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Definition
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pH

o
p[H]

o
pOH


Measurement
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pH Indicators

o
Non-aqueous solutions

o
Unified absolute pH scale

o
Extremes of pH measurements


Applications
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o
pH in soil

o
pH in plants

o
pH in the ocean


Three pH scales in oceanography

o
pH of various body fluids


pH calculations
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Strong acids and bases

o
Weak acids and bases

o
General method


See also

References


External links

pH
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see PH (disambiguation).
"Negative pH" redirects here. For the band, see Negative pH (band).
Test tubes containing solutions of pH 1–10 colored
with an indicator

Acids and bases

 Acceptor number
 Acid
 Acid–base reaction
 Acid–base homeostasis
 Acid strength
 Acidity function
 Amphoterism
 Base
 Buffer solutions
 Dissociation constant
 Donor number
 Equilibrium chemistry
 Extraction
 Hammett acidity function
 pH
 Proton affinity
 Self-ionization of water
 Titration
 Lewis acid catalysis
 Frustrated Lewis pair
 Chiral Lewis acid

Acid types
 Brønsted–Lowry
 Lewis
 Mineral
 Organic
 Oxide
 Strong
 Superacids
 Weak
 Solid

Base types

 Brønsted–Lowry
 Lewis
 Organic
 Oxide
 Strong
 Superbases
 Non-nucleophilic
 Weak

 v
 t
 e

In chemistry, pH (/piːˈeɪtʃ/ pee-AYCH), also referred to as acidity or basicity, historically


