities for shallow foundations 2) Rankine’s and Coulomb’s theories of lateral

4) Plate bearing test earth pressures

5) Deep foundations bearing capacity 3) Soil pressure analysis of earth retaining
6) Static and dynamic load carrying capacity analysis of pile structures (including retaining wall, sheet piles
7) Pile load test and excavation supports)
8) Group action in piles
9) Raft foundation

13 14

SYLLABUS SYLLABUS
STABILITY OF SLOPES SOIL PROPERTY MODIFICATION
1) Varieties of failure 1) Mechanical stabilizations of soil
2) Stability analysis of infinite and finite slopes, and
2) Chemical stabilizations of soil
General method of slices (Swedish Methods)
3) Bishop simplified methods of slices 3) principles & methods of mechanical and

4) Friction circle method chemical stabilization of soil

5) Taylor’s stability number and stability curves
6) Effect of pore water and seepage forces on stability

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SYLLABUS LIST OF BOOKS

INTRODUCTION TO SOIL DYNAMICS 1. Soil Mechanics and Foundations by Muniram
1) Dynamic loading conditions Budhu.
2) Fundamental definitions 2. Soil and foundation by Cheng Liu
3) Vibration theories of Single- Degree-of-Freedom 3. Elements of soil mechanics by Ian Smith
System 4. Soil mechanics: concepts and applications by
4) Natural frequency of soil-foundation system William Powrie
5) Evaluation of various parameters (damping, mass & 5. Soil Mechanics: Basic Concepts and Engineering
spring constant) for dynamic analysis Applications by A. Aysen
6) Analysis of machine foundation (vertical mode of 6. Advanced soil mechanics by Braja M. Das
vibration only).
17 18

LIST OF BOOKS LIST OF BOOKS

7. Soil mechanics by T. William Lambe, Robert 12.Fundamentals of geotechnical engineering by

V. Whitman Braja M. Das
8. Soil mechanics in engineering practice by Karl 13.Principles of Geotechnical Engineering by
Terzaghi. Braja M. Das
9. Soil Mechanics and Foundations by Dr. B.C. 14.Geotechnical engineering of dams by Robin
Punmia. Fell, Patrick MacGregor, David Stapledon
10. Soil mechanics by Robert F. Craig 15.Geotechnical engineering: principles and
11.Soil Mechanics & Foundation Engineering by practices of soil by V. N. S. Murthy
Purushothama Raj
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QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR READING

 What is Science.
 What is Engineering.
CHAPTER  What is Technology…?
RECAP AND MIND STORMING  What is Civil Engineering.

 What are the specializations of civil

engineering.
 What is geotechnical engineering.

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QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR READING

 What is soil mechanics.

 What is rock mechanics.

 What is geology. PART-I

 What is Geomechanics RETAINING WALL DESIGN
 What is foundation Engineering.

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KEY POINTS QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR READING

 Lateral earth pressure, its types and lateral  What is a retaining wall?
pressure estimation.  What are the types of retaining walls?
 Retaining walls and their types.  What are the major purposes of retaining
 Backfill materials and their types. walls?
 What is the criteria for the selection of a
suitable type of a retaining wall?
 What are the major components of a retaining
wall?

25 26

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR READING QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR READING

 What is the design criteria of a retaining wall?  What is a backfill material for a retaining wall?
 Which types of soils are generally considered
best as backfill material?
 What are the characteristics of a backfill soil?

 What is the qualifying criteria of a backfill

material?
 What is the method of placement of a backfill ?

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QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR READING QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR READING

 What is lateral earth pressure and what are its  What are the functions of each component of a
types? retaining wall?
 What the different methods for the  Which type of materials are generally used in
determination of lateral earth pressure? the construction of retaining walls?
 How to check the stability of a retaining wall?

29 30

BACKFILL MATERIAL

 Any material that is used to refill an excavated

site or to be used at the back of a retaining
CHAPTER wall is called backfill.

BACKFILL MATERIALS

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BACKFILL MATERIAL BACKFILL MATERIAL PROPERTIES

 Sandy soil or sandy gravel is best for retaining  In general, the two defining characteristics of
wall backfilling material. any backfill are strength and flowability.
 The common backfill materials may consists of  Backfilling materials should possess adequate
the followings. permeability to allow the passage of water and
prevent the accumulation of hydrostatic
pressure.
 This helps maintain the stability of the
surrounding soil and prevents water-related
damage.
33 34

BACKFILLING BACKFILL OF A RETAINING WALL

35 36

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BACKFILL OF A RETAINING WALL BACKFILLING METHODS

37 38

BACKFILLING EQUIPMENTS

CHAPTER
LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE

39

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QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR READING LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE

 What is lateral earth pressure?  Lateral earth pressure is the pressure that soil
 What is the coefficient of lateral earth exerts in the horizontal direction.
pressure?  Analysis and determination of lateral earth

 What are the types of lateral earth pressure? pressure are necessary to design retaining
 What are the methods used to estimate the
walls and other earth retaining structures.
lateral earth pressure?  Lateral earth pressure is considered in the
design of geotechnical engineering structures
such as retaining walls, basements, tunnels,
deep foundations and braced excavations.
41 42

LATERAL EARTH
Active earth pressure PRESSURE
occurs when the wall tilts away from the soil LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE
(a typical free standing retaining wall)

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APPLICATIONS Benched Excavation

Do not go where the path may lead, go instead where there is no path and leave a trail.“
-Ralph Waldo Emerso

Solder Beam & Lagging

LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE THEORIES

 There are three commonly used earth pressure

theories in civil engineering
 Rankine lateral earth pressure theory

 Coulomb lateral earth pressure theory

 Modified Coulomb's lateral earth pressure

theory
 These theories provide mathematical equations
to calculate the lateral earth pressure exerted
by the soil on the retaining structure.
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RANKINE LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE THEORY COEFFICIENT OF LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE

 Rankine's theory, developed in 1857,[3] is a  The coefficient of lateral earth pressure, K, is

stress field solution that predicts active and defined as the ratio of the horizontal effective
passive earth pressure. stress, σ'h, to the vertical effective stress, σ'v.
 It assumes that the soil is cohesionless, the
wall is non-battered and frictionless whilst the
backfill is horizontal.
 The failure surface on which the soil moves
is planar.

