QRM Environment - Ecology (WWW - Upscmaterial.online)

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QUICK REVISION MODULE (UPSC PRELIMS 2022)
ENVIRONMENT
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CHAPTER 1 -
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UNDERSTANDING ECOLOGY
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1. CONCEPT OF ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

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» The term was first used by German zoologist

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Ernst Haeckel in 1869.

» A scientific study of the interactions of
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organism with their physical environment and

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with each other.

ECOLOGY » The study of the earth as a ‘household’, of
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plants, human beings, animals and micro-

organisms.
www.visionias.in Vision IAS 1

» The term was coined by Arthur Tansley in
1935.
» It is a community of life forms in concurrence
with non-living components, interacting with
ECOSYSTEM each other.
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» It is the sum total of all conditions and
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influences that affect the development and
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life of all organisms on earth. Thus, it can be
ENVIRONMENT said as one’s surrounding.
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» Autecology is the study of relationship of
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individual species with the environment.
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» Synecology is the study of plant communities
in relation to their habitats of a given
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ecosystem.
» Gaia hypothesis refers to a scientific
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hypothesis which states that the earth is a

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OTHER RELATED complex living entity, with the sustenance of

TERMS
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life dependent on the self-regulating

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interactions among organisms and their

inorganic surroundings
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2. SEVEN MAJOR LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF ECOLOGY

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ORGANISMS
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» They make the basic unit of study in ecology.

» At this level, the form, physiology, behaviour, distribution
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and adaptations in relation to the environmental conditions

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are studied.
POPULATION
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» In ecology, a population is a group of individuals of the same

species, inhabiting the same area, and functioning as a unit
of biotic community.

BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITY
» Biological/ Biotic community organisation results from inter
dependence and interactions amongst population of
different species in a habitat.
ECOSYSTEM
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» An ecosystem is composed of a biotic community,
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integrated with its physical environment through the
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exchange of energy and recycling of the nutrients.
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» Ecosystems can be recognised as self- regulating and
self-sustaining units of landscape, e.g., a pond or a forest.
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LANDSCAPE
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» A landscape is a unit of land with a natural boundary having
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a mosaic of patches, which generally represent different
ecosystems. ps
BIOME
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» This is a large regional unit characterized by a major

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vegetation type and associated fauna found in a specific

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climate zone.
» It includes all associated developing and modified
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communities occuring within the same climatic region, eg.,

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grassland, savanna biomes, etc.

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BIOSPHERE
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» Biosphere is a part of earth where life can exist.

» It represents a highly integrated and interacting zone
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comprising of atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water) and

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lithosphere (land).
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BIOTIC POTENTIAL-
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» The maximum rate at which a population can increase when resources are
unlimited and environmental conditions are ideal.
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» Each species will have a different biotic potential due to variations in species
reproductive span, the frequency of reproduction, litter size, survival rate.

CARRYING CAPACITY-
» For a given region, carrying capacity is the maximum number of individuals
of a given species that an area's resources can sustain indefinitely without
significantly depleting or degrading those resources.
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3. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BIOME AND ECOSYSTEM
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BOIME ECOSYSTEM
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» It is a large area of land with distinct » It is the interaction of abiotic and
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climate and plant and animal species. biotic components between each
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» It is a large geographical area. other in a given area.
» It is greatly influenced by climatic » It is a small geographical area.
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factors such as snow, ice, rainfall, » It is not much influenced by the
temperature etc. climatic factors like ice, snowfall,
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» It is a larger category of ecological temperature etc.
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units. It contains multiple » It is a part of biome made of biotic
ecosystems within it. and abiotic factors.
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» As a biome is a collection of species » An ecosystem has a less diversity of

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it has a great diversity of plant and plants and animals species than that
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animal species. of a biome as it is smaller in size.

» Some common examples of biomes » Some common examples include
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include desert, tundra, grasslands, coral reefs, ponds, Gulf of Mexico

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and tropical rain forests. etc.

» Latitude has a great influence on a » An ecosystem is not affected by
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biome. latitude.
» All the animals of a biome may not » All the animals and organisms of an
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interact with each other. ecosystem interact with each other.

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4. COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM
ECOSYSTEM
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Abiotic components Biotic Components
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Climatic factors Edaphic factors
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Producers Consumers Decomposers
(Autotrophs) (Heterotrophs) (Saprotrophs)
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Rain
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Light
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Wind
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Temperature
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Soil
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pH
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Minerals
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Topography
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Primary Secondary Tertiary Quartenary

Consumers Consumers Consumers Consumers

BIOTIC COMPONET
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PRODUCERS CONSUMERS DECOMPOSERS
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Organisms that Organisms that get Organisms that get
make their own their food by eating their food by
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food by producers or other breaking down dead
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photosynthesis consumers plants & animals
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Primary Secondary Tertiary

Omnivores
Consumers Consumers Consumers
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Feed Directly Feed on Primary Feed on Secondary Eat both plants

on Plants i.e. Consumers Consumers and animals
Herbivores
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Copyright © by Vision IAS

All rights are reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without prior permission of Vision IAS.

