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Sustainable Low Cost Housing Construction for a Better World

Conference Paper · January 2012

DOI: 10.3850/978-981-08-7920-4_C-40-0437

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 5th SASTech International Conference

Sustainable Low Cost Housing Construction method

Dr. I. Patnaikuni
RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia
e-mail: Patnaikuni@rmit.edu.com

Keywords: sustainable housing construction, thermal performance, concrete jacket, environmental impact

Abstract: One of the basic requirements of Human beings is proper housing. At present there are
millions of people without proper roof over their head. The world needs environmentally friendly
sustainable housing of low cost to provide housing for the millions of needy persons both in the
developed countries in general and developing countries in particular. In view of the greenhouse
gas emissions and the increasing energy costs it is essential that any housing construction should
take into account these factors while making the construction affordable to low income earners.
Housing construction should overcome irrationality of the current method of conventional
construction which is expensive and has poor thermal performance and ignores the significant
environmental impact of high embodied energy of the building process. Consequently there is a
need for developing improved low cost sustainable building techniques. This paper presents an
innovative concrete jacket with rammed earth core walling system that promises significant
improvements in environmental impact, comfort and cost of both building and operational energy.
The construction uses mainly local natural materials with little high energy processing thus
reducing the embodied energy of the construction. In addition to using local materials only basic
building skills are required and hence the system is ideally suited to rural areas and has potential
application to developing countries. This method of construction has better performance in case of
earth quakes which saves many lives. The paper presents a discussion of the efficiency of such high
thermal mass solutions and describes the construction process.

1 Introduction

Expansion in housing is occurring throughout the developed world caused by such factors as
population growth, increased wealth and thinning in household size due to an increase in single
parent families and lone person households. In Australia approximately 140,000 new houses are
built every year the great bulk of which is in outer suburban areas of the cities [HIA 2000].
Australian residential energy consumption increased from 18GJ per person in 1980 to 20GJ per
person in 1999 – a 10% increase [Australian Bureau of Statistics]. In addition to operational
energy the manufacture and transportation of building materials for the construction of new homes
consumes considerable energy. This embodied energy is the second most significant factor
compared to operational energy. At present and in general the (housing) construction industry does
not take into account the embodied energy used for the construction material. Now with increased
awareness of environmental issues there is a drive to examine the Whole of Lifetime Costs.
Conventional materials such as bricks, concrete, timber, steel etc. require high amounts of energy
for production and thus greenhouse gas emissions are high. For example, to produce one ton of
cement one ton of CO2 is released into the atmosphere. Production of a single house brick requires
24.5MJ of energy which emits 1.5kg of CO2. Over a 50 year lifecycle 10% to 20% of total energy
usage is absorbed in initial construction. Energy efficient housing built of conventional materials is
expensive to construct and of high embodied energy.

There were studies regarding embodied energy and operational energy by several researchers. To
mention a few the following are examples:
In the USA Blanchard [Blanchard and Reppe, 2005] looked at the energy life cycle of two
residential homes in Michigan. In the UK the Building Research Establishment [Building Research
Establishment, 2005] undertook a study on thermal comfort for three different construction methods

The trend towards low density housing with associated high embodied energy and running costs is
not sustainable. Demands for greater energy efficiency are met by increases in embodied energy,
increased technical complexity and most important of all, an increase in initial cost. Despite the
long term financial benefit (over the life of the structure) this increase in initial cost deters
widespread acceptance.

There are different methods of housing construction used throughout the world both in developed
counties and developing countries [Affordable housing -Wikipedia]. Most of these construction
methods are not concerned with the sustainability aspect. Housing construction should overcome
irrationality of the current method of conventional construction which has poor thermal
performance and ignores the significant environmental impact of high embodied energy of the
building process. In addition the conventional construction methods are more expensive and are not
suited for those below poverty line people who cannot afford such housing construction. One of the
important requirements of human beings is a roof over their head and they should be able to afford
this. But unfortunately in today’s world there are millions of persons who can not afford to have a
roof over their head due to the cost of the current housing methods. Many people in the developing
countries live in tin shacks or huts not desirable for proper living. There are millions of people in
the developing countries who live in mud brick or normal brick walled houses which may look
better than the huts but these dwellings are not safe in case of Earthquakes. In case of earthquakes
of even relatively lower intensity the walls collapse and usually there would be fatalities and
injuries to people. It is imperative that these people are provided with low cost, hygienic,
comfortable and safe houses which need only low operational energy in addition to the important
aspect of low embodied energy material use to reduce the green house gas emissions. This paper
discusses a construction method used which addresses the problems mentioned above.