49 50

COEFFICIENT OF ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE COULOMB LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE THEORY

 The expressions for the active and passive  Coulomb's earth pressure theory, proposed in
lateral earth pressure coefficients are given 1776, assumes a planar failure surface
below. developed within cohesion-less backfill [1].
Namely, the possible failure shape is regarded
as a geometric invariable wedge. The earth
pressure against the retaining wall can then be
handily analyzed and approximated.

51 52

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COULOMB LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE THEORY COULOMB LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE THEORY

 He used limit equilibrium theory, which

considers the failing soil block as a free body in
order to determine the limiting horizontal earth
pressure.

53 54

COULOMB LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE THEORY TYPES OF LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE

 There are three types of lateral earth pressure:

 At rest lateral earth pressure

 Active lateral earth pressure

 Passive lateral earth pressure

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TYPES OF LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE COEFFICIENT OF LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE

 The coefficient of lateral earth pressure, K, is

defined as the ratio of the horizontal effective
stress, σ'h, to the vertical effective stress, σ'v.

57 58

EARTH PRESSURE COEFFICIENT AT REST COEFFICIENT OF ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE

 According to Jaky (1944), a good approximation  The expressions for the active and passive
for Ko is’: lateral earth pressure coefficients are given
Ko = 1 - Sin below.
 where  is the angle of internal friction.

 For normally consolidated clays, the following

empirical equation can be used to estimate K0
K0 = 0.19 + 0.233 log (PI)

59 60

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COULOMB LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE THEORY COULOMB LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE THEORY

61 62

LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE AT REST LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE AT REST

If the wall is rigid and does not move with the

pressure exerted on the wall, the soil behind the
wall will be in a state of elastic equilibrium.
If we consider the backfill is homogeneous then
both 𝜎𝑣 and 𝜎ℎ increase linearly with depth z. In
such a case, the ratio of 𝜎ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎𝑣 remains
constant with respect to depth, that is
𝜎ℎ / 𝜎𝑣 = 𝑘0

63 64

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HINT: LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE AT REST

Where,
K0 is called the coefficient of earth pressure at
rest.
Therefore,
𝜎ℎ = 𝐾0 𝜎𝑣
𝜎ℎ = 𝐾0 𝛾ℎ

65 66

ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE

67 68

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LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE VARIATION LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE

69 70

LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE

q = 1000 lb/ft2
A A

 = 120 lb/ft3  = 120 lb/ft3

 = 300  = 300
H = 20 ft H = 20 ft

900 900

B B
71 72

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EXAMPLE

A rigid retaining wall 5 m high supports a backfill

of cohesionless soil with = 30°. The water table
is below the base of the wall. The backfill is dry
and has a unit weight of 18 N/m3. Determine
Rankine's passive earth pressure per meter
length of the wall.

73 74

EXAMPLE SOLUTION

75 76

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EXAMPLE LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE

Rankine's active pressure under submerged condition in cohesionless

77 soil 78

LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE EXAMPLE

Lateral pressure acting against submerged wall: (a) unyielding smooth

wall with groundwater table present at depth z1 below ground surface;
Rankine's active pressure under submerged condition in cohesionless
(b) effective lateral soil pressure; (c) lateral water pressure
soil 79 80

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EXAMPLE EXAMPLE

 A smooth, unyielding wall retains a dense Required

cohesionless soil with no lateral movement of  Diagram of lateral earth pressure against the
soil (i.e., “at-rest condition” is assumed), as wall.
shown in Figure.  Total lateral force acting on the wall.

81 82

SOLUTION EXAMPLE

For the earth retaining structure shown in Fig.

construct the earth pressure diagram for the
active state and determine the total thrust per
unit length of the wall.

(a) Effective lateral soil pressure; (b) lateral water pressure; (c) total
lateral pressure.
83 84

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LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE

Rankine's active pressure in cohesionless backfill under partly Rankine's active pressure in cohesionless backfill under partly
submerged condition with surcharge load 85 submerged condition with surcharge load 86

EXAMPLE SOLUTION

87 88

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EXAMPLE EXAMPLE

A cantilever retaining wall of 7 meter height

(shown in figure) retains sand. The properties of
the sand are: e = 0.5, = 30° and G = 2.7. Using
Rankine's theory determine the active earth
pressure at the base when the backfill is (i) dry,
(ii) saturated and (iii) submerged, and also the
resultant active force in each case. In addition
determine the total water pressure under the
submerged condition.
89 90

HINT: SOLUTION

91 92

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SOLUTION EXERCISE-I (PLOT THE PRESSURE DIAGRAM)

93 94

EXERCISE-I (SOLUTION) EXERCISE-II (PLOT THE PRESSURE DIAGRAM)

95 96

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EXERCISE-II (SOLUTION) INCLINED BACKFILL

Lateral earth pressure for Rankine theory: (a) back side vertical; (b) back side inclined
97 98

INCLINED BACKFILL EXAMPLE

 The retaining wall shown in Figure. Required

Total active earth pressure per foot of wall and
its point of application, by Rankine theory.

99 100

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SOLUTION

CHAPTER
RETAINING WALLS

101

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR READING RETAINING WALL

 What is a retaining wall?  A retaining wall is a structure that retains

 What are the components of a retaining wall? (holds back) any material (usually earth) and
 What are the types of retaining walls?
prevents it from sliding or eroding away.
 Which materials are used for the construction
of retaining walls?

103 104

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RETAINING WALL RETAINING WALL

105 106

RETAINING WALL RETAINING WALL COMPONENTS

 Retaining walls are vertical or near-vertical  A typical retaining wall has four main
structures designed to retain material on one components: the Stem is the vertical member
side, preventing it from collapsing or slipping or holding the backfill, the Toe is the portion of
preventing erosion. the footing at the front of the wall, the Heel is
 They provide support to terrain where the soil's the portion of the footing at the backfill side,
angle of repose is exceeded and it would and the Shear Key projects down under the
otherwise collapse into a more natural form. footing.

107 108

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RETAINING WALL COMPONENTS STEM

 Stem of a retaining wall behaves like a

cantilever.
 Thickness of the vertical stem is governed by
moment criteria.
 The function of stem is to prevent earth and
dirt from sliding downhill due to erosion.

109 110

HEEL TOE

 The heel increases stability, allowing the wall to  The toe acts as a cantilever beam subject to an
bear higher loads. upward pressure, generally trapezoidal, from
the soil reaction.
 The retaining wall toe prevents the gabion wall
sliding forwards, the depth of the toe needs to
increase the wall gets bigger.