5. IMPORTANT TERMS
ECOTONE
» It is a zone of junction or a transition area between two biomes (diverse
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ecosystems) where two communities meet and integrate.
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» Examples- Mangrove forests represent an ecotone between marine and
terrestrial ecosystem, grassland (between forest and desert), estuary
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(between fresh water and salt water) and riverbank or marshland (between
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dry and wet).
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ECOCLINE
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» It is a zone of gradual but continuous change from one ecosystem to another
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when there is no sharp boundary between the two in terms of species
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composition.
» It occurs across the environmental gradient (gradual change in abiotic factors
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such as altitude, temperature (thermocline), salinity (halocline), depth, etc).
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EDGE EFFECT/ EDGE SPECIES

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» Edge effect refers to the changes in population or community structures that

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occur at the boundary of two habitats (ecotone), where sometimes the

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number of species and the population density of some of the species in the
ecotone is much greater than either community.
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» The organisms which occur primarily or most abundantly in this zone are
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known as edge species.

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ECOLOGICAL NICHE
» Niche refers to the unique functional role and position of a species in its
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habitat or ecosystem.
» Habitat niche- where it lives; Food niche- what is eats or decomposes &
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what species it competes with; Reproductve niche- how and when it

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reproduces; Physical and chemical niche- temperature, land shape, land

slope, humidity & another requirement.
» If we have to conserve species in its native habitat, we should have
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knowledge about the niche requirements of the species.

6. FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
Ecological Homeostasi
Energy flow Nutrient cycling
succesion or (or cybernetic) or
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through food- (biogeochemical
ecosystem feedback control
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chain. cycles).
development. mechanisms
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7. ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM
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» Ecosystem is maintained by the cycling energy and nutrients obtained
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from different external sources with Sun being primary source of energy
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for all ecosystems on Earth.
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» Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR) is the amount of light available
for photosynthesis. Plants capture only 2-10 per cent of the PAR and this
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small amount of energy sustains the entire living world.

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» TROPHIC LEVEL- The trophic level of an organism is the position it

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occupies in a food chain. The trophic level is the number of steps an

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organism is from start of the chain. A given species may occupy more than
one trophic level in the same ecosystem at the same time.
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Consumer-1 Consumer-2
(Herbivore) (Small)
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2nd Tropic carnivores 3rd

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Level Trophic Level

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Producer
Consumer-3
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(Greeen
(Large
Plant) 1nd
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carnivores) 4th
Trophic
Trophic Level
Level
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Sun Decomposers

» At the first trophic level, primary producers use solar energy to
produce organic material through photosynthesis.
» The herbivores at the second trophic level use the plants as food which
gives them energy. A large part of this energy is used up for the metabolic
functions of these animals such as breathing, digesting food, supporting
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growth of tissues, maintaining blood circulation and body temperature.
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» The carnivores at the next trophic level feed on the herbivores and derive
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energy for their sustenance and growth. If large predators are present,
they represent still higher trophic level and they feed on carnivores to get
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energy.
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8. FOOD CHAIN
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» The order of living organisms in a community in which one organism
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consumes other and is itself consumed by another organism to transfer
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energy is called a food chain.
» Food chain is structured differently for different species in different
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ecosystems.
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CORN RAT OWL

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A THREE LINKED FOOD CHAIN

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CARROT RABBIT FOX LION

A FOUR LINKED FOOD CHAIN

GRASS GRASSHOPPER FROG PYTHON EAGLE
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A FIVE LINKED FOOD CHAIN
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» Begins with autotrophs.
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Grazing » Energy and nutrients move from plants to the
food chain herbivores consuming them, and to the carnivores or
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omnivores preying upon the herbivores.
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» Begins with dead organic matter.

