Journal of Oil Palm, Environment & Health

An official publication of the Malaysian Palm Oil Council (MPOC)

REVIEW Open Access

Journal of Oil Palm, Environment & Health 2021, 12:86-95 doi:10.5366/jope.2021.06

PRINCIPAL FORMATION AND MITIGATION STRATEGIES

FOR 3-MCPDE IN PALM OIL PROCESSING
Chien Lye Chew*, Norliza Saparin
Abstract frying and cooking, whereas palm stearin is
Palm oil is the most produced and consumed used for shortening and margarine
vegetable oil worldwide. Recently, the palm oil productions3,5. Due to the extensive food
industry has received attention from food applications, food safety and security of palm
safety authorities due to the presence of 3- oil are vital to the industry.
monochloro-1, 2-propanediol esters (3-
MCPDE) in the refined oil. The European Food
Safety Authority (EFSA) proposed to limit the Keywords
presence of 3-MCPDE by 2.5 ppm in palm oil palm oil, 3-MCPDE, chlorine, diacylglycerol,
from year 2021 onwards. Various studies food safety
showed that the 3-MCPDE is a process JOPEH 2021, 12:86-95
contaminant induced by heat during the
refining stage, in the presence of its
precursors, such as diacylglycerol (DAG) and Email: Chien Lye Chew
(chew.chienlye.mervin@simedarbyplantation.com)
chlorine in palm oil. Research works have
been conducted to mitigate 3-MCPDE Address: Sime Darby Plantation Research (formally known
formation. This paper provides an overview of as Sime Darby Research), R&D Centre – Carey Island, Lot
the 3-MCPDE formation, mitigation initiatives 2664 Jalan Pulau Carey, 42960 Pulau Carey, Selangor,
Malaysia.
and industrial practices in addressing the 3- Tel: +60 3 3326 6783
MCPDE issue. Fax: +60 3 3326 6836

1. Introduction *Corresponding Author

The global production of edible oil reached 209 Published: 30 April 2021
Received: 8 September 2020
million tonnes in 2020 with the production of
Accepted: 19 April 2021
approximately 75 million tonnes of palm oil 1.
Palm oil is the most consumed vegetable oil; © 2021 Chien Lye Chew
its production volume is expected to rise owing This is an Open Access article which permits unrestricted
use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided
to population growth and expanding economy
the original work is properly cited
of the developing countries. Palm oil is mainly
used for food, while a small fraction as biofuel
and oleochemicals. The oil palm (Elaeis
guineensis) fruits are harvested, and the oil
extracted from its mesocarp is known as crude
palm oil (CPO)2. The CPO can then be refined
for food applications. The refined palm oil can
be fractionated into two main fractions known
as palm olein and palm stearin. Their
application in food production differs due to the
differences in physical and chemical
properties3,4. Palm olein is mainly used for