2. SUSTAINABLE LOW COST HOUSING ISSUES

Sustainable housing principles include but not limited to energy efficient building envelope, passive
solar design, active solar systems (e.g. solar hot water and photovoltaic (PV) panels), water
conservation (e.g. rainwater harvesting and grey water recycling), waste reduction and recycling
and landscape and shading (Patnaikuni et. al. 2008). Trees may be selected and planted in such a
manner such that winter Sun is taken advantage of where as summer Sun is blocked. On the
materials and construction side, use of natural and recycled materials, low embodied energy
materials and efficient construction techniques are important to adopt. Sustainable living is another
issue greatly effecting overall energy and resource use in a house.

2.1 Insulation
Insulation is the single most important aspect of good thermal design. The measure of insulation is
‘R’ value. It is the measure of the product’s resistance to heat transfer and is a guide to its
performance as a heat insulator. The higher the ‘R’ value, the more effective the insulation is in
reducing heat flow. Higher insulation is required for the ceiling than exterior walls. Internal walls
do not require any insulation.

The emphasis on insulation often leads to the use of modern materials that exhibit additional
undesirable characteristics such as
 high cost
 high embodied energy
 highly non biodegradable materials both in the final product and in their production
 incorporating toxic/hazardous materials both in the final product and in their production
There is a tendency to contribute to sick building syndrome (poor air quality) as a consequence of
the gasses they release [Commonwealth of Australia, 2004]. Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research Organisation (CSIRO) estimates that occupants of new houses may be exposed to many
times the maximum allowable limits of pollutants due to the use of synthetic building materials and
outgas pollutants [Commonwealth of Australia, 2004]
2.2 Orientation and Solar Access
In the northern hemisphere, a south facing house can maximize solar access. In the southern
hemisphere, a north facing house can maximize solar access. By keeping the living areas to the
north or south depending on which hemisphere a house is located, passive heating can be achieved
in cool climatic regions. Similarly passive cooling can be achieved in warm climatic regions by
obstructing summer sun using eaves, verandas or other shading devices.

2.3 Thermal Mass

The purpose of thermal mass is to store heat energy when it is abundant (daytime) and release when
it is scarce (at night) thereby reducing the temperature extremes. Concrete slab on ground or
masonry walls can act as a thermal mass. Care must be taken so that thermal mass has sufficient
solar access during winter otherwise it may actually increase the heating demand. The technical
manual provided by the Australian Government in “Your Home” documentation (Commonwealth
of Australia, 2004) acknowledges that thermal mass can be very effective at providing comfort in
homes. Thermal mass in particular is recognised as effective where there are reasonable diurnal
temperature ranges.

2.4 Double (or Triple) Glazed Windows

A great portion of heat loss in a house can occur through the windows and it can be reduced by
double glazing the windows. Double glazing comprises two panes of glass with a sealed space
(about 12 mm of width) between. The space is filled with air or an inert gas with better insulating
properties than glass. Triple glazing can further enhance window performance.

2.5 Active Solar System: Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Panels

Now-a-days it is possible to produce 100% of a home’s electricity using PV panels. A major
problem is that not necessarily the sun will shine everyday or when it is needed most. To solve this
either a grid connection (usually with net metering) or a battery storage system is required. With net
metering the household is charged for the net amount of electricity consumed and is a cheaper
option than battery storage option. The cost of PV systems is still high but usually government
assistance can make them affordable.

2.6 Active Solar System: Solar Hot Water

A solar hot water system can greatly reduce the energy use in a typical home in cold climate and is
more cost-effective than the solar PV system. Most solar hot water systems use solar collectors or
panels to absorb energy from the sun. Water is heated by the sun as it passes through the collectors.
It then flows into an insulated storage tank for later use. A solar hot water system is either gas or
electricity boosted in times of higher demand. Gas should be used if possible as it emits less Green
House Gases (GHG) than an electric system.

2.7 Water Conservation

Water conservation includes low flow fixtures, rainwater collection and grey water reuse. Water
efficient plumbing fixtures and appliances include AAA (or more) rated shower heads, dual flush
toilets, water efficient appliances (washing machines and dishwashers). A rainwater tank collects
roof runoff and this water may be used for all purposes permitting local regulations. A grey water
recycle system partially treats water from showers, dishwashers etc and typically supply water for
subsurface irrigation in the garden.

2.8 Waste reduction and recycling

Waste minimisation can be achieved both at construction phase and at operation phase. At
construction phase, use of recycled materials such as concrete with recycled aggregates from
demolished buildings, reduction of onsite waste generation should be aimed for. At operation stage,
separation of recyclables at source (homes) from other waste to help the local councils in collection
and processing recyclables is important. Local councils generally provide two separate bins for
households. Organic waste can be reduced by using a compost bin and worm-farms.