denotes "potential of hydrogen" (or "power of hydrogen").[1] It is a logarithmic scale used
to specify the acidity or basicity of aqueous solutions. Acidic solutions (solutions with
higher concentrations of hydrogen (H+) ions) are measured to have lower pH values
than basic or alkaline solutions.
The pH scale is logarithmic and inversely indicates the activity of hydrogen ions in the
solution
where [H+] is the equilibrium molar concentration (mol/L) of H+ in the solution. At
25 °C (77°F), solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic, and solutions with a pH
greater than 7 are basic. Solutions with a pH of 7 at 25 °C are neutral (i.e. have the
same concentration of H+ ions as OH− ions, i.e. the same as pure water). The neutral
value of the pH depends on the temperature and is lower than 7 if the temperature
increases above 25 °C. The pH range is commonly given as zero to 14, but a pH
value can be less than 0 for very concentrated strong acids or greater than 14 for
very concentrated strong bases.[2]
The pH scale is traceable to a set of standard solutions whose pH is established by
international agreement.[3] Primary pH standard values are determined using
a concentration cell with transference by measuring the potential difference between
a hydrogen electrode and a standard electrode such as the silver chloride electrode.
The pH of aqueous solutions can be measured with a glass electrode and a pH
meter or a color-changing indicator. Measurements of pH are important
in chemistry, agronomy, medicine, water treatment, and many other applications.
History[edit]
In 1909, the Danish chemist Søren Peter Lauritz Sørensen introduced the concept
of pH at the Carlsberg Laboratory,[4] originally using the notation "pH•", with H• as a
subscript to the lowercase p. The concept was later revised in 1924 to the modern
pH to accommodate definitions and measurements in terms of electrochemical cells.
For the sign p, I propose the name 'hydrogen ion exponent' and the symbol pH•.
Then, for the hydrogen ion exponent (pH•) of a solution, the negative value of
the Briggsian logarithm of the related hydrogen ion normality factor is to be
understood.[4]
Sørensen did not explain why he used the letter p, and the exact meaning of the
letter is still disputed.[5] Sørensen described a way of measuring pH
using potential differences, and it represents the negative power of 10 in the
concentration of hydrogen ions. The letter p could stand for the
French puissance, German Potenz, or Danish potens, all meaning "power", or it
could mean "potential". All of these words start with the letter p in French, German,
and Danish, which were the languages in which Sørensen published: Carlsberg
Laboratory was French-speaking; German was the dominant language of scientific
publishing; Sørensen was Danish. He also used the letter q in much the same way
elsewhere in the paper, and he might have arbitrarily labelled the test solution "p"
and the reference solution "q"; these letters are often paired.[6] Some literature
sources suggest that "pH" stands for the Latin term pondus hydrogenii (quantity of
hydrogen) or potentia hydrogenii (power of hydrogen), although this is not supported
by Sørensen's writings.[7][8][9]
In modern chemistry, the p stands for "the negative decimal logarithm of", and is
used in the term pKa for acid dissociation constants,[10] so pH is "the negative decimal
logarithm of H+ ion concentration", while pOH is "the negative decimal logarithm of
OH- ion concentration".
Bacteriologist Alice Catherine Evans, who influenced dairying and food safety,
credited William Mansfield Clark and colleagues, including herself, with developing
pH measuring methods in the 1910s, which had a wide influence on laboratory and
industrial use thereafter. In her memoir, she does not mention how much, or how
little, Clark and colleagues knew about Sørensen's work a few years prior.[11] She
said:
In these studies [of bacterial metabolism] Dr. Clark's attention was directed to the
effect of acid on the growth of bacteria. He found that it is the intensity of the acid in
terms of hydrogen-ion concentration that affects their growth. But existing methods
of measuring acidity determined the quantity, not the intensity, of the acid. Next, with
his collaborators, Dr. Clark developed accurate methods for measuring hydrogen-
ion concentration. These methods replaced the inaccurate titration method of
determining the acid content in use in biologic laboratories throughout the world.
Also they were found to be applicable in many industrial and other processes in
which they came into wide usage.[11]
The first electronic method for measuring pH was invented by Arnold Orville
Beckman, a professor at the California Institute of Technology in 1934.[12] It was in
response to a request from the local citrus grower Sunkist, which wanted a better
method for quickly testing the pH of lemons they were picking from their nearby
orchards.[13]
Definition[edit]
pH[edit]
The pH of a solution is defined as the decimal logarithm of the reciprocal of
the hydrogen ion activity, aH+.[14] Mathematically, pH is expressed as:
For example, for a solution with a hydrogen ion activity of 5×10−6 (i.e., the
concentration of hydrogen ions in moles per litre), the pH of the solution can be
calculated as follows:
The concept of pH was developed because ion-selective electrodes, which
are used to measure pH, respond to activity. The electrode potential, E,
follows the Nernst equation for the hydrogen ion, which can be expressed as:
where E is a measured potential, E0 is the standard electrode
potential, R is the gas constant, T is the temperature in Kelvin, F is
the Faraday constant. For H+, the number of electrons transferred is one.
The electrode potential is proportional to pH when pH is defined in terms
of activity.
The precise measurement of pH is presented in International
Standard ISO 31-8 as follows:[15] A galvanic cell is set up to measure
the electromotive force (e.m.f.) between a reference electrode and an
electrode sensitive to the hydrogen ion activity when they are both
immersed in the same aqueous solution. The reference electrode may be
a silver chloride electrode or a calomel electrode, and the hydrogen-ion
selective electrode is a standard hydrogen electrode.
Reference electrode | concentrated solution of KCl || test solution | H 2 | Pt
Firstly, the cell is filled with a solution of known hydrogen ion activity
and the electromotive force, ES, is measured. Then the electromotive
force, EX, of the same cell containing the solution of unknown pH is
measured.
The difference between the two measured electromotive force
values is proportional to pH. This method of calibration avoids the
need to know the standard electrode potential. The proportionality
constant, 1/z, is ideally equal to , the "Nernstian slope".
In practice, a glass electrode is used instead of the cumbersome
hydrogen electrode. A combined glass electrode has an in-built
reference electrode. It is calibrated against Buffer solutions of
known hydrogen ion (H+) activity proposed by the International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC).[16] Two or more
buffer solutions are used in order to accommodate the fact that
the "slope" may differ slightly from ideal. To calibrate the
electrode, it is first immersed in a standard solution, and the
reading on a pH meter is adjusted to be equal to the standard
buffer's value. The reading from a second standard buffer solution
is then adjusted using the "slope" control to be equal to the pH for
that solution. Further details, are given in
the IUPAC recommendations.[14] When more than two buffer
solutions are used the electrode is calibrated by fitting observed
pH values to a straight line with respect to standard buffer values.
Commercial standard buffer solutions usually come with
information on the value at 25 °C and a correction factor to be
applied for other temperatures.
The pH scale is logarithmic and therefore pH is a dimensionless
quantity.[17]
p[H][edit]
This was the original definition of Sørensen in 1909,[18] which was
superseded in favor of pH in 1924. [H] is the concentration of
hydrogen ions, denoted [H+] in modern chemistry. More correctly,
the thermodynamic activity of H+ in dilute solution should be
replaced by [H+]/c0, where the standard state concentration c0 =
1 mol/L. This ratio is a pure number whose logarithm can be
defined.
It is possible to measure the concentration of hydrogen ions
directly using an electrode calibrated in terms of hydrogen ion
concentrations. One common method is to titrate a solution of
known concentration of a strong acid with a solution of known
concentration of strong base in the presence of a relatively high
concentration of background electrolyte. By knowing the
concentrations of the acid and base, the concentration of
hydrogen ions can be calculated and the measured potential can
be correlated with concentrations. The calibration is usually
carried out using a Gran plot.[19] This procedure makes the activity
of hydrogen ions equal to the numerical value of concentration.
The glass electrode (and other Ion selective electrodes) should be
calibrated in a medium similar to the one being investigated. For
instance, if one wishes to measure the pH of a seawater sample,
the electrode should be calibrated in a solution resembling
seawater in its chemical composition.
The difference between p[H] and pH is quite small, and it has
been stated that pH = p[H] + 0.04.[20] However, it is common
practice to use the term "pH" for both types of measurement.
pOH[edit]

