Ch1- Artificial Intellgence

Artificial intelligence
(ai) refers to the simulation of human intelligence in machines that are programmed to
think like humans and mimic their actions. The term may also be applied to any machine
that exhibits traits associated with a human mind such as learning and problem-solving.

Goals of Artificial intelligence

 to create expert systems: the systems which exhibit intelligent behavior, learn,
demonstrate, explain, and advice its users.
 to implement human intelligence in machines: creating systems that understand, think,
Applications of ai ai has been dominant in various fields such as:
 gaming ai plays crucial role in strategic games such as chess, poker, tic-tac-toe, etc., where
machine can think of large number of possible positions based on heuristic knowledge.
 natural language processing it is possible to interact with the computer that understands
natural language spoken by humans.
 expert systems there are some applications which integrate machine, software, and
special information to impart reasoning and advising. They provide explanation and advice
to the users.
 vision systems these systems understand, interpret, and comprehend visual input on the
computer. For example, o a spying aeroplane takes photographs which are used to figure
out spatial information or map of the areas. O doctors use clinical expert system to
diagnose the patient. O police use computer software that can recognize the face of
criminal with the stored portrait made by forensic artist

 speech recognition some intelligent systems are capable of hearing and comprehending
the language in terms of sentences and their meanings while a human talks to it. It can
handle different accents, slang words, noise in the background, change in human’s noise
due to cold, etc.
 handwriting recognition the handwriting recognition software reads the text written on
paper by a pen or on screen by a stylus. It can recognize the shapes of the letters and
convert it into editable text.
 intelligent robots robots are able to perform the tasks given by a human. They have
sensors to detect physical data from the real world such as light, heat, temperature,
movement, sound, bump, and pressure. They have efficient processors, multiple sensors
and huge memory, to exhibit intelligence. In addition, they are capable of learning from
their mistakes and they can adapt to the new environment.
To understand some of the deeper concepts, such as data mining, natural language
processing, and driving software, you need to know the three basic ai concepts: machine
learning, deep learning, and neural networks.

Machine learning and applications

It’s likely that you’ve interacted with some form of ai in your day-to-day activities. If you use
gmail, for example, you may enjoy the automatic e-mail filtering feature. If you own a
smartphone, you probably fill out a calendar with the help of siri, cortana, or bixby. If you
own a newer vehicle, perhaps you’ve benefited from a driver-assist feature while driving.

In the simplest terms, machines are given a large amount of trial examples for a certain
task. As they go through these trials, machines learn and adapt their strategy to achieve
those goals.

For example, an image-recognition machine may be given millions of pictures to analyze.

After going through endless permutations, the machine acquires the ability to recognize
patterns, shapes, faces, and more.

A well-known example of this ai concept is quick, draw!, a google-hosted game that lets
humans draw simple pictures in under 20 seconds, with the machine-learning algorithm
trying to guess the drawing. More than 15 million people have contributed more than 50
million drawings to the app.

Deep learning gets ready to play

How do we get machines to learn more than just a specific task? What if we want it to be
able to take what it has learned from analyzing photographs and use that knowledge to
analyze different data sets? This requires computer scientists to formulate general-purpose
learning algorithms that help machines learn more than just one task.

One famous example of deep learning in action is google’s alphago project written in lua, c+
+, and python code. The alphago ai was able to beat professional go players, a feat that was
thought impossible given the game’s incredible complexity and reliance on focused practice
and human intuition to master.
 Neural networks follow natural model

Deep learning is often made possible by artificial neural networks, which imitate neurons,
or brain cells. Artificial neural networks were inspired by things we find in our own biology.
The neural net models use math and computer science principles to mimic the processes of
the human brain, allowing for more general learning.

An artificial neural network tries to simulate the processes of densely interconnected brain
cells, but instead of being built from biology, these neurons, or nodes, are built from code.

Essentially, if the unit of information reaches a certain threshold, then it is able to pass to
the next layer. In order to learn from experience, machines compare outputs from a neural
network, then modify connections, weights, and thresholds based on the differences
among them.

7 major types of ai that can bolster your decision making

 Narrow ai or ani.
Is a kind of ai that refrains a computer to perform more than one operation at a time. It has
a limited playing field when it comes to performing multiple intellectual tasks in the same
time frame. Narrow ai can compile one particular instruction in a customized scenario.
Some examples are google assistant, alexa, and siri.

 Artificial general intelligence or agi.