» In a detrital food chain, dead organic matter of plants
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Detrital
and animals is broken down by decomposers, e.g.,
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food chain bacteria and fungi, and moves to detritivores and then
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carnivores.
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9. FOOD WEB
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» Food web can be defined as ‘a network of interconnected food chains so
as to form a number of feeding relationships amongst different organism
of a biotic community.
» It provides stability to the ecosystem- A food chain cannot stand isolated
in an ecosystem and all the interconnected and overlapping food chains in
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an ecosystem make up a food web.
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» A food web comprises all the food chains in a single ecosystem and each
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living thing in an ecosystem is a part of multiple food chains.
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» 10% rule- The number of trophic levels in the grazing food chain is
restricted as the transfer of energy follows 10 per cent law – only 10
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per cent of the energy is transferred to each trophic level from the lower
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trophic level.
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10. ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDps
» An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of the relationship
between different organisms in an ecosystem.
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Pyramid of Biomass Pyramid of Numbers Pyramid of Energy

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» It shows the amount of » It is the graphic » It is a graphical

biomass (living or representation of structure representing
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organic matter number of individuals the flow of energy

present in an organism) per unit area of various through each trophic
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present per unit area at trophic levels. level of a food chain

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each trophic level. » Large number of over a fixed part of the

» It is drawn with the producers tends to natural environment.
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producers at the base form the base whereas » It represents the

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and the top carnivores lower number of top amount of energy at

at the top. predators or carnivores each trophic level and
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» Each trophic level has a occupies the top. loss of energy at each
certain mass of living » Example= In an aquatic is transferred to
material at a particular ecosystem or grassland another trophic level.
time called standing areas, autotrophs or » Also called as trophic

crop, which is measured producersare present in pyramid or ecological
as the mass of living large number per unit pyramid.
organisms (biomass). area. The producers » The energy pyramid is
Upright Pyramid of support a lesser number always upward because
Biomass- of herbivores, which in energy decreases as
» Ecosystems found on turn supports fewer one move through the
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land mostly have carnivores. trophic levels from
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pyramids of biomass Upright Pyramid of the bottom to the top
of the pyramid.
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with large base of Numbers-
primary producers with » The number of
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smaller trophic level individuals decreases
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Decreasing rate of energy flow

perched on top, hence from the lower level to
the upright pyramid of the higher level.
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Tertiary
consumer
biomass. » Usually found in the 10 kcal
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grassland ecosystem Secondary
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Upright Pyramid of (grass occupies the consumer 100 kcl
biomass in a Terrestrial lowest trophic level Primary consumer

100 kcal
Ecosystem because of its
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Producers 10,000 kcal
abundance) and pond
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ecosystem. PYRAMID OF ENERGY

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Top Carnivore 1 kg
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Primary 10 kg
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Carnivore Tertiary
Upright pyramid
consumer
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Herbivores 100 kg
Secondary
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consumer
Produces 1000 kg
Primary consumer
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Inverted Pyramid of Producers

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Biomass- PYRAMID OF NUMBER

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» A reverse pyramidal
structure is found in Inverted Pyramid of
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most aquatic Numbers-

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ecosystems where the » The number of

pyramid of biomass individuals increases
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may assume an from the lower level to

inverted pattern. the higher trophic
level, for example, the
tree ecosystem.

Carnivore 12gm/m2
Herbivores 8gm/m2
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Produces 4gm/m2
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Inverted Pyramid in
an Aquatic Ecosystem
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11. ECOLOGICAL PRODUCTIVITY
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» Ecological productivity refers to the primary fixation of solar energy
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by plants and the subsequent use of that fixed energy by plant- eating
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herbivores, animal-eating carnivores, and the detritivores that feed upon

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dead biomass.
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» Ecologists refer to the productivity of green plants as primary productivity.

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» Gross primary productivity is the total amount of energy that is fixed by

plants, while net primary productivity is smaller because it is adjusted for
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energy losses required to support plant respiration.

» Gross and net secondary productivities refer to herbivorous animals,
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while tertiary productivities refer to carnivores.

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Different productivity of various ecosystems

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» Because of differences in the availabilities of solar radiation, water, and

nutrients, the world's ecosystems differ greatly in their Ecological
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Productivity.

ORDER OF PRODUCTIVITY
TYPE OF ECOSYSTEM
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Estuaries
Swamps & Marshes
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Tropical Rain Forest
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Temperate Forest
Northern Coniferous Forest (Taiga)
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Savanna
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Agriculture land
Woodland & shrubland
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Temperate grassland
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Lakes and streams
Continental shelf ps
Tundra (arcticand alpine)
Open ocean
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Desert scrub
Extreme desert
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800 1600 2400 3200 4000 4800 5600 6400 7200 8000 8800 9600
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Average Net Primary productivity (kcal/m2/vr)

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12. BIOLOGICAL INTERACTION

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» These are the manner in which species interact with each other.
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» These interactions can be inter-specific (interactions with different

species) or intra-specific (interactions between same species).
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» Neutralism is also a type of interaction where neither species affects the

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other. However, true neutralism is extremely unlikely.