111 112

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SHEAR KEY BUTTRESS

 Shear key is a structural element which is  The buttresses act as compression members,
sometimes used in the footing of retaining supporting the stem and reducing the bending
walls to reduce wall's sliding. moment in it.
 The shear key is generally an extension of the
vertical stem and extends below the bottom of
the base.
 The main purpose of the installation of shear
keys is to increase the extra passive resistance
developed by the height of shear keys.
113 114

TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS

 There are different types of retaining walls. There are different classifications of retaining
 The retaining walls can be classified based up walls according to different criteria:
the shape, material and purpose.  load support mechanism (externally or
 The materials used can be wood, masonry internally stabilized walls),
block walls, stone, steel or concrete.  construction concept (fill or cut),

 system rigidity (rigid or flexible), and

 service life (permanent or temporary)

115 116

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TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS

117 Gravity Retaining Walls 118

TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS

Gravity Retaining Walls 119 Prefabricated Modular Gravity Walls 120

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TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS

Piled Retaining Wall 121

Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE) Walls 122

TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS

Buttressed Walls 123

Buttressed Walls 124

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TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS

 Buttress wall is similar to the counterfort wall,

except that the transverse stem supports called
buttresses, are located in the front side,
interconnecting the stem with the toe slab (not
with the heel slab as in case of counterfort
wall).

Counterfort Walls 125 126

PURPOSES AND USE OF RETAINING WALLS USE OF RETAINING WALLS

The purpose and use of retaining walls are:

 To prevent the earth from moving

 To battle gravity

 To Prevent Erosion

 To hold back soil

127 128

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USE OF RETAINING WALLS USE OF RETAINING WALLS

Concrete Lining of Rohri Main Canal

Drigh Road Underpass cut 129 130

USE OF RETAINING WALLS USE OF RETAINING WALLS

Sheet pile Walls Embedded retaining walls

131 132

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USE OF RETAINING WALLS USE OF RETAINING WALLS

Flood Walls Bridge abutment

133 134

USE OF RETAINING WALLS RETAINING WALL CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

 There are many materials that can be used to

build a retaining wall, and it will depend on
several factors, such as your budget, height of
the wall, and aesthetics.
 Some of the most common retaining wall
materials include concrete blocks, wood,
natural stone, and brick, among others.

135 136

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RETAINING WALL CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS RETAINING WALL CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

Retaining Wall Section of Concrete Masonry

137 Concrete Retaining Wall 138

RETAINING WALL CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS RETAINING WALL CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

Precast Retaining Wall Systems Timber Retaining Walls

139 140

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RETAINING WALL CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS RETAINING WALL CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

Stone masonry Retaining Walls

Steel Sheet Pile Retaining Walls 141 142

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR READING

 How to select the type of retaining wall?

 What is meant by retaining wall design?
CHAPTER  What are the design steps of a retaining wall?

RETAINING WALL DESIGN  How to check the stability of a retaining wall?

144

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RETAINING WALL SELECTION RETAINING WALL SELECTION

 Selecting a type of retaining wall is a complex  Consider The Location.

process, considering the various geotechnical  Examine The Soil.
and non-geotechnical factors involved.  Build A Solid Foundation.
 Moreover, during the selection process, it is
 Plan For Proper Drainage.
necessary to consider all the criteria during the
 Get The Design Right.
whole life cycle.
 Know Your Height Limitations.
 In decision-making, it is necessary to consider
all the alternatives and criteria involved in the  Material Selection & Budget.

decision process.
145 146

RETAINING WALL SELECTION GRAVITY RETAINING WALL

 The first step is to evaluate the site conditions,  Gravity retaining walls use the gravitational
such as the soil type, slope angle, groundwater force of their own weight to resist the lateral
level, drainage, seismic activity, and earth pressure from the soil behind them,
environmental impact. which prevents toppling and sliding.
 These factors will affect the stability,
performance, and durability of the retaining
wall system.

147 148

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GRAVITY RETAINING WALL SEMI- GRAVITY WALLS

 Semi- gravity walls are commonly used

for earth retaining structure and bridge
abutments in fill situation.
 They can also be used in cut situation, but for
such application temporary support system is
typically required.

149 150

SEMI- GRAVITY WALLS CANTILEVER RETAINING WALLS

 Residential and commercial construction:

Cantilever retaining walls can be used to create
level ground for building structures.
 Erosion control: Cantilever retaining walls can
be used to prevent erosion along riverbanks
and shorelines.

151 152

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CANTILEVER RETAINING WALLS COUNTERFORT RETAINING WALL

 Counterfort retaining walls are similar

to cantilever walls except they have thin vertical
concrete webs at regular intervals along the
backside of the wall.
 The Counterforts in retaining walls are used for
the walls that are greater than 8 to 12 meters
in height. They are also used when there is a
high lateral pressure which is heavily
surcharged backfill soils.
153 154

COUNTERFORT RETAINING WALL BUTTRESS RETAINING WALL

 These buttresses reduce the clearance on the

front side of the wall.
 The buttresses act as compression members,
supporting the stem and reducing the bending.
 Typically made of concrete, the buttress
retaining wall is suitable for sites with heavy
loads and poor soil conditions.

155 156

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DRAINAGE PROVISION DRAINAGE PROVISION

 First, you can install a perforated drainage

pipe.
 This kind of pipe is installed along the inside or
backfilled at the bottom of the wall.
 A perforated pipe has holes throughout it that
allow the water to trickle down into the pipe
and drain out into the gravel and dirt around
the retaining wall.

157 158

DRAINAGE PROVISION DRAINAGE PROVISION

159 160

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RETAINING WALL DESIGN RETAINING WALL DESIGN

 Retaining walls are designed to restrain soil, or  The basic principle for the design of the
engineering fill, at an angle steeper than the Retaining Wall is that the reinforced concrete
material's angle of repose – the steepest angle stem and footing flexure and shear design
it can hold naturally, without failing. strength must e at least equal to the factored
 To do this, they need to be able to withstand moment and shears determined from the
the horizontal – or lateral – earth pressure, analysis.
exerted by the material being retained.  The wall stem is designed as a cantilever, fixed
at the footing.