Is the future of digital technology where self-assist robots or cyborgs will emulate human
sensory movements. With agi, machines will be able to see, respond to, and interpret
external information similar to the human nervous system. The advancements in artificial
neural networks will drive future agi loaders, which will run businesses with the passage of
time.

 Strong ai or asi.
Strong ai is a futuristic concept that has only been the premise of a sci-fi movie until now.
Strong ai will be the ultimate dominator as it would enable machines to design self-
improvements and outclass humanity. It would construct cognitive abilities, feelings, and
emotions in machines better than us.

 Reactive machines.
  Reactive machines are the most basic type of unsupervised ai. This means that they
cannot form memories or use past experiences to influence present-made decisions;
they can only react to currently existing situations – hence “reactive.”
 Reactive machines have no concept of the world and therefore cannot function beyond
the simple tasks for which they are programmed. A characteristic of reactive machines is
that no matter the time or place, these machines will always behave the way they were
programmed. There is no growth with reactive machines, only stagnation in recurring
actions and behaviors.

An existing form of a reactive machine is deep blue, a chess-playing supercomputer created

by ibm in the mid-1980s.

 Limited memory.
 Limited memory is comprised of supervised ai systems that derive knowledge from
experimental data or real-life events. Unlike reactive machines, limited memory learns
from the past by observing actions or data fed to them to create a good-fit model.
 Although limited memory builds on observational data in conjunction with pre-
programmed data the machines already contain, these sample pieces of information are
fleeting. An existing form of limited memory is autonomous vehicles.

Autonomous vehicles or self-driving cars work on a combination principle of observational

knowledge and computer vision. To observe how to properly drive among human-
dependent vehicles, self-driving cars segment their environment, detect patterns or
changes in external factors, and adjust.

 Theory of mind.
 As the name suggests, theory of mind is a technique of passing the baton of your ideas,
decisions, and thought patterns to computers. While there are some machines that
currently exhibit humanlike capabilities, none are fully capable of holding conversations
relative to human standards. Even the most advanced robot in the world lacks
emotional intelligence factor (sounding and behaving like a human).
 This future class of machine ability would include understanding that people have
thoughts and emotions that affect behavioral output and thus influence a “theory of
mind” machine’s thought process. Social interaction is a key facet of human interaction.
So to make the theory of mind machines tangible, the ai systems that control the now-
robots would have to identify, understand, retain, and remember emotional responses.
 These machines can process human commands and adapt them to their learning centers
to understand the rules of basic communication and interactions. Theory of mind is an
advanced form of proposed artificial intelligence that would require machines to
thoroughly acknowledge rapid shifts in emotional and behavioral patterns in humans.
Harmonizing interactions at this level will require a lot of testing and abstract thinking.

Example:
 Some elements of the theory of mind ai currently exist or have existed in the recent past.
Two notable examples are the robots kismet and sophia, created in 2000 and 2016,
respectively.
 Self-awareness.
 Self-aware ai involves machines that have human-level consciousness. This form of ai is
not currently in existence but would be considered the most advanced form of artificial
intelligence known to man.
 Facets of self-aware ai include the ability to not only recognize and replicate humanlike
actions, but also to think for itself, have desires, and understand its feelings. Self-aware
ai, in essence, is an advancement and extension of the theory of mind ai. Where the
theory of mind only focuses on the aspects of comprehension and replication of human
practices, self-aware ai takes it a step further by implying that it can and will have self-
guided thoughts and reactions.