Relation between pH and pOH.


Red represents the acidic region. Blue represents the basic
region.
pOH is sometimes used as a measure of the concentration of
hydroxide ions, OH−. pOH values are derived from pH
measurements. The concentration of hydroxide ions in water is
related to the concentration of hydrogen ions by
where KW is the self-ionization constant of water.
Taking Logarithms,
So, at room temperature, pOH ≈ 14 − pH. However this
relationship is not strictly valid in other circumstances, such
as in measurements of soil alkalinity.
Measurement[edit]
pH Indicators[edit]
Average pH of common solutions

Substance pH range Type

Battery acid <1

Gastric acid 1.0 – 1.5

Orange juice 3.3 – 4.2


Acid
Vinegar 4-5

Black coffee 5 – 5.03

Milk 6.5 – 6.8

Pure water at
7 Neutral
25 °C

Sea water 7.5 – 8.4 Base

Ammonia 11.0 – 11.5

Bleach 12.5

1 M NaOH 14
Main article: pH indicator
pH can be measured using indicators, which change color
depending on the pH of the solution they are in. By
comparing the color of a test solution to a standard color
chart, the pH can be estimated to the nearest whole
number. For more precise measurements, the color can be
measured using a colorimeter or spectrophotometer.
A Universal indicator is a mixture of several indicators that
can provide a continuous color change over a range of pH
values, typically from about pH 2 to pH 10. Universal
indicator paper is made from absorbent paper that has
been impregnated with universal indicator. An alternative
method of measuring pH is using an electronic pH meter,
which directly measures the voltage difference between a
pH-sensitive electrode and a reference electrode.
Non-aqueous solutions[edit]
pH values can be measured in non-aqueous solutions, but
they are based on a different scale from aqueous pH
values, because the standard states used for calculating
hydrogen ion concentrations (activities) are different. The
hydrogen ion activity, aH , is defined[21][22] as:
+