161 162

EXAMPLE EXAMPLE

 The retaining wall shown in Figure Required:

 The unit weight and angle of the backfill  The factor of safety against sliding. Analyze
material are 120 lb/ft3 and 37°,respectively. both without and with passive earth pressure
 The coefficient of base friction is 0.45. at the toe.
 Allowable soil pressure is 3 kips/ft2.  The factor of safety against overturning.

 The unit weight of the concrete is 150 lb/ft3  The factor of safety against failure of the
foundation soil.

163 164

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EXAMPLE SOLUTION

165 166

RETAINING WALL DESIGN STEPS RETAINING WALL DESIGN STEPS

1. Select the retaining wall location  The most important thing in choosing a perfect
 Minimize soil excavation and backfill. location for a retaining wall is the fact that you
 Optimize grading and drainage patterns.
must have thorough information about the
property lines and other important factors like
 Consider existing site features.
soil texture, drainage patterns, and slope of the
property.

167 168

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STABILITY ANALYSIS OF A RETAINING WALL STABILITY ANALYSIS OF A RETAINING WALL

The stability of a retaining wall is usually checked

against:
 Sliding

 Overturning

 Bearing Capacity, and

 Global failure

169 170

Retaining walls

171

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Approximate dimensions of various components

OVERTURNING AND SLIDING

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FUNCTION
DESIGN OF CANTILEVER
To hold back the masses of earth or
RETAINING WALLS
loose soil where conditions make it
impossible to let those masses
assume their natural slopes.

RETAINING WALLS RETAINING WALLS

TYPES TYPES
GRAVITY WALLS
CANTILEVER

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RETAINING WALLS RETAINING WALLS

TYPES TYPES

COUNTERFORT COUNTERFORT

RETAINING WALLS
CANTILEVER RETAINING WALLS
TYPES
PARTS
STEM
BUTTRESS or
Wall Slab

BACKFILL
FRONT

TOE HEEL

KEY

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EARTH PRESSURES

Liquids are frictionless and

cohesion less. So in liquid
y
retaining structures the
pressures are directly related to y
the density of the liquid and
head.

EARTH PRESSURES
EARTH PRESSURES

However, this is not true for If the same sand is now

soils: moistened, it develops a
Sand, for example, when dry, certain amount of cohesive
acts as a frictional material strength and its angle of
without cohesion and has a well- repose increases, somewhat
defined angle of repose . erratically.

48
 10/31/2023

EARTH PRESSURES EARTH PRESSURES

Clay on the other hand when first

Further wetting will break down exposed in situ stands vertically
to considerable depths when
the internal friction forces until
reasonably dry, but after time will
the sand slumps and will hardly subside, depending on its
stand at any angle at all. moisture content.

EARTH PRESSURES EARTH PRESSURES

And clay, in dry seasons, gives up its
moisture to atmosphere with Thus the lateral pressures from
subsequent shrinkage, so that at soils can vary very widely
depths less than about 1 or 2 m it may depending on the moisture
be unreliable as a stop to react the content.
forward movement of a retaining wall.

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 10/31/2023

EARTH PRESSURES PRESSURE AT REST

• PRESSURE AT REST When the soil behind the wall is

• ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE prevented from lateral movement
(towards or away from soil) of
• PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE
wall, the pressure is known as
earth pressure at rest.

PRESSURE AT REST PRESSURE AT REST

This is the case when wall has

a considerable rigidity. RIGID

Basement walls generally fall in

this category.

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 10/31/2023

ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE

ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE
If a retaining wall is allowed to A shear failure of the soil is resulted
move away from the soil with any further expansion and a
accompanied by a lateral soil sliding wedge tends to move forward
expansion, the earth pressure and downward. The earth pressure
decreases with the increasing associated with this state of failure is
expansion. the minimum pressure and is known
as active earth pressure.

EARTH PRESSURES
d

H
H/3

cosd  cos2 d  cos2 

Ca  cosd
cosd  cos2 d  cos2 

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d0 PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE

If a retaining wall is allowed to move

H
towards the soil accompanied by a
H/3
lateral soil compression, the earth

1  sin  pressure increases with the

Cah 
1  sin 
increasing compression in the soil.

PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE

cosd  cos2 d  cos2 
C P  cosd
cosd  cos2 d  cos2 

d=0

1  sin 
C ph  = 1/Cah
1  sin 

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OVERTURNING
STABILITY

Highway Loading (Surcharge)

• OVERTURNING
• SLIDING
• BEARING

OVERTURNING OVERTURNING
Overturning Forces Restoring Forces
Full Surcharge Here Weight of Wall
No Surcharge Here No Passive
Pressure

Weight of Soil
(with care)

Active Pressure Weight of Soil

Soil+Surcharge

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OVERTURNING Sliding Forces SLIDING

Full Surcharge Here
No Surcharge Here

Restoring Moment
FOS vs OT =
Overturning Moment
Active Pressure
H1 Soil+Surcharge

A FOS = 2 is considered sufficient

Resisting Forces SLIDING SLIDING without KEY

No Surcharge Here
Resisting Forces
H2 + a S V
Passive Earth Pressure Force+a S V
a=Coeff of Friction FOS vs Sliding =
Active Earth Pressure Force
Vc1
Vs2 Vs1

A FOS = 1.5 is considered sufficient

H2
Vc2 Vc3

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Sliding Forces SLIDING with KEY Resisting Forces

SLIDING with KEY

No Surcharge Here No Surcharge Here

Vc1
Vs2 Vs1
Active Pressure
Soil+Surcharge

H
Vc2 Vc3

Find Vertical forces SLIDING with KEY SLIDING with KEY

acting in front and
Determine Pressure
back of key
No Surcharge Here Distribution Under Base
e A=B
x
S=B2/6
RESULTANT V
Vc1
Vs2 Vs1 V 6Ve

Active Pressure B B2
V 6Ve
Soil+Surcharge 
B B2

Vc2 Vc3 B
B/2

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SLIDING with KEY SLIDING with KEY

Determine Force in Front of KEY When Pressure Distribution Under
Base is Partially Negative