Interaction type Combination Effects Examples
1. Positive interaction
1. Mutualism (+) (+) Both species benefitted Lichen, Mycorrhiza etc.
2. Commensalism (+) (0) One species is benefitted and orchids, Lianas etc.
the other species is neither
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benefitted nor harmed
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2. Negative interaction
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4. Predation (+) (-) One species benefitted, the Drosera; Nepenthes etc.
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other species are harmed
5. Parasitism (+) (-) One species benefitted, the Cuscuta, Duranta, Viscum etc.
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other species are harmed
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6. Competition (-) (-) Harmful for both Grassland species.
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7. Amensalism (-) (0) Harmful for one but the other Peniciflium and Staphylo coccus.
species are unaffected
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(+) Benefitted, (-) Harmed, (0)Unaffected
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13. ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
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» Ecological succession is the process by which the structure of biological

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community evolves over time.

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» In ecological terminology, the developmental stages of a community are

known seral stages and the final stage as the climax community.
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» The entire series of communities that is characteristic of a given site is

called a sere.
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TYPES OF SUCCESSION:
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» It occurs in essentially lifeless areas- regions in which

Primary the soil is incapable of sustaining life as a result of such
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Succession factors as lava flows, newly formed sand dunes, or rocks

left from a retreating glacier

» It occurs in areas where a community that previously
Secondary existed has been removed; it is typified by smaller-scale
Succession disturbances that do not eliminate all life and nutrients
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from the environment.
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AUTOTROPHIC SUCCESSION
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» It is characterized by early and continued dominance of autotrophic
organisms like green plants that begins in a predominantly inorganic
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environment and the energy flow is maintained indefinitely.
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» In this, the replacement of the existing community is caused largely by any
other external condition and not by the existing organisms.
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AUTOGENIC SUCCESSION
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» It refers to that type when the community itself, as a result of its reactions
with the environment, modifies its own environment and thus causing its own
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replacement by new communities.

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HYDRARCH SUCCESSION
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» Plant succession starting on relatively shallow water, such as ponds and lakes,
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and culminating in a mature forest.

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XERARCH SUCCESSION
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» Plant succession starting on bare ground or rock and culminating in a mature

climax forest. The pioneer species, such as lichens and mosses, result in the
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gradual accumulation of soil.

14. BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
» Biogeochemical cycles refer to the flow of chemical elements and

compounds like oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, and Sulphur
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between organisms and the physical environment.
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» Biogeochemical cycles can be either gaseous (reservoir pool is the
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atmosphere) or sedimentary (reservoir pool is the Earth's crust).
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GASEOUS BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
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1) Carbon cycle -
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This carbon
Carbon enters These organic is finally
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into the living compounds returned to the
world in (food) are then surrounding
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the form of Carbon is also

passed from medium by
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carbon dioxide recycled during

the producers to the process of
the burning of
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through the the respiration or

fossil fuels.
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process of pho- consumers decomposition

tosynthesis as (herbivores and of plants and
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carbohydrates. carnivores). animals by

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decomposers.
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CO₂ PHOTOSYNTHESIS
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PLANT RESPIRATION AUTO AND

FACTORY ANIMAL
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EMMISSIONS RESPIRATION
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MINERAL
DEAD ORGANISMS CARBON ROOT
AND WASTE PRODUCTS RESPIRATION

2) Nitrogen cycle -
» Nitrogen is present in the atmosphere in an elemental form and as such it

cannot be utilized by living organisms.
» The elemental form of nitrogen is converted into combined state with
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elements such as H, C, O by certain bacteria, so that it can be readily used
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by the plants.
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» Nitrogen fixing Bacteria - Some bacteria can turn Nitrogen in to ammonia
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by the process known as NITROGEN FIXATION. Examples-Azotobacter,
Achaea etc.
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» Denitrifying Bacteria - These bacteria metabolize nitrogenous compounds
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using various
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N₂
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NITROGEN
FIXATION DENITRIFICATION
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AMMONITICATION
NITROGEN
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NH₄ DENITRIFICATION
FIXING
BACTERIA
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BACTERIA NO₂ NITRIFICATION NO₃
NH₃
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BIOLOGICAL NITROGEN FIXATION
AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS NATURAL SYSTEMS
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Crop Pastures and Fodder Plant associated
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Plant associated Plant associated » legume-rhizobia
» Legume-rhizobia » legume-rhizobia (symbiotic)
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(symbiotic) (symbiotic) » Azolla-cyanobacteria
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» Azolla-cyanobacteria » cereal-association (symbiotic)
» cycadcyanobacteria
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(symbiotic) bacteria
» cereal-association » cereal-endophylic (symbiotic)
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bacteria bacteria » nonlegume-Frankia
» cereal-endophylic (symbiotic)
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bacteria » cereal-association
bacteria
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» cereal-endophylic
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bacteria
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Free-living Free-living Free-living

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» cyanobacteria » cyanobacteria » cyanobacteria