 Type 1: reactive machines. These ai systems have no memory and are task specific. An
example is deep blue, the ibm chess program that beat garry kasparov in the 1990s.
Deep blue can identify pieces on the chessboard and make predictions, but because it
has no memory, it cannot use past experiences to inform future ones.
 Type 2: limited memory. These ai systems have memory, so they can use past
experiences to inform future decisions. Some of the decision-making functions in self-
driving cars are designed this way.
 Type 3: theory of mind. Theory of mind is a psychology term. When applied to ai, it
means that the system would have the social intelligence to understand emotions. This
type of ai will be able to infer human intentions and predict behavior, a necessary skill
for ai systems to become integral members of human teams.
 Type 4: self-awareness. In this category, ai systems have a sense of self, which gives
them consciousness. Machines with self-awareness understand their own current
state. This type of ai does not yeWhat are the types of data visualization? The most
common data visualization types are scatter plots, bar charts, heat maps, line graphs,
pie charts, area charts, choropleth maps and histogramst exist.
What are the types of data visualization?
The most common data visualization types are scatter plots, bar charts, heat maps, line
graphs, pie charts, area charts, choropleth maps and histograms
What are the data types in data visualization?
What are the main types of data visualization? The main types of data visualization
include charts, graphs and maps in the form of line charts, bar graphs, tree charts, dual-axis
charts, mind maps, funnel charts and heatmaps.
 Tables: This consists of rows and columns used to compare variables. Tables can
show a great deal of information in a structured way, but they can also overwhelm
users that are simply looking for high-level trends.
 Pie charts and stacked bar charts: These graphs are divided into sections that
represent parts of a whole. They provide a simple way to organize data and compare
the size of each component to one other.
 Line charts and area charts: These visuals show change in one or more quantities by
plotting a series of data points over time and are frequently used within predictive
analytics. Line graphs utilize lines to demonstrate these changes while area charts
connect data points with line segments, stacking variables on top of one another and
using color to distinguish between variables.
 Histograms: This graph plots a distribution of numbers using a bar chart (with no
spaces between the bars), representing the quantity of data that falls within a
particular range. This visual makes it easy for an end user to identify outliers within a
given dataset.
 Scatter plots: These visuals are beneficial in reveling the relationship between two
variables, and they are commonly used within regression data analysis. However,
these can sometimes be confused with bubble charts, which are used to visualize
three variables via the x-axis, the y-axis, and the size of the bubble.
 Heat maps: These graphical representation displays are helpful in visualizing
behavioral data by location. This can be a location on a map, or even a webpage.
 Tree maps, which display hierarchical data as a set of nested shapes, typically
rectangles. Treemaps are great for comparing the proportions between categories
via their area size.

What is data visualization used for?

Data visualization is the representation of data through use of common graphics, such as
charts, plots, infographics, and even animations. These visual displays of information
communicate complex data relationships and data-driven insights in a way that is easy to
understand.

Visualizing data: Mapping data onto aesthetics

Whenever we visualize data, we take data values and convert them in a systematic and
logical way into the visual elements that make up the final graphic. Even though there
are many different types of data visualizations, and on first glance a scatter plot, a pie
chart, and a heatmap don’t seem to have much in common, all these visualizations can
be described with a common language that captures how data values are turned into
blobs of ink on paper or colored pixels on screen. The key insight is the following: All data
visualizations map data values into quantifiable features of the resulting graphic. We
refer to these features as aesthetics.

2.1 Aesthetics and types of data

Aesthetics describe every aspect of a given graphical element. A few examples are
provided in Figure 2.1. A critical component of every graphical element is of course
its position, which describes where the element is located. In standard 2d graphics, we
describe positions by an x and y value, but other coordinate systems and one- or three-
dimensional visualizations are possible. Next, all graphical elements have a shape, a size,
and a color. Even if we are preparing a black-and-white drawing, graphical elements need
to have a color to be visible, for example black if the background is white or white if the
background is black. Finally, to the extent we are using lines to visualize data, these lines
may have different widths or dash–dot patterns. Beyond the examples shown in
Figure 2.1, there are many other aesthetics we may encounter in a data visualization. For
example, if we want to display text, we may have to specify font family, font face, and
font size, and if graphical objects overlap, we may have to specify whether they are
partially transparent.

Figure 2.1: Commonly used aesthetics in data visualization: position, shape, size, color,
line width, line type. Some of these aesthetics can represent both continuous and
discrete data (position, size, line width, color) while others can usually only represent
discrete data (shape, line type).

Appropriate
Type of variable Examples Description
scale
Arbitrary numerical values.
quantitative/numerical 1.3, 5.7, 83,
continuous These can be integers, rational
continuous 1.5x10-2
numbers, or real numbers.

quantitative/numerical 1, 2, 3, 4 discrete Numbers in discrete units.