V e

y2 y3
y1 P1 P2
V 6Ve

B B2
V 6Ve
y3=y2+(y1-y2) (B-x1)/B 
B B2
B P1=(y1+y3) x1/2
x1 B
P2=V-P1
B/2

SLIDING with KEY SLIDING with KEY

V e
Active Earth Pressure Force

Total Sliding Force = H1

V 6Ve

B B2
V 6Ve
 Total Resisting Force = P1 tan   a P2 + H2
B B2
Passive Earth
B Force in Front of Key Pressure Force
x
3x Determine P1 and Internal Friction of Soil Force on and
2V P2 once again Back of Key
P1 P2
3x
Friction b/w Soil, Concrete

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BEARING BEARING
This case has been dealt already
No Surcharge on Heel

There are two possible critical conditions

RESULTANT
1. No surcharge on heel
Vc1
Vs2 Vs1
2. Surcharge on heel Active Pressure
Soil+Surcharge

Vc2 Vc3

DETERMINE THE PRESSURE BEARING Determine Pressure

Distribution Under Base
DISTRIBUTION UNDER BASE SLAB
Surcharge on Heel
Vs A=B
x e
S=B2/6
RESULTANT V
Vc1
Vs2 Vs1 V 6Ve

Active Pressure B B2
V 6Ve
Soil+Surcharge 
B B2

Vc2 Vc3 B
B/2

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Compare Pressure with ALTERNATELY

Bearing Capacity V 6Ve
V 6Ve 
V 6Ve  B B2
 B B2 B
B B2
V 6Ve

B B2 2V/3x
B
3x

Allowable Bearing Allowable Bearing

FOS vs Bearing = FOS vs Bearing =
Max Bearing Pressure Max Bearing Pressure

V 6Ve
 2V/3x
B B2

BENDING OF WALL

END OF PART I

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DESIGN OF STEM DESIGN OF STEM

CRITICAL SECTIONS
Critical Section Shear Design Moment
=1.6 (H1 y1 + H2 y2) Surcharge = s N/m2
Critical Section
Moment
h
Active Pressure
Soil+Surcharge
H1=Ca s h

y1 y2 H2=0.5 Ca s h2
d

DESIGN OF STEM DESIGN OF TOE SLAB

Design Shear=1.7(H '1+H '2) CRITICAL SECTIONS
 hd h  d  
2
Critical Section (Shear)
1.7  H 1  H 2  
 h  h   Surcharge = s N/m2
Critical Section
Moment
h
H'1=Ca s (h-d)

H'2=0.5 Ca s (h-d)2
d

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DESIGN OF TOE SLAB TOE : DESIGN MOMENT

Design Loads
1.6(0.5 T y3) T/3
1.6Soil Pressure
0.9 Self Wt +1.6(0.5 T y1) 2T/3
0.9 Soil in Front -0.9 wc T2/2
(may be neglected) -0.9 ws T2/2

y3
y1
T

TOE : DESIGN SHEAR DESIGN OF HEEL SLAB

CRITICAL SECTIONS
1.6(0.5 Ts) y3 Ts/T
+1.6(0.5 T y1-0.5 d [y1/T] d)
Critical Section
-0.9 wc Ts
Moment & Shear
-0.9 ws Ts

TENSION FACES
y3
y1

Ts=T-d

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DESIGN OF HEEL SLAB BENDING OF WALL

DESIGN LOADS

1.6s + 1.2 s +1.2 c

Soil Pressure Neglected

ACI CODE
MAIN REINFORCEMENT
SECONDARY STEELS

Minimum 75 mm Clear Cover ACI 14.3.2

ACI 14.3.3

ACI Minimum SLAB

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DRAINAGE

Weepers
Or
END OF PART II
Weep Holes

Sand + Stone Filter

DRAINAGE DRAINAGE (Alternate)

Perforated Pipe

Drainage Pipes f 100-200 mm @ 2.5 to 4 m

Suited for short walls

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LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE

Types of Lateral Pressure Stability Criteria
Passive resistance in undrained clay The stability of the retaining wall should be checked
against :

(i) FOS against overturning (recommended FOS = 2.0)

Resisting moment
FOS 
Disturbing moment

(ii) FOS against sliding (recommended FOS = 2.0)

RV tan d  (0.5 - 0.7) Pp  cw B
FOS 
RH

LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE

Stability Analysis Stability Criteria
The stability of the retaining wall should
be checked against : 2.3.2 FOS against sliding
(recommended FOS =
2.0)
2.3.1 FOS against overturning
(recommended FOS = 2.0) RV tan d  (0.5 - 0.7) Pp  cw B
FOS 
Resisting moment RH
FOS  ∑V
Disturbing moment ∑V
Ph

Ph Pp
Pp

Friction & wall base adhesion

.. overturning about A
A

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LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE

Stability Criteria Stability Analysis

2.3.3 For base pressure (to be compared against the

bearing capacity of the founding soil.
Recommended FOS = 3.0) ∑V
R  6e 
qb  V 1   Ph
B  B
Now, Lever arm of base resultant
Pp
 Moment
x
RV
B
Thus eccentricity e  - x
2 Base pressure on the founding soil

LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE

Stability Analysis Stability Analysis
THE PROBLEM 30 kN/m2
Figure below shows the cross-section of a reinforced
concrete retaining structure. The retained soil behind 0.5 m

the structure and the soil in front of it are cohesionless

and has the following properties: SOIL 1
2.0 m
SOIL 1 : u = 35o, d = 17 kN/m3,
SOIL 2 : u = 30o, d = 25o , d = 18 kN/m3,
4.0 m GWT

sat = 20 kN/m3
The unit weight of concrete is 24 kN/m3. Taking into SOIL 2
2.9 m
account the passive resistance in front of the wall,
determine a minimum value for the width of the wall to
SOIL 2
satisfy the following design criteria:
Factor of safety against overturning > 2.5 0.6 m

Factor of safety against sliding > 1.5 4.5 m

Maximum base pressure should not exceed 150 kPa 2.0 m

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LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE

Stability Analysis Stability Analysis
30 kN/m2
THE SOLUTION Determination of the Earth Pressure Coefficients
0.5 m

1  sin  1 - sin 35 o
K a1    0.271
SOIL 1
W1 2.0 m P1 P3

1  sin  1  sin 35 o
W3 GWT
4.0 m

SOIL 2

1  sin  1 - sin 30 o
W41
2.9 m
K a2    0.333
1  sin  1  sin 30 o
W2 P2 P4
SOIL 2
PP P5 P6
0.6 m
1  sin  1  sin 30 o
4.5 m
K p2    3.00
2.0 m
1  sin  1  sin 30 o