3. TYPES OF CONSTRUCTIONS
Currently a number of construction methods are used which can be broadly classified into the
following two categories:
Heavy weight constructions
Light weight constructions
Heavyweight construction:
 Improves thermal comfort and reduces operational energy use, when used in conjunction with
passive design and good insulation.
 Generally has higher embodied energy.
 Should be avoided on remote sites where there is a high transport component (e.g. Darwin).
 Is often quarried or processed with high impact.

Lightweight construction:
 Can have lower embodied energy
 Is preferred on remote sites with high materials transportation component.
 Usually requires more heating and cooling energy in cold to warm climates (where solar access
is achievable) when compared to heavyweight construction with similar levels of insulation and
passive design.

4. CONCRETE JACKETED RAMMED EARTH WALL CONSTRUCTION

4.1 General
This system uses a composite wall construction comprising concrete surfaces and a rammed earth
core. The high thermal mass walls constructed using mostly of local natural materials promise
efficient running costs in terms of heating/cooling energy and also provide a greatly reduced
environmental impact of construction. It has long been recognised [Webster, 1995] that traditional
mud brick or compacted earth construction exhibit many ideal properties but do not offer low
maintenance and finish requirements - guidelines published by CSIRO [Middleton and Schneider,
1987] in 1987 were first published in 1952.

The concrete jacketed rammed earth wall technique has been used to build several houses in
Australia and owners have reported great energy efficiency and comfort. The construction offers
the advantages of mud brick and rammed earth construction without the disadvantages of low
durability and poor appearance.

4.2 Construction technique

A novel construction of compacted soil between surface layers of concrete has been developed that
offers an ideal environmental solution. The finish is equal to traditional forms of construction; the
thermal mass is high and the embodied energy very low – as soil is used as the bulk of the material
– no timber frame is required. The construction technique involves a purpose-designed formwork
system that creates the concrete surface and the compacted soil core. Typical cross-section of the
wall is shown in figure 2.

Compacted Soil
Concrete, 4.5cm

Steel Tie
(optional) Variable ~ 35cm

Figure 2 - Typical cross-section of wall

The wall is constructed in 600mm high sections (Figure 3). Within the formwork, a tray of dry
cement based mortar mix is positioned at each side. The formwork centre is then filled with earth
from the site. Moisture content is controlled at this stage by a simple workability test. The steel
trays separating the mortar mix are then removed. The soil is then compacted using an electric
hammer/vibrator. The process results in the mortar mix at the top surface creating a lip that extends
over the surface of the compacted soil (Figure 4). This lip acts to tie-in the two outer concrete
walls. If desired a steel or non-metallic tie can be placed at this location to tie the inner and outer
wall surfaces. The formwork is subsequently raised and the next level of wall created.

Each cycle produces an element 600mm high and 2m long of the required thickness (typically
350mm). Two people can construct a 2m high wall in few hours of work. A custom built rig has
been developed to assist in the lifting and placement operations and the head of the compactor has
been modified to fit the formwork. The construction process and the lifting formwork are shown in
Figure 5a. Following construction the surfaces are painted using environmentally friendly cement
based paint. Currently concrete columns at each end of the wall sections are placed. However, the
structural integrity of the system without such columns can be demonstrated by calculations.
Several houses have been built in Australia in a variety of climates (Figure 5b,c,d) and the owners
report low running cost and good comfort. Residents reported that the heating cost for the whole
year is about $90 on the average in an area in one of the outer suburban areas of Melbourne where
there would be snow fall occasionally in winter. They also reported that during summer the
temperature inside the house had not gone beyond 26 degrees C even when the outside temperature
is about 40 degrees C.

In addition this construction utilise less embodied energy than many current popular construction
techniques, the construction process requires relatively unskilled personnel and simple equipment,
offers high quality durable finishes, will produce relatively little building waste (40% of landfill in
Australia is building waste – typically 15-20% of material delivered to site is subsequently not used
and is sent to landfill (Commonwealth of Australia 2004)), the walls are inherently non-combustible
and will not produce toxic gasses in case of fire, the finished wall does not pose a threat to air
quality by out-gassing and minimum transport costs promise significant advantage in rural areas.
 a) Formwork – 4 sides only

Tray of dry
Section through
cement mortar
formwork
tipped into
formwork and
located in place
– one each side

b) Insert two trays of dry cement mortar

Cement mortar
Trays extracted
after filling
centre with
earth
Loose earth

c) Fill with soil and extract trays

Cement mortar

Compacted earth

d) Compacted earth and mortar mix –

ready for placement of next level

Figure 3 – Construction of composite wall

Figure 4 – Section through wall

Figure 5a – The construction process – lifting the formwork.