 Appropriate
Type of variable Examples Description
scale
These are most commonly but
not necessarily integers. For
example, the numbers 0.5, 1.0,
discrete 1.5 could also be treated as
discrete if intermediate values
cannot exist in the given
dataset.
Categories without order.
These are discrete and unique
qualitative/categorical
dog, cat, fish discrete categories that have no
unordered
inherent order. These variables
are also called factors.
Categories with order. These
are discrete and unique
categories with an order. For
qualitative/categorical good, fair,
discrete example, “fair” always lies
ordered poor
between “good” and “poor”.
These variables are also
called ordered factors.
Specific days and/or times. Also
Jan. 5 2018, continuous
date or time generic dates, such as July 4 or
8:03am or discrete
Dec. 25 (without year).
The quick
brown fox none, or Free-form text. Can be treated
Text
jumps over discrete as categorical if needed.
the lazy dog.
All aesthetics fall into one of two groups: Those that can represent continuous data and
those that can not. Continuous data values are values for which arbitrarily fine
intermediates exist. For example, time duration is a continuous value. Between any two
durations, say 50 seconds and 51 seconds, there are arbitrarily many intermediates, such
as 50.5 seconds, 50.51 seconds, 50.50001 seconds, and so on. By contrast, number of
persons in a room is a discrete value. A room can hold 5 persons or 6, but not 5.5. For the
examples in Figure 2.1, position, size, color, and line width can represent continuous
data, but shape and line type can usually only represent discrete data.
Next we’ll consider the types of data we may want to represent in our visualization. You
may think of data as numbers, but numerical values are only two out of several types of
data we may encounter. In addition to continuous and discrete numerical values, data
can come in the form of discrete categories, in the form of dates or times, and as text
(Table 2.1). When data is numerical we also call it quantitative and when it is categorical
we call it qualitative. Variables holding qualitative data are factors, and the different
categories are called levels. The levels of a factor are most commonly without order (as in
the example of “dog”, “cat”, “fish” in Table 2.1), but factors can also be ordered, when
there is an intrinsic order among the levels of the factor (as in the example of “good”,
“fair”, “poor” in Table 2.1).

2.2 Scales map data values onto aesthetics

To map data values onto aesthetics, we need to specify which data values correspond to
which specific aesthetics values. For example, if our graphic has an x axis, then we need
to specify which data values fall onto particular positions along this axis. Similarly, we
may need to specify which data values are represented by particular shapes or colors.
This mapping between data values and aesthetics values is created via scales. A scale
defines a unique mapping between data and aesthetics (Figure 2.2). Importantly, a scale
must be one-to-one, such that for each specific data value there is exactly one aesthetics
value and vice versa. If a scale isn’t one-to-one, then the data visualization becomes
ambiguous.

Figure 2.2: Scales link data values to aesthetics. Here, the numbers 1 through 4 have
been mapped onto a position scale, a shape scale, and a color scale. For each scale, each
number corresponds to a unique position, shape, or color and vice versa.
Let’s put things into practice. We can take the dataset shown in Table 2.2, map
temperature onto the y axis, day of the year onto the x axis, location onto color, and
visualize these aesthetics with solid lines. The result is a standard line plot showing the
temperature normals at the four locations as they change during the year (Figure 2.3).
Figure 2.3: Daily temperature normals for four selected locations in the U.S. Temperature
is mapped to the y axis, day of the year to the x axis, and location to line color. Data
source: NOAA.
Figure 2.3 is a fairly standard visualization for a temperature curve and likely the
visualization most data scientists would intuitively choose first. However, it is up to us
which variables we map onto which scales. For example, instead of mapping temperature
onto the y axis and location onto color, we can do the opposite. Because now the key
variable of interest (temperature) is shown as color, we need to show sufficiently large
colored areas for the color to convey useful information (Stone, Albers Szafir, and
Setlur 2014). Therefore, for this visualization I have chosen squares instead of lines, one
for each month and location, and I have colored them by the average temperature
normal for each month (Figure 2.4).
2.2 Scales map data values onto aesthetics
To map data values onto aesthetics, we need to specify which data values correspond to
which specific aesthetics values. For example, if our graphic has an x axis, then we need
to specify which data values fall onto particular positions along this axis. Similarly, we
may need to specify which data values are represented by particular shapes or colors.
This mapping between data values and aesthetics values is created via scales. A scale
defines a unique mapping between data and aesthetics (Figure 2.2). Importantly, a scale
must be one-to-one, such that for each specific data value there is exactly one aesthetics
value and vice versa. If a scale isn’t one-to-one, then the data visualization becomes
ambiguous.
Scales link data values to aesthetics.

Here, the numbers 1 through 4 have been mapped onto a position scale, a shape scale,
and a color scale. For each scale, each number corresponds to a unique position, shape,
or color and vice versa.
 Figure 2.2: Scales link data values to aesthetics. Here, the numbers 1 through 4 have
been mapped onto a position scale, a shape scale, and a color scale. For each scale, each
number corresponds to a unique position, shape, or color and vice versa.

Let’s put things into practice. We can take the dataset shown in Table 2.2, map
temperature onto the y axis, day of the year onto the x axis, location onto color, and
visualize these aesthetics with solid lines. The result is a standard line plot showing the
temperature normals at the four locations as they change during the year (Figure 2.3).