LATERAL
ELEM.
EARTH PRESSURE
FORCE (kN/m) TOTAL
L. ARM MOMENT LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE
(m) (kNm/m)
Stability Analysis Stability Analysis
HORIZONTAL To check for stability of the retaining
Active
P1 0.271 x 30 x 2 16.26 4.5 73.17
wall
P2 0.333 x 30 x 3.5 34.97 1.75 61.20
> 2.5
P3 0.5 x 0.271 x 17 x 2 x 2 9.21 4.17 38.41 (i) FOS against overturning
P4 0.333 x 17 x 2 x 3.5 39.63 1.75 69.35
Resisting moment 1288.55
P5 0.5 x .333 x (20-9.81) x 3.5 x 3.5 20.78 1.167 24.25
FOS    3.83  2.5, thus it is OK
P6 0.5 x 9.81 x 3.5 x 3.5 60.09 1.167 70.13 Disturbing moment 336.50
SUM 180.94 336.50
(ii) FOS against sliding > 1.5
Passive
Pp 0.5 x 3 x 18 x 1.5 x 1.5 60.75 0.5 30.38
RV tan d  0.5 Pp 452.9 tan 25 o  0.5 x 60.75
FOS    1.34  1.5
VERTICAL RH 180.94
W1 0.5 x 4.9 x 24 58.8 1.75 102.90
W2 0.6 x 4.5 x 24 64.8 2.25 145.80
W3 2 x 2.5 x 17 + 2.9 x 2.5 x 20 + 30 x 2.5 305 3.25 991.25 Thus it is not OK
W4 0.9 x 1.5 x 18 24.3 0.75 18.23

SUM 452.9 1288.55

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LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE

Stability Analysis Stability Analysis
qb = 120.8 and 80.5
(iii) For base pressure kPa
Since maximum base pressure is less than the bearing
R V  6e 
qb  1   pressure of the soil, the foundation is stable against base
B  B pressure failure.
Now, Lever arm of base resultant DISTRIBUTION OF BASE PRESSURE

 Moment 1288.55 - 336.5

x   2.10
RV 452.9
80.5 kPa
B 120.8 kPa
Thus eccentricity e 
2
- x  2.25 - 2.10  0.15

452.9  6 x 0.15  In conclusion the retaining wall is not safe against sliding.
Therefore qb  1   To overcome this the width of the base may be increased or
4.5  4.5 
a key constructed at the toe.

EXAMPLE EXAMPLE
Design a cantilever retaining wall (T type) to The cross section of a cantilever wall is
retain earth for a height of 4m. the backfill is shown in figure, calculate the factor of safety
horizontal. The density of soil is 18kN/m3. with respect to overturning, sliding and
Safe bearing capacity of soil is 200 kN/m2. bearing capacity failure.
Take the co-efficient of friction between
concrete and soil as 0.6. The angle of repose
is 30 degrees. Use M20 concrete and Fe415
steel.
263

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EXAMPLE

266

CHECK FOR STABILITY EXERCISE

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QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR READING

 What is a slope and discuss slope stability

 What type of risks are associated with sloping
PART-II ground
SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS  How to analyze the stability of a slope

 What are the major causes of slope failures

 Discuss the type of slope failures

270

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR READING SLOPE

 What are the major causes of slope failures  A slope is an inclined ground surface which can
 Discuss the type of slope failures be either natural or human-made.
 What are the methods to analyze the stability of
a slope
 Method of slices

 Infinite slope

271 272

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SLOPE STABILITY

 Slope stability refers to the condition that an  SLOPES IN HOMOGENEOUS COHESIONLESS

inclined surface can withstand its own weight SOILS
and external forces without experiencing
displacement.

273 274

 For general slope stability analysis of

permanent cuts, fills, and landslide repairs, a
minimum safety factor of 1.25 should be used.

Please suggest suitable angles, based on variable loads (2-3)

275 276

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 10/31/2023

 A cut 30 ft deep is to be made in a deposit of

highly cohesive soil that is 60 ft thick and
underlain by rock

277 278

SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS

279 280

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SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS

STRAIN LOCALIZATION SHEAR BANDING

F
A
I
L
U
R
E

281
 = 17.4 kN/m3, s’3 = 50 kPa
282 282

SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS

 The field of slope stability encompasses the

analysis of static and dynamic stability of
slopes of earth and rock-fill dams.

283 284

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TYPES OF SLOPE FAILURE SLOPE FAILURE

The common modes of slope failure in soils are

by:
Translational failure
Rotation failure
Flow failure and
Block movement failure

TRANSLATIONAL SLOPE FAILURE

285 286

SLOPE FAILURE SLOPE FAILURE

FLOW SLOPE FAILURE

ROTATIONAL SLOPE FAILURE

287 288

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SLOPE FAILURE SLOPE FAILURE

BLOCK MOVEMENT SLOPE FAILURE

289 290

SLOPE FAILURE

Neelum Valley

291 292

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 10/31/2023

ROCK SLOPES LANDSLIDING

Badakhshan Province of Afghanistan more than 2000 people

293 reportedly were buried due to Landsliding. 294

LANDSLIDING LANDSLIDING

295 296

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STABILITY OF SLOPES METHODS

1) Varieties of failure Based on the researcher
2) Stability analysis of infinite and finite slopes, and  Bishop simplified method
General method of slices (Swedish Methods)
 Method of slices
3) Bishop simplified methods of slices
 Jumbu Method
4) Friction circle method
5) Taylor’s stability number and stability curves  Morgenstern-Price Method

6) Effect of pore water and seepage forces on stability  Tailor Method

 Corps of Engineer Method

297 298

METHODS METHODS OF SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS

 Spencer Method (1957) Based on conditions

 Swedish Method (Fellenius -1927)  Limit equilibrium method

 Samra method (1975)  Total stress analysis

 Effective stress analysis

299 300

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LIMIT EQUILIBRIUM METHOD TOTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

It is not a rigorous theoretical method but is used If analysis is of undrained stability then the failure
because it gives simple and reasonable estimates of criterion must be expressed in terms of total stress using
collapse. The method has advantages over Rankin’s undrained parameters cu and u.
method.  A total stress analysis is only valid if the soil is
It can cope with any geometry, It can cope with applied saturated and does not drain.
loads and Friction between soil and retaining walls (and  In practice this generally means total stress analysis is
other structural elements) can be accounted. limited to assessment of the short term stability of
For any point on the failure plane we have: clayey soils.
 Must use total stresses and undrained parameters cu
  c  s n tan  and u
  c  s tan 
u n u
301 302