where μH is the chemical potential of the hydrogen


+

ion, is its chemical potential in the chosen standard


state, R is the gas constant and T is
the thermodynamic temperature. Therefore, pH values
on the different scales cannot be compared directly
because of differences in the solvated proton ions,
such as lyonium ions, which require an intersolvent
scale which involves the transfer activity coefficient
of hydronium/lyonium ion.
pH is an example of an acidity function, but there are
others that can be defined. For example, the Hammett
acidity function, H0, has been developed in connection
with Superacids.
Unified absolute pH scale[edit]
In 2010, a new approach to measuring pH was
proposed, called the "unified absolute pH scale". This
approach allows for a common reference standard to
be used across different solutions, regardless of their
pH range. The unified absolute pH scale is based on
the absolute chemical potential of the proton, as
defined by the Lewis acid–base theory. This scale is
applicable to liquids, gases, and even solids.[23] The
advantages of the unified absolute pH scale include
consistency, accuracy, and applicability to a wide range
of sample types. It is precise and versatile because it
serves as a common reference standard for pH
measurements. However, implementation efforts,
compatibility with existing data, complexity, and
potential costs are some challenges.
Extremes of pH measurements[edit]
The measurement of pH can become difficult at
extremely acidic or alkaline conditions, such as below
pH 2.5 (ca. 0.003 mol/dm3 acid) or above pH 10.5
(above ca. 0.0003 mol/dm3 alkaline). This is due to the
breakdown of the Nernst equation in such conditions
when using a glass electrode. There are several factors
that contribute to this problem. Firstly, liquid junction
potentials may not be independent of pH.[24] Secondly,
the high ionic strength of concentrated solutions can
affect the electrode potentials. At high pH the glass
electrode may be affected by "alkaline error", because
the electrode becomes sensitive to the concentration of
cations such as Na+ and K+ in the solution.[25] To
overcome these problems, specially constructed
electrodes are available.
Runoff from mines or mine tailings can produce some
extremely low pH values.[26]
Applications[edit]
Pure water has a pH of 7 at 25°C, meaning it is neutral.
When an acid is dissolved in water, the pH will be less
than 7, while a base, or alkali, will have a pH greater
than 7. A strong acid, such as hydrochloric acid, at
concentration 1 mol dm−3 has a pH of 0, while a strong
alkali like sodium hydroxide, at the same concentration,
has a pH of 14. Since pH is a logarithmic scale, a
difference of one in pH is equivalent to a tenfold
difference in hydrogen ion concentration.
Neutrality is not exactly 7 at 25°C, but 7 serves as a
good approximation in most cases. Neutrality occurs
when the concentration of hydrogen ions ([H+]) equals
the concentration of hydroxide ions ([OH−]), or when
their activities are equal. Since self-ionization of
water holds the product of these concentration [H+] ×
[OH−] = Kw, it can be seen that at neutrality [H+] = [OH−]
= √Kw , or pH = pKw/2. pKw is approximately 14 but
depends on ionic strength and temperature, and so the
pH of neutrality does also. Pure water and a solution
of NaCl in pure water are both neutral,
since dissociation of water produces equal numbers of
both ions. However the pH of the neutral NaCl solution
will be slightly different from that of neutral pure water
because the hydrogen and hydroxide ions' activity is
dependent on ionic strength, so Kw varies with ionic
strength.
When pure water is exposed to air, it becomes mildly
acidic. This is because water absorbs carbon
dioxide from the air, which is then slowly converted
into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions (essentially
creating carbonic acid).
CO
2+ H

2O ⇌ HCO

3+ H
+

pH in soil[edit]
See also: Soil pH

Nutritional elements
availability within soil varies with pH. Light blue
color represents the ideal range for most plants.
The United States Department of
Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation
Service, formerly Soil Conservation Service
classifies soil pH ranges as follows:[27]

Denomination pH range

Ultra acidic < 3.5


Extremely acidic 3.5–4.4

Very strongly acidic 4.5–5.0

Strongly acidic 5.1–5.5

Moderately acidic 5.6–6.0

Slightly acidic 6.1–6.5

Neutral 6.6–7.3

Slightly alkaline 7.4–7.8

Moderately alkaline 7.9–8.4

Strongly alkaline 8.5–9.0

Very strongly
9.0–10.5
alkaline

Hyper alkaline > 10.5

In Europe, topsoil pH is influenced by soil parent


material, erosional effects, climate and vegetation.
A recent map[28] of topsoil pH in Europe shows the
alkaline soils in Mediterranean, Hungary, East
Romania, North France. Scandinavian countries,
Portugal, Poland and North Germany have more
acid soils.
pH in plants[edit]
Lemon juice tastes
sour because it contains 5% to 6% citric acid and
has a pH of 2.2 (high acidity).
Plants contain pH-dependent pigments that can be
used as pH indicators, such as those found
in hibiscus, red cabbage (anthocyanin), and grapes
(red wine). Citrus fruits have acidic juice primarily
due to the presence of citric acid, while
other carboxylic acids can be found in various living
systems. The protonation state
of phosphate derivatives, including ATP, is pH-
dependent. Hemoglobin, an oxygen-transport
enzyme, is also affected by pH in a phenomenon
known as the Root effect.
pH in the ocean[edit]
See also: Seawater § pH value, Ocean § pH and
alkalinity, and Ocean acidification
The pH of seawater plays an important role in the
ocean's carbon cycle. There is evidence of
ongoing ocean acidification (meaning a drop in pH
value): Between 1950 and 2020, the average pH of
the ocean surface fell from approximately 8.15 to
8.05.[29] Carbon dioxide emissions from human
activities are the primary cause of ocean
acidification, with atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2)
levels exceeding 410 ppm (in 2020). CO2 from
the atmosphere is absorbed by the oceans. This
produces carbonic acid (H2CO3) which dissociates
into a bicarbonate ion (HCO−
3) and a hydrogen ion (H ). The presence of free
+

hydrogen ions (H ) lowers the pH of the ocean.