86
 Table 1: General composition of CPO

Composition Value

Triacyclglycerol (TAG) 88 – 95 %

Diacyclglycerol (DAG) 3–7%

Monoacyclglycerol (MAG) <1%

Free fatty acid (FFA) 1–5%

Moisture 0.1 – 0.2%

Solid Impurities 0.01 – 0.03%

Tocopherols and tocotrienols 500 – 1100 ppm

Carotenoids 400 – 800 ppm

Phytosterols 300 – 600 ppm

Squalene 200 – 500 ppm

Phospholipids 3 – 140 ppm

Metals (Copper and Iron) 1 – 10 ppm

Lipid oxidation products Traces

Table 2: Quality requirement for crude palm oil in PORAM specification 7,8

Characteristics Value

Free fatty acid (as palmitic), % max 5.0

Moisture and impurities, % max 0.25

Degree of Bleachability Index, min 2.3

*Chlorine, ppm max 2.0

*Additional quality requirement for CPO by January 2020

In terms of composition, CPO is mainly made Table 1). As palm oil is mostly used for food
up of triacylglycerol (TAG), diacylglycerol applications, the quality of CPO produced must
(DAG), monoacylglycerol (MAG), free fatty meet a few quality parameters. PORAM
acids (FFA), and other minor compounds (see specification is the most used quality standard
for palm oil trading between millers and
87
refiners in Malaysia (see Table 2). In short, 2. Formation and factors affecting chlorine
PORAM specifications cover three main quality precursors for 3-MCPDE in palm oils
parameters of the CPO6,7 : The formation of 3-MCPDE in edible oils
(including palm oils) occurs during the
i. hydrolytic stability (through the level of deodorisation process. This is mainly due to
FFA content) the high-temperature treatment of oils in the
ii. contaminant content (through the presence of chlorine19,20. Destaillats et al.13
amount of moisture and solid demonstrated that thermally treated (235 °C)
impurities) triolein oils model showed increased formation
iii. oxidative stability (through the of 3-MCPDE with the addition of chlorine (such
deterioration of bleachability index as organochlorine pesticide and FeCl2).
(DOBI)) Mechanism of 3-MCPDE formation supported
the involvement of oils as TAG, DAG and MAG
Lately, the quality of the produced palm oil has with chlorine through SN2 nucleophilic
received attention from the food safety substitution and free radical reaction12,21.
authorities due to the presence of process Various studies have shown that higher DAG
contaminant such as 3-monochloro-1, 2- and MAG in model oil increased formation
propanediol esters (3-MCPDE) in the edible after thermal treatment simulating
oil. In 2016, the European Food Safety deodorisation condition22,23. Model oil studies
Authority (EFSA) issued an extensive report conducted with only TAG or without partial
about the health consequences of this process acylglycerol also showed the formation of 3-
contaminant, which is a potential human MCPDE. This supports the involvement of
carcinogen9,10. Studies found that refined palm TAG as acylglycerol precursor for 3-MCPDE
oil contains the highest amount of 3- formation along with DAG and MAG13,24.
MCPDE11,12,13. EFSA proposed to set a However, it has been reported that partial
Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI) limit of 0.8 μg/kg acylglycerols are more reactive than TAG in
body weight for 3-MCPDE9. Meanwhile, The acting as acylglycerol precursor for 3-MCPDE
Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food formation, while DAG is regarded as the most
Additives (JECFA) proposed Provisional reactive precursor (among the
Maximum Tolerable Daily Intake (PMTDI) of 4 acylglycerols)22,24. As CPO has an abundance
μg/kg body weight for 3-MCPDE, either single of acylglycerol (>99%), 3-MCPDE formation in
or in combination with the glycidyl esters14. palm oils is hence limited by the chlorine
Therefore, EFSA has proposed to limit the content24,25. The latter affects the formation of
presence of 3-MCPDEs in palm oil to 2.5 ppm 3-MCPDE in palm oil during the refining stage.
and below from 2021 onwards 15. Various Study shows that the total chlorine content in
studies showed that CPO with high levels of CPO has a direct correlation with 3-MCPDE in
FFA, DAG and traces of chlorine promote the refined palm oil with R2 > 0.73, as shown in
formation of 3-MCPDE during the refining Figure 1 18. Nagy et al.26 discovered that there
stage16,17,18. In response to these research are more than 200 monochlorinated organic
works; Malaysian authorities have recently compounds along with some chlorinated
proposed the limit of chlorine content in CPO inorganic compounds such as FeCl 2, FeCl 3,
to be below 2 ppm (see Table 1). On the other MgCl2 and CaCl2 in CPO. Organochlorine
hand, the limit of 3-MCPDE in refined palm oil compounds had also been identified as lipid
should be kept below 2.5 ppm by year 2021 constituents produced naturally and showed
and 1.25 ppm by year 20228. potential to liberate chlorine during
deodorisation to form 3-MCPDE18,26. The fact
In the following section, factors that cause the that organochlorine compounds function as
formation of 3-MCPDE will be discussed. This chlorine precursors for 3-MCPDE was further
is followed by the section that discusses confirmed. A model by Tiong et al.18 showed
initiatives taken to mitigate this process that an addition of enriched organochlorine
contaminant through the minimisation of 3- compound mixture yielded higher 3-MCPDE
MCPDE’s precursors, with the manipulation of formation after thermal treatment.
refining process conditions.

88
 Figure 1: Regression of 3-MCPDE in refined bleached deodorised palm oils relative to the total chlorine
content in CPO18

It was reported that organochlorine machine contains a high amount of impurities.

compounds were biosynthesised in oil palm Hence, hot water (known as dilution water) is
fruits. These compounds were then extracted introduced to facilitate the oil clarification
together with CPO from the mesocarp during process. In some mills, SC and EFB liquor are
processing in the mill18,26. During palm oil used instead of hot water. Studies show that
production, organochlorine compounds are the combined use of SC and EFB liquor as
observed to partition and enriched in certain oil dilution water exhibited the highest amount of
fractions such as those from steriliser the chlorine content in the CPO (see Figure
condensate (SC) and empty fruits bunch (EFB) 327). It is also worth mentioning that dilution
(Figure 2). Typically, the extracted crude oil water plays a role in reducing the chlorine
(known as undiluted crude oil) from the press content in water.