EFFECTIVE TRESS ANALYSIS LIMIT EQUILIBRIUM METHODS OF SLOPE STABILITY

 An effective stress analysis can be performed All limit equilibrium methods of slope stability
whenever the pore pressures are known. analysis have four characteristics in common
 In practice this usually means that effective (Duncan and Wright, 1980):
stress analysis can only be used to assess the 1) All use the following definition of the factor of
long term stability. When performing effective safety (F):
stress stability calculations the critical state s
parameters c = 0,  = ult should be used. F

  c`s `tan  ` F
Shear strength of soil
Shear stress required for equilibriu m
303 304

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LIMIT EQUILIBRIUM METHODS OF SLOPE STABILITY UNDRAINED INFINITE SLOPES

2) Placing a factor of safety is appropriate Consider an infinite slope in a cohesionless soil

3) All assume that the strength parameters are without seepage. The thickness is supposed to
independent of stress-strain behavior. be unity. The soil is often assumed to be
4) All use some or all of the equations of homogeneous; however, in real situations. The
equilibrium to calculate the average values of soil may be highly stratified with widely varying
 and sn on each slice, where sn is the normal shear strengths. If we isolate an element and
stress on the base of the slice. examine the forces for stability that is:

305 306

From the geometry of figure

UNDRAINED INFINITE SLOPES
z
FD  W sin  Applying limit equilibrium conditions
N  W cos 
 l
FR  FD
And the resisting force

b
against the failure FR can be W cos  tan   W sin 
expressed as:
tan   sin  / cos 
z FR  N tan  tan   tan 
FR FR  W cos  tan  
 N W   V   (b 1 z ) It shows that for stability conditions slope angle 
W
FD
W   lz cos  should be less or equal to angle of internal friction-.
307 308

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 10/31/2023

UNDRAINED INFINITE SLOPES UNDRAINED INFINITE SLOPES

Factor of safety (in terms of resisting to driving Factor of safety (in terms of undrained shear
force) strength ) FR
F 
FD
FR
F F 
Su 
FD W sin 
W cos  tan  F 
Su 
F z cos  sin 
W sin 
2Su
F 
tan  z ( 2 cos  sin  )
F
tan  F 
2Su
z sin 2 
309 310

UNDRAINED INFINITE SLOPES EXAMPLE

Critical depth against slope failure Calculate the factor of safety relating to the
It is the depth at which the slip surface may be undrained stability of a long slope of 1 V:1.5 H if
expected to develop. If the FS is taken as unity at a depth of 1.8 m a weak layer of cohesive soil
the depth z is supposed to be the critical depth occurs for which Su = 24 kPa and for the
zc. It can be expressed as: overburden  = 18.5 kN/m3.
2Su 2Su
F  F
z sin 2
z sin 2 
2  24
F
2Su 18.5 1.8sin(2  33.69)
zc 
 sin 2  311 F  1.56 312

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EXAMPLE MASS RESTING ON AN INCLINED LAYER

The soil in a long slope has undrained shear

strength of 50 kPa and a unit weight of 18
kN/m3. Using the infinite slope method, estimate
the depth at which a shear may develop when the
slope angle is 220.
2Su
zc 
 sin 2
2  50
zc 
18sin(2  22)
z c  8.0 m
313 314

MASS RESTING ON AN INCLINED LAYER MASS RESTING ON AN INCLINED LAYER

315 316

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 10/31/2023

EXAMPLE

c = 150 lb/ft2
 = 25º
 = 105 lb/ft3

317 318

THE METHOD OF SLICES THE METHOD OF SLICES

When the soil forming the slope has to be analyzed

under a condition where full or partial drainage
takes place the analysis must take into account both
cohesive and frictional soil properties based on
effective stresses. Since the effective stress acting
across each elemental length of the assumed
circular arc failure surface must be computed in this
case, the method of slices is one of the convenient
methods for this case. The method of analysis is as
follows:
319 320

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 10/31/2023

THE METHOD OF SLICES THE METHOD OF SLICES

321 322

THE METHOD OF SLICES THE METHOD OF SLICES

O O

B B
R R

A A

 
323 324

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 10/31/2023

THE METHOD OF SLICES THE METHOD OF SLICES

325 326

O
THE METHOD OF SLICES THE METHOD OF SLICES B
1) The soil mass above the assumed R
slip circle is divided into a number A
of vertical slices of equal width. 
2) The number of slices may be
En+1 limited to a maximum of eight to
Xn
Xn+1 ten to facilitate computation.
En En+1
l 3) In this method it is assumed that Xn
FR the interslice forces are equal and Xn+1
En
opposite and cancel each other, l
i.e., Xn = Xn+1, En = En+1 FR
N FU
W 4) The forces used in the analysis
FD acting on the slices are shown in N FU
the figure W
327 FD 328

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 10/31/2023

THE METHOD OF SLICES THE METHOD OF SLICES

The forces are: It is now only necessary to resolve the
W = the weight of the slice. forces acting on the base of slices
FR  c`  N `tan  `
N = the normal component of the weight
FD = Driving force
FR = Resisting force En+1 En+1
Xn Xn
FU = Pore water force
Xn = Xn+1 = Inter-slice forces En
Xn+1 𝑁` = 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 En
Xn+1
l l
FR 𝐹𝑅 = 𝑐`𝑙 + 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 FR

W
N FD  W sin  W
N

FD FD

329 330

THE METHOD OF SLICES THE METHOD OF SLICES WITH PORE PRESSURE

The factor of safety is then given as: This can also be expressed as:

N ` W cos   u  b  cos
σ 𝐹𝑅 b
𝐹𝑆 = En+1 N ` W cos   ub sec   u  ru h En+1
σ 𝐷𝑅 Xn Xn
σ 𝑐`𝑙 + 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙` Xn+1 N ` W cos   ru hb sec  Xn+1
En En
𝐹𝑆 =
σ 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 l N ` W cos   ru sec   l
FR FR