Figure 5b – Completed Concrete jacketed rammed earth building

5c - Concrete jacketed rammed earth building under construction

 Figure 5d – Some examples of Concrete jacketed rammed earth buildings built in Australia

5. IMPROVISED SYSTEM OF CONCRETE JACKETED RAMMED EARTH WALL

CONSTRUCTION

Two different methods were developed to improve the speed and ease of construction of the wall

system with concrete jacket and rammed earth.

5.1 Concrete Box System with rammed earth

In the case of the original process the structural loading of the roof and upper floors etc carried by
the walls was considered to be taken by the columns that were inserted at the end of each panel.
By being able to specify the characteristics of the concrete surfaces more reliably, construction
without the end columns will be possible as structural assessments will be facilitated.
Figure 6 - Concrete Box System construction process.

A pre-cast solution where thinner concrete surfaces are used to fabricate boxes on site or in factory
that are then filled with earth and compressed was developed. An automated ramming machine was
developed to compress the earth that is being filled in the concrete box. The advantages are as
follows.
 Structural assessments become possible and justifiable.
 Durability issues are controlled and (again) reliably specified.
 No formwork is required.
 The columns will not be required.
Possible disadvantages that are being examined include transportation issues, possible increase in
cost and potentially an increase in the embodied energy. Figure 6 shows one possible site
procedure and Figure 7 shows a wall prepared for testing in the laboratory.
Figure 7 - Laboratory wall test.

5.2 Concrete Box System with compressed earth blocks

This method is similar to the Concrete Box System with rammed earth except that placing and

ramming the earth in the concrete boxes are replaced by using pre-compressed earth blocks. A

block compression machine is used to compress the earth blocks. The advantage of this system is

that it is faster type of construction as compressing the earth blocks is carried out earlier and can be

placed inside the concrete box without waiting for each layer to be compressed.

6. CONCLUSIONS
1. Concrete jacketed rammed earth wall houses are affordable low cost dwellings to provide
roof over the head of millions of people who are either not having a dwelling or living in a
substandard dwelling.
2. This type of construction is sustainable and helps in reducing CO2 emissions.
3. The approach promises to utilise less embodied energy than many current popular
construction techniques.
4. The design offers a high thermal mass – offering the potential for a significant reduction in
heating and cooling costs.
5. The construction process requires relatively unskilled personnel and simple equipment.
6. High quality durable finishes are produced.
7. Potential reductions in cost and time of construction.
8. The process will produce relatively little building waste (for example 40% of landfill in
Australia is building waste – typically 15-20% of material delivered to site is subsequently
not used and is sent to landfill (Commonwealth of Australia 2004).
 9. The walls are inherently non-combustible and will not produce toxic gasses in a fire.
10. The finished wall does not pose a threat to air quality by out-gassing.
11. Minimum transport costs promise significant advantage in rural areas.
12. Houses constructed using this method are aesthetically more pleasant to look at.
13. Relatively more safer compared to mud brick walls or normal brick wall dwellings in case
of earthquakes.
14. These dwellings will improve the quality of life.
15. These houses will provide self respect to people who otherwise have to live in tin shacks or
huts.

REFERENCES

1. Affordable Housing – Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affordable_housing

2. Australian Bureau of Statistics, “Australian Social Trends 2002 Housing - Housing and Lifestyle:
Energy efficiency in the home”

3. Australian Bureau of Statistics, “Australian Social Trends 2002 Housing - Housing and Lifestyle:
Energy efficiency in the home”

4. Blanchard, S. and Reppe, P., Life cycle analysis of a residential home in Michigan, MSc report,
University of Michigan, USA, http://www.umich.edu/~nppcpub/research/lcahome/, accessed May 2005

5. Building Research Establishment, Thermal mass and overheating, BRE Report 40418,
www.fabermaunsell.com, Beaufort House, 94 Newall St, Birmingham, UK, Jan 2005
Building Research Establishment, Jan 2005]

6. Commonwealth of Australia, 2004, “Your Home”, 2nd Edition 2004, ISBN 1 920840 1,
http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/yourhome

7. HIA 2000. Housing Australians in partnership with HIA. Housing Industry Association,
http://www.buildingsonline.com.au/media/housing_australians.pdf Assessed April 2005

8. Middleton, GF and Schneider, LM “Earth-wall construction” Fourth Edition Publisher: CSIRO

PUBLISHING CSIRO Building, Construction and Engineering
1987, ISBN: 0643054499

9. I. Patnaikuni, S. Rahman and S. de Silva, “Sustainable Housing”, keynote paper, International

conference on Innovative and Smart Structural Systems for Sustainable Habitat (INSHAB-2008),
Coimbatore, 03-05 January 2008.

10 Webster, F., Some thoughts on adobe codes, 1st Publ. in Adobe Codes, 3rd edition, Bosque, NM,
1995, http://www.fawebster.com/articles/adobe_codes.html

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