Figure 2: Sphingolipid organochlorine content in various oil products

89
 Figure 3: Total Chlorine in CPO and 3-MCPDE content in its refined oil for various types of dilution water
commonly used in the oil mill27

Apart from the acylglycerol and chlorine physical approach that does not have direct
precursor, other notable factors that affect 3- contact with water except chemical refined oil.
MCPDE formation include the content of minor Therefore, cross-contamination of chlorine
oil constituents and the refining conditions. The from water is not a major concern. However,
oil pH would affect the formation of 3-MCPDE CPO that is exposed to water such as during
as acidic condition would promote and activate water degumming had been reported to be
acylglycerol for chloride nucleophile attack to beneficial in reducing 3-MCPDE formation 29,30.
form 3-MCPDE12. Reduction of oil pH by Therefore, the understanding of precursor and
addition of disodium carbonate and sodium factors that affect 3-MCPDE formation are
bicarbonate can reduce the formation of 3- important for the oil palm industry to devise
MCPDE from 7 ppm to less than 3 ppm in the effective mitigation strategy, and intervention
model oil study. Although FFA does not act as to ensure 3-MCPDE in palm oil products for
a direct precursor for 3-MCPDE formation, but food consumption would not expose
it affects the pH value of the oils. Addition of 10 consumers to higher than PMTDI set by food
% lauric acid to oils reduces the pH of oils to safety and health regulatory bodies.
yield a definite but small increase of 3-MCPDE
formation22. 3. Mitigation Strategies
External factors such as soil, irrigation, and
The existence of chlorine during refining was pest control have different impacts on the
possibly originated from the addition of chloride content of the oil palm trees. Other
materials or chemicals. Bleaching clay and factors such as harvesting techniques,
water had been reported to contain 60 - 152 handling, and transport are also potential
ppm of total chlorine content 28. Chlorine in the sources for chloride contamination in fresh fruit
bleaching clay was contributed by acid bunches (FFB) and CPO. During harvesting
activation using HCl. Hence, manufacturers and evacuation, some solid impurities that are
are providing bleaching clay with low chlorine attached to FFB are processed together to
content through acid activation using non- produce CPO. These solid impurities consist of
chloride acid. Bleaching earth, either natural or predominantly fibrous materials and soil and
acid-activated that does not contain chlorine are the source of chlorine. Consequently,
would assist in reduction of 3-MCPDE chlorine is then carried over to CPO during
formation. Besides, the acid used for CPO processing. Since the potential source of
degumming may also contain a trace level of chlorine contamination is known, reduction in
chlorine. However, the chlorine content in acid these sources helps to reduce the chloride
used for degumming is negligible because its concentration in CPO, and subsequently helps
content is lesser than 20% of the total chlorine to mitigate 3-MCPDE. Although the most
in CPO (range in 8-29 ppm)28. Furthermore, significant reduction effort is the mitigation
the amount of acid used for degumming is done in the precursor from oil, the reduction of
relatively small. CPOs were refined through a chlorine sources at the feedstock is expected
90
to further reduce contamination. Therefore, polar solvent solution. Given this positive
cleaning palm fruits (with water) before finding, verification trials were conducted by
extraction is the first crucial step to minimise Sime Darby Plantation with water washing and
the carryover of chlorine sources. The results the result showed that the concentration of
indicate a significant reduction of chlorine total chlorine in washed CPO is 50% lower
content in CPO produced from washed palm than unwashed CPO (unpublished).
fruits, which subsequently lowers the 3- Meanwhile, the 3-MCPDE in RBDPO obtained
MCPDE of the refined oil. The palm fruit bunch from the washed CPO had showed a reduction
and fruit cleaning systems developed by Sime of 53% as compared to unwashed oil (see
Darby Plantation in 2018 were reported to Table 3).
produce CPO with chlorine content as low as
0.5 ppm31,32. Another potential mitigation approach that is
worth consideration is dechlorination of CPO
Besides, the SC and EFB oils contain high prior to refining process. This pre-treatment
chlorine content. The mixing of these oils in process uses sodium metabisulfite (SMBS) as
CPO during dilution (water) will eventually the dechlorination agent. SMBS is mixed with
increase its chlorine content 27. To mitigate heated CPO followed by filtration to remove
these issues, segregation of these two streams spent SMBS. As a result, the dechlorinated
from primary CPO production (as non-CPO CPO has chlorine content which is lower than
recovery oils) has been proposed. In short, the 2 ppm34. Both water washing and
system recovers the SC and EFB oils with the dechlorination agents are found to be effective
sludge separator in separate processing line in reducing water-soluble inorganic chlorinated
for non-food application. With the compound of CPO. However, the remaining
implementation of this system, approximately challenge is to remove oil-soluble chlorinated
30% reduction of chlorine and 3-MCPDE were compounds.
recorded for CPO and its refined oil
respectively. It is worth noting that this system While most mitigation efforts focused on
also improves the overall quality of the CPO, chlorine reduction, there is no emphasis on
particularly on the contaminants, hydrolytic and other factors that contribute to 3-MCPDE
oxidative stabilities of CPO33. formation. Therefore, the authors suggested
that the mitigation efforts to be extended to
In the earlier discussion, the formation of 3- FFA, DAG and MAG reduction. This mitigation
MCPDE requires a chlorine source that could could be performed by improving harvesting
easily dissociate to create the required chloride and processing techniques to reduce
ions. Therefore, there is a need to include a hydrolysis reaction that produces FFA, DAG
process that decreases the chlorine and MAG in CPO. The reduction of these
concentration to avoid 3-MCPDE formation compounds could eventually lessen the 3-
during the refining process. Destaillats et al.13 MCPDE formation during refining. This
reported that the chlorinated compounds in the mitigation strategy has been recently reviewed
plant material are polar in nature. Hence, it by Chew et al. (2021)35.
can be removed effectively from the plant
material using liquid-liquid extraction with a