+

Three pH scales in oceanography[edit]


The measurement of pH in seawater is complicated
by the chemical properties of seawater, and three
distinct pH scales exist in chemical oceanography.
[30]
In practical terms, the three seawater pH scales
differ in their pH values up to 0.10, differences that
are much larger than the accuracy of pH
measurements typically required, in particular, in
relation to the ocean's carbonate system.[30] Since it
omits consideration of sulfate and fluoride ions,
the free scale is significantly different from both the
total and seawater scales. Because of the relative
unimportance of the fluoride ion, the total and
seawater scales differ only very slightly.
As part of its operational definition of the pH scale,
the IUPAC defines a series of Buffer
solutions across a range of pH values (often
denoted with National Bureau of Standards (NBS)
or National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST) designation). These solutions
have a relatively low ionic strength (≈0.1) compared
to that of seawater (≈0.7), and, as a consequence,
are not recommended for use in characterizing the
pH of seawater, since the ionic strength differences
cause changes in electrode potential. To resolve
this problem, an alternative series of buffers based
on artificial seawater was developed.[31] This new
series resolves the problem of ionic strength
differences between samples and the buffers, and
the new pH scale is referred to as the total scale,
often denoted as pHT. The total scale was defined
using a medium containing sulfate ions. These ions
experience protonation, H+ + SO2−
4↔ HSO

4, such that the total scale includes the effect of

both protons (free hydrogen ions) and hydrogen


sulfate ions:
[H+]T = [H+]F + [HSO−
4]

An alternative scale, the free scale, often


denoted pHF, omits this consideration and
focuses solely on [H+]F, in principle making it a
simpler representation of hydrogen ion
concentration. Only [H+]T can be determined,
[32]
therefore [H+]F must be estimated using the
[SO2−
4] and the stability constant of HSO

4, K
*

S:

[H+]F = [H+]T − [HSO−


4] = [H ]T ( 1 + [SO
+ 2−
4] / K*
S )
−1

However, it is difficult to estimate K*


S in seawater, limiting the utility of the

otherwise more straightforward free scale.


Another scale, known as the seawater scale,
often denoted pHSWS, takes account of a
further protonation relationship between
hydrogen ions and fluoride ions, H+ + F− ⇌
HF. Resulting in the following expression for
[H+]SWS:
[H+]SWS = [H+]F + [HSO−
4] + [HF]

However, the advantage of considering


this additional complexity is dependent
upon the abundance of fluoride in the
medium. In seawater, for instance,
sulfate ions occur at much greater
concentrations (>400 times) than those
of fluoride. As a consequence, for most
practical purposes, the difference
between the total and seawater scales is
very small.
The following three equations
summarize the three scales of pH:
pHF = −log [H+]F
pHT = −log([H+]F + [HSO−
4]) = −log[H ]T
+

pHSWS = −log(H+]F + [HSO−


4] + [HF]) = −log[v] SWS

pH of various body
fluids[edit]

pH of various body fluids[33]

Compartment pH

Gastric acid 1.5–3.5[34]

Lysosomes 4.5[33]
Human skin 4.7[35]

Granules of chromaffin
5.5
cells

Urine 6.0

Cytosol 7.2

Blood (natural pH) 7.34–7.45[33]