» heterotrophic » heterotrophic » heterotrophic
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bacteria bacteria bacteria

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» autotrophic » autotrophic » autotrophic

bacteria bacteria bacteria
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3) Water cycle -
The evaporation This vapourised

of water from water subsequently
ocean, rivers, lakes, cools and condenses
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and transpiring to form cloud and
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plants takes water water. This cooled
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in the form of water vapour returns
vapors to the
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to earth as rain
atmosphere. an snow.
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4) Oxygen cycle -
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» The oxygen cycle is the cycle that helps move oxygen through the
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three main regions of the Earth, the Atmosphere, the Biosphere,
and the Lithosphere (largest reservoir of oxygen).
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ATMOSPHERIC
OXYGEN
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PHOTOSYNTHESIS
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OXYGEN
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CARBON DIOXIDE
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SEDIMENTARY BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE
1) Sulphur cycle -
» Sulphur occurs in all living matter as a component of certain amino acids.
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» It is abundant in the soil in proteins and, through a series of microbial
transformations, ends up as sulphates usable by plants.
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» Sulphur-containing proteins are degraded into their constituent amino
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acids by the action of a variety of soil organisms.
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SULFATES IN THE
ATMOSPHERE
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SO₂ DRY DEPOSITION
WET DEPOSITION
H₂S
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(ACID RAIN, SNOW)
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ORGANIC
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DEPOSITION
SMELTING AND PLANT UPTAKE

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SEDIMENTATION
BURNING OF DECOMPOSITION OF OF SULFATES
FOSSIL FUELS LIVING THINGS AND AND SULFIDES
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WASTE PRODUCTS RUNOFF SULFATES IN WATER

IRON SULFIDES SULFATES IN SOIL (SO₄2-) (SO₄2)
ORES IN SEDIMENT
FOSSIL FUELS
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DEPOSITION OF SULFIDES
(MICROORGANISMS)
IN SEDIMENTS
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2) Phosphorous cycle -
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Plants take up The phosphates

When it rains, the phosphate absorbed
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phosphates are ions from the soil by animal through

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removed which then consumption

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form rocks (via moves from plants returns to the

weathering) and to animals when soil through the
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are distributed herbivores eat excretion, as well

throughout plants and as final
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both soils and carnivores eat decomposition of

water. plants or plants and
herbivores. animals.

PLANT
TISSUES
ANIMAL TISSUE
DECOMPOSITION
AND FECES
BY FUNGI AND
BACTERIA
URINE
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ASSIMILATION
BY PLANT CELLS PHOSPHATES
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IN SOIL LOSS IN PHOSPHATES
WEATHERING DRAINGE
OF ROCK IN SOLUTION
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INCORPORATION INTO SEDIMENTARY ROCK : GEOLOGIC
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UPLIFT MOVES THIS ROCK INTO TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENTS
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15. ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
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» Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems.
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» These include provisioning, regulating, and cultural services that directly

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affect people and supporting services needed to maintain the other

services.
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» The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) was initiated in 2001 by

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United Nations, whose objective was to assess the consequences of

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ecosystem change for human well-being, the scientific basis for action
needed to enhance the conservation and sustainable use of those systems
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and their contribution to human well-being.

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ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
PROVISIONING REGULATING
CULTURAL SERVICES
SERVICES SERVICES
The "products" Benefits obtained Nonmaterial benefits
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obtained from from the regulation of obtained from
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ecosystem ecosystem processes ecosystems
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• Educational,
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• Climate regulation,
• Foods, Fibers, • Recreational
• Flood prevention,
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• Ornamentals, Sense of place,
• Erosion control,
• Medicines, • Spiritual,
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• Pest control,
• Biofuels, • Cognitive
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• Pollination,
• Fresh water, development,
• Seed dispersal,
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• Genetic resources • Stress relief,
• Disease regulation ps • Gardening
SUPPORTING SERVICES
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Services necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services

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Biodiversity Nutrient recycling Primary productivity

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ECOSYSTEMS FUNCTIONS SOCIO-ECONOMIC SYSTEMS

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ecosystem use and management other

capital inputs
ecosystem services
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human well-being
- nutrition, clean, air and water
ecological genetic
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benefits - health, safety, security

processes diversity
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- enjoyment
- economic value
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- health value
functional species value
biodiversity - shared (social) value
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traits richness - other values

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drivers of change
biophysical biotic
interactions - Institutions, business
structure
- policies (agriculture, forestry,
response fishery, environment)
state present and future - stakeholders and users

NATURAL CAPITAL
» It includes those elements of the nature that provide
valuable goods and services to humans, such as the stock of
forests, food, clean air, water, land, minerals, etc
» It is essential for economic growth, employment, and,
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ultimately, prosperity.
in
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NATURAL CAPITAL ACCOUNTING
» Also called as environmental-economic accounting.
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» It is a tool that can help to gain an understanding of the
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interaction between the economy and the environment.
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» It can be used to measure the state of ecosystems, flows of
ecosystem services as well as changes in stocks and flows of
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natural resources in relation to economic changes.
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SEEA ps
» System of Environmental-Economic accounting.
» It is a statistical system that brings together economic and
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environmental information into a common framework to

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measure the condition of the environment, the contribution

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of the environment to the economy and the impact of the

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economy on the environment.