N N FU
W W
FD FD

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THE METHOD OF SLICES WITH PORE PRESSURE THE METHOD OF SLICES WITH PORE PRESSURE
The forces are: It is now only necessary to resolve the
W = the weight of the slice. forces acting on the base of slices
FR  c`  N `tan  `
N = the normal component of the weight
FD = Driving force
FR = Resisting force
Xn
En+1
N ` W cos   FU Xn
En+1
FU = Pore water force Xn+1 Xn+1
Xn = Xn+1 = Interslice forces En
l N ` W cos   u En
l
Pore pressure ratio ru
FR FR  c`  (W cos   ul ) tan  ` FR
u u
ru  
sv  h W
N FU FD  W sin  W
N FU
FD FD

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THE METHOD OF SLICES WITH PORE PRESSURE THE METHOD OF SLICES WITH PORE PRESSURE
The factor of safety is then given as: This can also be expressed as:

FS 
F R N ` W cos   u  b  cos b
F D
Xn
En+1 N ` W cos   ub sec   u  ru h
Xn
En+1
N ` W cos   ru hb sec 
FS 
 c`  W cos   u tan  ` En
Xn+1
N ` W cos   ru sec  
En
Xn+1

W sin 
l l
FR FR

N FU N FU
W W
FD FD

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THE METHOD OF SLICES THE METHOD OF SLICES

n p
This
canFalso
R
be expressed as: b
FS  n 1
n p O En+
h Xn
F
n 1
D
b
R
B En Xn+ 1

En+1 l 1
n p FR
Xn A
 c` n  Wn cos   ru sec   tan  `
En
Xn+1

FS  n 1 N
n p l W FU
 Wn sin 
n 1
FR
n p
FD
n p

 {c`  Wn cos  tan  `} N FU

{c` n  Wn cos  tan  `}
FS  n 1
n
W
FS  n 1
n p FD n p
W n 1
n sin 
337
W n 1
n sin 
338

EXAMPLE SOLUTION
From the following figure with R = 9.15 m and  = 890. Determine the
factor of safety.

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W(cos a - ru sec a
SOLUTION

cos a - ru sec a

x tan '
W hw W(sin
Slice h (m) b (m) (kN) a º cos a sec a (m) ru sin a a

1 0.95 2.35 42.9 -10 0.985 1.015 0.654 0.352 0.985 15.4 -0.174 -7.4

2 2.44 2.35 110.1 4 0.998 1.002 1.958 0.410 0.587 23.5 0.070 7.7

3 3.32 2.35 149.8 20 0.940 1.064 2.440 0.376 0.540 29.4 0.342 51.2

4 3.50 2.35 157.9 35 0.819 1.221 2.020 0.295 0.459 26.4 0.574 90.6

5 1.74 2.35 78.5 57 0.545 1.836 0.246 0.072 0.412 11.8 0.839 65.8

Total= 106.5 Total= 207.9

1.33
Factor of
safety =
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SOLUTION EXAMPLE

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SOLUTION TOTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

This analysis, often called the u=0 analysis, is

intended to give the stability of an embankment
immediately after its construction. At this stage it
is assumed that the soil in the embankment has
had no time to drain and he undrained strength
of the soil (with respect to total stresses), which
are found from either the unconfined
compression test or an undrained triaxial test
without pore pressure measurement.
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TOTAL STRESS ANALYSIS TOTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

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TOTAL STRESS ANALYSIS EXAMPLE

Taking moment about O, the centre of rotation: The embankment made of cohesive soil with
u=0 and cu =20 kN/m2. the unit weight of the
soil is 19 kN/m3. for the trial circle shown,
determine the factor of safety against sliding. The
weight of the sliding sector is 346 kN acting at an
The position of G is not needed, and it is only
eccentricity of 5 m from the center of rotation.
necessary to ascertain where the line of action of W What would the factor of safety be if the shaded
is. This can be obtained d by dividing the sector into portion of the embankment were removed? In
a set of vertical slices and taking moments of areas both cases assume that no tension crack
of these slices about a convenient vertical axis. develops.
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EXAMPLE EXAMPLE
u= 0 and cu = 20 kN/m2
 =19 kN/m3
W =346 kN

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EXERCISE IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF FAILURE

353 354

PROBLEM 1 PROBLEM 2

An infinitely long slope having an inclination of A finite slope has an inclination of 48° with a
26° in an area is underlain by firm cohesive soil horizontal ground surface. The height of the slope
(G = 2.72 and e = 0.50). There is a thin, weak is 15 m, and the details of the soil are c = 26
layer of soil 6 m below and parallel to the slope kPa, ϕ = 18°, and γ = 17.2 kN/m3. Compute the
surface (c = 25 kN/m2, ϕ′ = 16°). Compute the factor of safety assuming a plane rupture
factor of safety when the slope is dry. If ground- surface.
water flow could occur parallel to the slope on the
ground surface, what factor of safety would
result?
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PROBLEM-3 MCQ’S

1. The method of slices for the stability of

slope…
a) can be used for stratified soils.
b) can be used when seepage occurs and the
pore pressure exists within the soil
c) gives the racier of safely based on moments
and not the forces.
d) All of the above.

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MCQ’S MCQ’S

2. In stability analysis. the term mobilised shear 3. Bishop's simplified method of slices satisfies
strength is referred to as a) only the moments equilibrium
a) shear strength b) only the vertical forces equilibrium
b) maximum shear stress c) only the horizontal forces equilibrium
c) applied shear stress d) all the statics equations. except the horizontal
d) none of the above forces equilibrium

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MCQ’S

4. The following assumption is not made for the

friction circle method of slope stability analysis
a) Friction is fully mobilised CHAPTER 1
b) Total Stress analysis is applicable SUBSOIL INVESTIGATION
c) The resultant is tangential to the friction circle
d) The resultant passes through the centre of
friction circle

361

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR READING QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR READING

 What are the purposes of a soils investigation?  What is Geotechnical Site Investigation.
 How do you plan and execute a soils  Describe and discuss the purpose of
investigation? geotechnical site investigation….!!
 How do you interpret the information from a  What are the responsibilities of a geotechnical
soils investigation? engineer…?
 How do you report the results?  What are the phases of geotechnical site

 What should be included in a soils report? investigation...?

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QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR READING

 What are the methods of geotechnical site

investigation…??
 What is the criteria for the pattern, number and
depth of boring…?
 What is the criteria for the selection of a
suitable type of boring or drilling equipment…?
 What is the Criteria for the recommendation of
suitable type of a foundation.

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