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) 7.5

Mitochondrial matrix 7.5

Pancreas secretions 8.1

In living organisms, the pH


of various Body fluids,
cellular compartments,
and organs is tightly
regulated to maintain a
state of acid-base balance
known as acid–base
homeostasis. Acidosis,
defined by blood pH below
7.35, is the most common
disorder of acid–base
homeostasis and occurs
when there is an excess
of acid in the body. In
contrast, alkalosis is
characterized by
excessively high blood
pH.
Blood pH is usually
slightly basic, with a pH of
7.365, referred to as
physiological pH in biology
and
medicine. Plaque formatio
n in teeth can create a
local acidic environment
that results in tooth
decay through
demineralization. Enzyme
s and other Proteins have
an optimal pH range for
function and can become
inactivated
or denatured outside this
range.
pH
calculations[edit]
When calculating the pH
of a solution containing
acids and/or bases,
a chemical speciation
calculation is used to
determine the
concentration of all
chemical species present
in the solution. The
complexity of the
procedure depends on the
nature of the solution.
Strong acids and bases
are compounds that are
almost completely
dissociated in water,
which simplifies the
calculation. However, for
weak acids, a quadratic
equation must be solved,
and for weak bases, a
cubic equation is required.
In general, a set of non-
linear simultaneous
equations must be solved.
Water itself is a weak acid
and a weak base, so its
dissociation must be taken
into account at high pH
and low solute
concentration
(see amphoterism).
It dissociates according to
the equilibrium
2 H2O ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + OH− (aq)
with a dissociation
constant, Kw defined
as
where [H+] stands
for the
concentration of
the
aqueous hydroniu
m ion and [OH−]
represents the
concentration of
the hydroxide ion.
This equilibrium
needs to be taken
into account at
high pH and when
the solute
concentration is
extremely low.
Strong acids
and bases[edit]
Strong
acids and bases ar
e compounds that
are essentially fully
dissociated in
water. This means
that in an acidic
solution, the
concentration of
hydrogen ions (H+)
can be considered
equal to the
concentration of
the acid. Similarly,
in a basic solution,
the concentration
of hydroxide ions
(OH-) can be
considered equal
to the
concentration of
the base. The pH
of a solution is
defined as the
negative logarithm
of the
concentration of
H+, and the pOH is
defined as the
negative logarithm
of the
concentration of
OH-. For example,
the pH of a 0.01M
solution of
hydrochloric acid
(HCl) is equal to 2
(pH =
−log10(0.01)),
while the pOH of a
0.01M solution of
sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) is equal to
2 (pOH =
−log10(0.01)),
which corresponds
to a pH of about
12.
However, self-
ionization of water
must also be
considered when
concentrations of a
strong acid or base
is very low or high.
For instance, a
5×10−8M solution of
HCl would be
expected to have a
pH of 7.3 based on
the above
procedure, which
is incorrect as it is
acidic and should
have a pH of less
than 7. In such
cases, the system
can be treated as a
mixture of the acid
or base and water,
which is
an amphoteric sub
stance. By
accounting for the
self-ionization of
water, the true pH
of the solution can
be calculated. For
example, a
5×10−8M solution of
HCl would have a
pH of 6.89 when
treated as a
mixture of HCl and
water. The self-
ionization
equilibrium of
solutions of sodium
hydroxide at higher
concentrations
must also be
considered.[36]
Weak acids
and bases[edit]
A weak acid or the
conjugate acid of a
weak base can be
treated using the
same formalism.

 Acid
HA: HA
⇌ H+ +
A−
 Base
A: HA+ ⇌
H+ + A
First, an acid
dissociation
constant is defined
as follows.
Electrical charges
are omitted from
subsequent
equations for the
sake of generality
and its value is
assumed to
have been
determined by
experiment.
This being so,
there are three
unknown
concentrations,
[HA], [H+] and
[A−] to
determine by
calculation.
Two additional
equations are
needed. One
way to provide
them is to
apply the law
of mass
conservation in
terms of the
two "reagents"
H and A.
C
stands
for anal
ytical
concent
ration.
In some
texts,
one
mass
balance
equatio
n is
replace
d by an
equatio
n of
charge
balance.
This is
satisfact
ory for
simple
cases
like this
one, but
is more
difficult
to apply
to more
complic
ated
cases
as those
below.
Togethe
r with
the
equatio
n
defining
Ka, there
are now
three
equatio
ns in
three
unknow
ns.
When
an acid
is
dissolve
d in
water
CA =
CH = Ca,
the
concent
ration of
the acid,
so [A] =
[H].
After
some
further
algebrai
c
manipul
ation an
equatio
n in the
hydroge
n ion
concent
ration
may be
obtaine
d.
Solu
tion
of
this
qua
drati
c
equ
ation
give
s the
hydr
oge
n ion
conc
entr
ation
and
henc
e
p[H]
or,
mor
e
loos
ely,
pH.
This
proc
edur
e is
illust
rate
d in
an I
CE
table
whic
h
can
also
be
used
to
calc
ulate
the
pH
whe
n
som
e
addit
ional
(stro
ng)
acid
or
alkal
ine
has
bee
n
add
ed
to
the
syst
em,
that
is,
whe
n
CA ≠
CH.
For
exa
mple
,
what
is
the
pH
of a
0.01
M
solut
ion
of b
enzo
ic
acid,
pKa
=
4.19
?
 St
e
p
1:

 St
e
p
2:
S
et
u
p
th
e
q
u
a
dr
ati
c
e
q
u
ati
o
n.