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NCAVES
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» Natural Capital Accounting and Valuation of Ecosystem

Services- A project launched by The United Nations Statistics
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Division, UNEP, the Secretariat of the Convention on

Biological Diversity, and the European Union.
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» The project is funded by the European Union, aims to assist

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the five participating partner countries, namely Brazil, China,

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India, Mexico and South Africa, to advance the knowledge

agenda on environmental and ecosystem accounting.
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» The project review policy demands, data availability and

measurement practices in order to advance and mainstream
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natural capital accounting.

16. THE ECONOMICS OF ENVIRONMENT AND
BIODIVERSITY (TEEB)
» Based in Geneva, Switzerland at the International Environment House, the

TEEB office is hosted by the UNEP.
e
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» It is a global initiative focused on “making nature’s values visible” whose
principal objective is to mainstream the values of biodiversity and
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ecosystem services into decision-making at all levels.
l.o
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» In October 2010 it released its report "Mainstreaming the Economics of
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Nature: A Synthesis of the Approach, Conclusion, and Recommendation of
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TEEB" and launched the Bank of Natural Capital to communicate it's findings
to the general public.
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ps
» It is guided by three core principles- Recognizing value in ecosystems can
sometimes ensure conservation; Demonstrating value in economic terms is
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often useful for policy makers and other such as business; Capturing value
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involves the introduction of mechanisms that incorporate the values of

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ecosystems into decision making .

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17. IPBES GLOBAL ASSESSMENT REPORT

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» The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and

Ecosystem Services (IPBES) is an independent intergovernmental body
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established in 2012 with now over 130 member states around the world.
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» It the most comprehensive scientific evaluation ever made of the state of

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our nature, and gives a detailed account of health of the species that
inhabit this earth, and the condition of habitats that they live in and
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depend upon.
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» It is the first intergovernmental Report of its kind and builds on the

landmark Millennium Ecosystem Assessment of 2005, introducing
innovative ways of evaluating evidence.

» The Report concluded that the second-fastest mass extinction event in
planetary history is underway.
» The Report highlighted the importance of indigenous community in
conservation. It notes, “Nature managed by Indigenous People and Local
Communities is under increasing pressure but is generally declining less
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rapidly than in other lands.” This is significant since “at least” a quarter of
in
the world’s land area is “traditionally owned, managed, used or occupied
nl
by indigenous people”.
l.o
ia
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cm
ps
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ENT
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VIRONM
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QUICK REVISION MODULE
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(UPSC PRELIMS 2022)
ECOSYSTEMS cm
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ECOSYSTEMS: They constitute the structural and functional units of the

biosphere, consisting of living beings, their physical environment and the
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interaction among them.

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NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS
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AQUATIC TERRESTRIAL
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MARINE FRESHWATER FOREST DESERT

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RIVER GRASSLAND MOUNTAIN

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LAKE
WETLAND
TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS:
COOL
They constitute the interrelations between POLAR
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organisms and the environment on land. TUNDRA
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BOREAL FOREST
They are divisible into many biomes that TEMP.
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COLD PRAIRIE DECIDUOUS
have varied climate, flora, fauna, soils etc. DESERT FOREST
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No two biomes are alike. TROP. TROP. TROP.
WARM GRASS- SAVANNA DECID RAIN
DESERT LAND FOREST FOREST WARM
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DRY WET
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Arctic Ocean Arctic Ocean
cm
ps
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Pacific
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Atlantic Ocean
Ocean
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Equator
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Indian Equator
Ocean
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Pacific Ocean
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Southern Ocean Southern Ocean

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TYPES OF TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS:
TYPE OF VEGETATION FAUNA OTHERS