Table 3: Effect of CPO Washing on Chlorine content and 3-MCPDE on its refined oil. Results represent the
means ± standard deviation of the mean value (n = 3).
Refinery feed Sample chlorine, ppm 3-MCPD Ester, ppm

Control 5.17±0.57 4.34±0.13

A
Washed 2.58±0.39 2.03±0.11

Control 3.55±0.24 2.60±0.09

B
Washed 1.78±0.12 1.26±0.15

91
Another important mitigation strategy is the temperature deodorisation may cause the
prevention of 3-MCPDE formation at refining reactions of chlorides in oils with acylglycerols.
stage. Some researchers have suggested the A study was carried out and it proved that the
use of water degumming as an alternative formation of 3-MCPDE is directly correlated to
washing process in oil refining36,37,38. At this deodorisation temperature. In the study, CPO
stage, chlorine-containing polar precursors of (with 4.2% FFA content and 4.75 ppm
the 3-MCPDE can be removed from the oil. chlorine) was exerted between deodorisation
However, water degumming is less effective in temperatures of 230°C and 260°C for 90
reducing phosphatides, iron and colour as minutes. Expectedly, the highest amounts of 3-
compared to the standard acid degumming MCPDE were observed in the samples that
procedure of CPO. were deodorised at 260°C (see Figure 4).

Interestingly, higher amount of water usage (1 The various possible mitigation options to
- 5%) during water degumming could further mitigate the 3-MCPDE issue throughout the
remove the impurities and achieve the red palm oil supply chain is summarised in Figure
colour specification of below 3.038. Besides, 5. The initiative should start from the upstream
natural clays would be suggested as an where the oil palm estate can improve the
alternative medium to acid activated bleaching quality of palm fruits by reducing its sources of
clay due to its neutral pH that does not chlorine. The production of high-quality CPO
promote formation of 3-MCPDE. Nevertheless, with low DAG and chloride content through mill
natural clays usually have a lower surface area process improvement can be performed as
that might affect refined oil quality, as the subsequent mitigation. Lastly, the reduction of
adsorptive capacity of sorbent minerals 3-MCPDE formation can be achieved through
depend on their surface area, particle size the improvement of refining conditions. With all
distribution, porosity, and surface acidity. combined efforts, the 3-MCPDE issue in palm
Furthermore, research works on the use of oil industry can be addressed.
magnesium silicate as bleaching clay was
proposed, which shows significant reduction of 4. Conclusion
3-MCPDE compared to activated and natural Palm oil processing starts from oil palm
clay, especially with water degumming37. plantation where the palm fruits are harvested.
The harvested fruits delivered to mills for oil
Deodorisation process is the critical factor for extraction before it is refined into edible palm
the formation of 3-MCPDE. Note that this is a oil. Studies show that the presence of the
temperature-dependent process. High

Figure 4: Effect of deodorisation temperature on the 3-MCPDE formation. Results represent the mean values
and error bars indicate the standard deviation of the mean (n = 3).

92
 Figure 5: Proposed mitigation strategies for 3-MCPDE issue in the palm oil supply
chain.

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