 St
e
p
3:
S
ol
ve
th
e
q
u
a
dr
ati
c
e
q
u
ati
o
n.

For
alkal
ine
solut
ions,
an
addit
ional
term
is
add
ed
to
the
mas
s-
bala
nce
equ
ation
for
hydr
oge
n.
Sinc
e
the
addit
ion
of
hydr
oxid
e
redu
ces
the
hydr
oge
n ion
conc
entr
ation
,
and
the
hydr
oxid
e ion
conc
entr
ation
is
cons
train
ed
by
the
self-
ioniz
ation
equil
ibriu
m to
be
equ
al
to ,
the
resul
ting
equ
ation
is:
G
e
n
e
r
a
l
m
e
t
h
o
d
[
e
d
it
]
S
o
m
e
s
y
s
t
e
m
s
,
s
u
c
h
a
s
w
it
h
p
o
l
y
p
r
o
ti
c
a
c
i
d
s
,
a
r
e
a
m
e
n
a
b
l
e
t
o
s
p
r
e
a
d
s
h
e
e
t
c
a
l
c
u
l
a
ti
o
n
s
.
[37

W
it
h
t
h
r
e
e
o
r
m
o
r
e
r
e
a
g
e
n
t
s
o
r
w
h
e
n
m
a
n
y
c
o
m
p
l
e
x
e
s
a
r
e
f
o
r
m
e
d
w
it
h
g
e
n
e
r
a
l
f
o
r
m
u
l
a
e
s
u
c
h
a
s
A
p

B
q

H
r,

t
h
e
f
o
ll
o
w
i
n
g
g
e
n
e
r
a
l
m
e
t
h
o
d
c
a
n
b
e
u
s
e
d
t
o
c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
t
h
e
p
H

o
f
a
s
o
l
u
ti
o
n
.
F
o
r
e
x
a
m
p
l
e
,
w
it
h
t
h
r
e
e
r
e
a
g
e
n
t
s
,
e
a
c
h
e
q
u
il
i
b
ri
u
m

i
s
c
h
a
r
a
c
t
e
ri
z
e
d
b
y
a
n
e
q
u
il
i
b
ri
u
m

c
o
n
s
t
a
n
t,
β
.
N
ex
t,
wr
ite
do
w
n
th
e
m
as
s-
ba
la
nc
e
eq
ua
tio
ns
for
ea
ch
re
ag
en
t:
Note
that
there
are
no
appro
ximati
ons
involv
ed in
these
equati
ons,
excep
t that
each
stabili
ty
const
ant is
define
d as a
quotie
nt of
conce
ntratio
ns,
not
activiti
es.
Much
more
compl
icated
expre
ssion
s are
requir
ed if
activiti
es are
to be
used.
There
are
three
simult
aneou
s
equati
ons in
the
three
unkno
wns,
[A],
[B]
and
[H].
Beca
use
the
equati
ons
are
non-
linear
and
their
conce
ntratio
ns
may
range
over
many
power
s of
10,
the
soluti
on of
these
equati
ons is
not
straig
htforw
ard.
Howe
ver,
many
comp
uter
progr
ams
are
availa
ble
which
can
be
used
to
perfor
m
these
calcul
ations
.
There
may
be
more
than
three
reage
nts.
The
calcul
ation
of
hydro
gen
ion
conce
ntratio
ns,
using
this
appro
ach,
is a
key
eleme
nt in
the de
termin
ation
of
equili
brium
const
ants b
y pote
ntiom
etric
titratio
n.
See
also
[edit]

 pH
indicator
 Arterial
blood gas
 Chemical
equilibriu
m
 pCO2
 p Ka
Ref
ere
nce
s[edit
]

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Ext
ern
al
link
s[edit
]

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Scholia ha
s a profile
for pH (Q40
936).

Wikidata h
as the
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 pH value
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hide
v

e
Wastewater

ces and  Acid mine drainage

types  Ballast water

 Bathroom

 Blackwater (coal)

 Blackwater (waste)

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 Injection well

 Irrigation

 Marine dumping

 Marine outfall

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