TERRESTRIAL BIOME
Tundra Biome: Two The lowest forms like Reindeer, arctic fox, wol- Tundra means barren
types of tundra – mosses, lichens are spar- ves, musk-ox, polar bear, land.
Arctic and Alpine sely found on bare rocks. lemming, arctic hare, arc-
e
Soil is under permafrost.
(high mountains Insects emerge when tic willow.
in
above the tree line) snow thaws. Animals have long life
Insects have short life hick cuticle and epidermal
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cycles which are comp- hair or fur- protectc from
leted during the fav- the cold.
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ourable periods. Mammals- large body size
and small tail and ear to
avoid the loss of heat from
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the surface.
Reptiles and amphibians
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are almost absent.
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Taiga or Boreal Evergreen coniferous Siberian tiger, wolverine, The productivity is lower
Biome: World's largest forest with-spruce, fir and lynx, wolf, bear, red fox, than those of any other
cm
land biome-North pine. squirrel, and amphibians forest ecosystem.
America and Eurasia- The litter derived from like Hyla, Rana, etc.
southern margins of conifer needle (leaf) is ps
the tundra zone. decomposed very slowly
and is not rich in nutrients
(humus content is low)
.u
giving thin podzols and
are nutrient-poor soils.
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Temperate Deciduous and trees shed Fauna are the familiar Precipitation
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Deciduous Biome their leaves in cold season vertebrates and inverte- Uniform throughout the
(North western -an adaptation for prote- brates. year .
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Europe-British Type ction against the winter

snow and frost. Oil- podzolic and fairly
Climate) deep soils.
--
Species include Oak, Elm,

Ash, Birch, Beech, and
Poplar.
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Temperate Rainforest Big coniferous trees do- Fauna are the familiar Grizzly bears- found in
Biome: Northwestern minate- Douglas fir, vertebrates and inverte- Alaska.
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coast of North Western red cedar, brates.

America from Mountain hemlock,
northern California Western hemlock, Sitka
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through southern spruce and Lodgepole

pine.
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Alaska and small areas

around southern Chile, Mosses and lichens are
New Zealand, Australia very common, often
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growing as epiphytes.
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Temperate Trees with small broad Most of the fauna are the Fire is a hazardous factor
Deciduous Biome leaves,widely spaced and familiar vertebrates and Adaptation of the plants
(Mediterranean never very tall. invertebrates. enables them to regen-
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Climate) Regions with adequate erate quickly after being

rainfall are inhabited by burnt.
low, broad-leafed ever-
green trees-evergreen
oaks.
Thus species here are
drought tolerant.
Sub-Tropical Lowlands carry both ever-
Deciduous Biome: green broad-leaved fore-
Eastern China, South sts and deciduous trees
Eastern USA (hardwood).
On the highlands, various
species of conifers such as
pines and cypresses are
important.
Perennial plant growth
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Steppe or Temperate Practically treeless Not much animal diversity.
Grassland Biome Grasses-shortes,fresh and
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nutritious.
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Pole ward-increase in pre-
cipitation-transitional zone
of wooded steppes where
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some conifers gradually
appear.
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Tropical Deciduous Teak, neem, bamboos, sal, Drought-deciduous forest;
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Biome (Monsoon shisham, sandalwood, dry forest; dry deciduous
Climate) khair, mulberry. forest; tropical deciduous
cm
forest.
Savannah or Tropical Tall grass and short trees. Savannah biome is rich in
Wet and Dry Biome mammal, bird and reptile
Deciduous, shedding in
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diversity.
cool, dry season to prevent
excessive loss of water
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through transpiration.
Have broad trunks, with
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water-storing devices to
survive through the prolo-
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nged drought.
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Umbrella shaped, ex-

posing only a narrow edge
to the strong winds.
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Tropical Rain Forest Evergreen trees, plants str- In the coastal areas and
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Biome: uggle upwards (most epip- brackish swamps, man-

High temperature and hytes) for sunlight result- grove forests thrive.
rainfall. ing in a peculiar layered
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arrangement (canopy).
Well-developed layering
of understorey vegetation-
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dense that hardly any light

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reaches ground level

Desert Biome Xerophytic or drought-
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resistant- cacti, thorny

bushes, long-rooted wiry
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grasses and scattered

dwarf acacias.
Long roots, well spaced
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out to gather moisture,

and search for ground
water.
Seeds-have thick, tough
skins to protect them
while they lie dormant.
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS:
Ecosystems consisting of water as the main habitat. Types:
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Brackish water
Freshwater ecosystems: ecosystems:
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Marine ecosystems:
water on land- continuously Salt-5 to 35 ppt. e.g.
cycling, has low salt Salt concentration
estuaries, salt marshes,
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content >5 equal to or above that
of seawater > =35 ppt. mangrove swamps and
lentic and lotic ecosystems. forests.
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AQUATIC ORGANISMS: CLASSIFIED BASED ON ZONE OF OCCURRENCE.
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cm
Neuston:
live at the air-water interface, e.g. floating plants.
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Periphyton:
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Attached to stems and leaves of rooted plants or substances emerging
above the bottom mud.
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Plankton:
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Microscopic floating organisms- both microscopic plants and animals

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Nekton:
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Powerful swimmers that can overcome the water currents.