Daily temperature normals for four selected locations in the U.S. Temperature is mapped
to the y axis, day of the year to the x axis, and location to line color. Data source: NOAA.
Figure 2.3: Daily temperature normals for four selected locations in the U.S. Temperature
is mapped to the y axis, day of the year to the x axis, and location to line color. Data
source: NOAA.

Figure 2.3 is a fairly standard visualization for a temperature curve and likely the
visualization most data scientists would intuitively choose first. However, it is up to us
which variables we map onto which scales. For example, instead of mapping temperature
onto the y axis and location onto color, we can do the opposite. Because now the key
variable of interest (temperature) is shown as color, we need to show sufficiently large
colored areas for the color to convey useful information (Stone, Albers Szafir, and Setlur
2014). Therefore, for this visualization I have chosen squares instead of lines, one for
each month and location, and I have colored them by the average temperature normal
for each month (Figure 2.4).

Monthly normal mean temperatures for four locations in the U.S. Data source: NOAA
Figure 2.4: Monthly normal mean temperatures for four locations in the U.S. Data source:
NOAA

I would like to emphasize that Figure 2.4 uses two position scales (month along the x axis
and location along the y axis) but neither is a continuous scale. Month is an ordered
factor with 12 levels and location is an unordered factor with four levels. Therefore, the
two position scales are both discrete. For discrete position scales, we generally place the
different levels of the factor at an equal spacing along the axis. If the factor is ordered (as
is here the case for month), then the levels need to placed in the appropriate order. If
the factor is unordered (as is here the case for location), then the order is arbitrary, and
we can choose any order we want. I have ordered the locations from overall coldest
(Chicago) to overall hottest (Death Valley) to generate a pleasant staggering of colors.
However, I could have chosen any other order and the figure would have been equally
valid.

Both Figures 2.3 and 2.4 used three scales in total, two position scales and one color
scale. This is a typical number of scales for a basic visualization, but we can use more
than three scales at once. Figure 2.5 uses five scales, two position scales, one color scale,
one size scale, and one shape scale, and all scales represent a different variable from the
dataset.

Fuel efficiency versus displacement, for 32 cars (1973–74 models). This figure uses five
separate scales to represent data: (i) the x axis (displacement); (ii) the y axis (fuel
efficiency); (iii) the color of the data points (power); (iv) the size of the data points
(weight); and (v) the shape of the data points (number of cylinders). Four of the five
variables displayed (displacement, fuel efficiency, power, and weight) are numerical
continuous. The remaining one (number of cylinders) can be considered to be either
numerical discrete or qualitative ordered. Data source: Motor Trend, 1974.

Figure 2.4: Monthly normal mean temperatures for four locations in the U.S. Data source:
NOAA
I would like to emphasize that Figure 2.4 uses two position scales (month along the x axis
and location along the y axis) but neither is a continuous scale. Month is an ordered
factor with 12 levels and location is an unordered factor with four levels. Therefore, the
two position scales are both discrete. For discrete position scales, we generally place the
different levels of the factor at an equal spacing along the axis. If the factor is ordered (as
is here the case for month), then the levels need to placed in the appropriate order. If
the factor is unordered (as is here the case for location), then the order is arbitrary, and
we can choose any order we want. I have ordered the locations from overall coldest
(Chicago) to overall hottest (Death Valley) to generate a pleasant staggering of colors.
However, I could have chosen any other order and the figure would have been equally
valid.
Both Figures 2.3 and 2.4 used three scales in total, two position scales and one color
scale. This is a typical number of scales for a basic visualization, but we can use more
than three scales at once. Figure 2.5 uses five scales, two position scales, one color scale,
one size scale, and one shape scale, and all scales represent a different variable from the
dataset.
Cartesian coordinates
The most widely used coordinate system for data visualization is the 2d Cartesian
coordinate system, where each location is uniquely specified by an x and a y value.
The x and y axes run orthogonally to each other, and data values are placed in an even
spacing along both axes

Nonlinear axes
In a Cartesian coordinate system, the grid lines along an axis are spaced evenly both in
data units and in the resulting visualization. We refer to the position scales in these
coordinate systems as linear. While linear scales generally provide an accurate
representation of the data, there are scenarios where nonlinear scales are preferred. In
a nonlinear scale, even spacing in data units corresponds to uneven spacing in the
visualization, or conversely even spacing in the visualization corresponds to uneven
spacing in data units.

The most commonly used nonlinear scale is the logarithmic scale or log scale for short.
Log scales are linear in multiplication, such that a unit step on the scale corresponds to
multiplication with a fixed value.

3 Coordinate systems with curved axes

All coordinate systems we have encountered so far used two straight axes positioned at a
right angle to each other, even if the axes themselves established a non-linear mapping
from data values to positions. There are other coordinate systems, however, where the
axes themselves are curved. In particular, in the polar coordinate system, we specify
positions via an angle and a radial distance from the origin, and therefore the angle axis
is circular

Color scales

There are three fundamental use cases for color in data visualizations: (i) we can use
color to distinguish groups of data from each other; (ii) we can use color to represent
data values; and (iii) we can use color to highlight. The types of colors we use and the
way in which we use them are quite different for these three cases.
4.1 Color as a tool to distinguish
We frequently use color as a means to distinguish discrete items or groups that do not
have an intrinsic order, such as different countries on a map or different manufacturers
of a certain product. In this case, we use a qualitative color scale. Such a scale contains a
finite set of specific colors that are chosen to look clearly distinct from each other while
also being equivalent to each other. The second condition requires that no one color
should stand out relative to the others. And, the colors should not create the impression
of an order, as would be the case with a sequence of colors that get successively lighter.
Such colors would create an apparent order among the items being colored, which by
definition have no order.

2 Color to represent data values

Color can also be used to represent data values, such as income, temperature, or speed.
In this case, we use a sequential color scale. Such a scale contains a sequence of colors
that clearly indicate (i) which values are larger or smaller than which other ones and (ii)
how distant two specific values are from each other. The second point implies that the
color scale needs to be perceived to vary uniformly across its entire range.
Sequential scales can be based on a single hue
3 Color as a tool to highlight
Color can also be an effective tool to highlight specific elements in the data. There may
be specific categories or values in the dataset that carry key information about the story
we want to tell, and we can strengthen the story by emphasizing the relevant figure
elements to the reader. An easy way to achieve this emphasis is to color these figure
elements in a color or set of colors that vividly stand out against the rest of the figure.
This effect can be achieved with accent color scales, which are color scales that contain
both a set of subdued colors and a matching set of stronger, darker, and/or more
saturated colors

What is data storytelling?

Data storytelling is the process of translating data analyses into understandable terms in
order to influence a business decision or action. Data analysis focuses on creating valuable
insights from data to give further context and understanding to an intended audience.

With the rise of digital business and data-driven decision-management, data storytelling
has become a skill often associated with data science and business analytics. The idea is to
connect the dots between sophisticated data analyses and decision-makers who might not
have the skills to interpret the data.

Data storytelling can also be used to convey interesting usage metrics for customers.
 The three components of data storytelling
Data storytelling comprises data, narrative and visualizations.

1. The data serves as the base of a data story. It's information from accurate data
gathering and analysis. Data can be gathered from such places as charts and dashboards
using data analysis tools.
2. The narrative is a verbal or written storyline that's used to effectively communicate
insights from the data. The narrative should be within the context of the data and aim to
show a clear reasoning for following actions or decisions. Narratives should be based on
data and present a clear explanation of what the data means and its importance.
3. Visualizations act as further representations of both the data and narrative and are used
to communicate the story more clearly. Visualizations include graphs, charts, diagrams
and photos.
Infectiveness of Graphical representation of data/What are the disadvantages of graphical
method?
Disadvantages of Graphical Methods of Estimation
 they are biased,
even with large samples, they are not minimum variance (i.e., most precise) estimates,
graphical methods do not give confidence intervals for the parameters (intervals generated
by a regression program for this kind of data are incorrect)

What is an explanatory data analysis?

What Is Explanatory Analysis? Explanatory analysis is the step beyond exploratory. Instead
of explaining what happened, you're more focused on how and why it happened and what
should happen next and, in most cases, communicating that to the necessary decision-
makers and stakeholders.
An explanatory analysis of your Google Analytics data, for example, might include a closer
look at why your top-performing pages attract so much traffic and recommendations for
how they could be used to increase goal completions.
Explanatory data analytics focuses on all the parts of context, mainly the why and how. An
outcome can be statistically calculated, modeled, or visualized to tell you the likelihood of
certain events based on preconceived variables.
Explanatory research generally focuses on the “who”, “what”,”how”.questions. For
example, a business might ask why customers aren't buying their product or how they can
improve their sales process
.