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Benthos:
Living at the bottom of the water mass
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FACTORS LIMITING THE

PRODUCTIVITY OF
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AQUATIC HABITATS:
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Sunlight, dissolved oxygen,

temperature
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BRACKISH WATER ECOSYSTEMS:
ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM: Where a river or a stream opens into the sea (mouth of the river).
They are transition zone (Ecotone) between river and maritime environments.They are enclosed
coastal area of brackish water (salinity varies between 0-35 ppt) with one or more rivers or
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streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea. Freshwater carrying fertile
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silt and runoff from the land mixes with the salty seawater. They support habitats, such as
mangroves, salt marshes, sea-grass, mudflats etc.
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OSMOREGULATION: Plants and animals in the estuaries are subjected to variations in salinity
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to which they are adapted.
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IMPORTANCE OF ESTUARIES:
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They are transition zones
More productive than wetlands
cm
Experience very little wave action
Precipitation of clay and alluvium particles in the estuarine region is high
ps
Store and recycle nutrients, traps sediment and form a buffer between coastal catchments
and the marine environment.
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They also absorb, trap and detoxify pollutants, acting as a natural water filter.
Estuaries with their wetlands, creeks, lagoons, mangroves and sea-grass beds are rich in natural
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resources including fisheries.

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ESTUARINE VEGETATION:
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Capable of surviving in brackish waters.

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Phytoplanktons of estuaries are diatoms, dinoflagellates, green algae, bluegreen algae.

Towards the sea coast, there are large algae and seagrasses.
Near the mouth of the rivers and deltas, there are mangrove forests.
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There are all kinds of terrestrial or land-based plants and animals, such as wood storks, pelicans,
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coniferous and deciduous trees and butterflies. Estuaries are also home to unique aquatic plants
and animals, such as sea turtles, sea lions, sea catfish, saltworts, eelgrass, salt grasses,
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cordgrasses, seagrass, sedge, bulrush etc.

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INDIA ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM:
The Country has 14 major, 44 medium and 162 minor rivers drains into the sea through various
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estuaries. Most of India’s major estuaries occur on the east coast. In contrast, the estuaries on
the west coast are smaller.
INDIA
FOREST VEGETATION IN INDIA:
NAME RAINFALL REGION CHARACTERISTICS
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Tropical > 200 cm, Near the equator,warm and wet Trees- rosewood, mahogany,
15 to 30 throughout the year. ebony, Bamboos and reeds-
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Evergreen degree
Occupy about 7% of the earth’s Reach heights>= 60 m.
Forests Celsius.
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land surface. Evergreen forests-western
Has more than half of the slopes of the Western Ghats in
world’s plants and animals. States, hills of Jaintia and Khasi.
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Animals-elephants, monkey,
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lemur and deer. One horned
rhinoceros are found in the
jungles of Assam and West
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Bengal.
cm
Tropical 200 -70 Most widespread forests of Trees of this forest type shed
cm. India. their leaves for about six to
Deciduous
eight weeks in dry summer.
Forests
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Also called the monsoon forests
and spread over the region Further divided into moist and
receiving. dry deciduous.
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200 -70 Mostly in the eastern part of the Teak is the most dominant
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Moist cm.
Deciduous country. species of this forest. -Bamboos,
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North-eastern states, along the sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair,

Forests
foothills of the Himalayas, Jhar- kusum, arjun, mulberry are other
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khand, West Orissa and Chhatt- commercially important species.

isgarh,eastern slopes of the
--
Western Ghats.
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Dry 100-70c Rainier parts of the peninsular Trees- Teak, Sal, Peepal, Neem .
m plateau and the plains of Bihar -Large parts-cleared for cult-
Deciduous
and Uttar Pradesh. ivation and some parts are used
Forests
for grazing.
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Animals- Lion, tiger, pig, deer

and elephant. Birds, lizards,
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snakes, and tortoises etc.

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Thorn <70 cm North western part of the Vegetation- thorny trees and
country including semiarid areas bushes.Acacias, palms, eupho-
nl
Forests rbias and cacti are the main plant

of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya
and Scrubs species.
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttar
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Pradesh and Haryana. Trees- scattered, have long roots

penetrating deep into the soil in
order to get moisture.
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The stems are succulent to con-

serve water.
Leaves are mostly thick and
small to minimize evaporation
Montane Moses
Forests & Lichens
Alpine Grass-
land TUNDRA ALPINE
Beyond 3600 mt- FOREST
Shrubs, Scrubs
3000- 3600 mt- Tempe-
rature forests, Grassland-
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MONTANE
Silver fir, Juniper, Pine, FOREST WOODLAND
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Briches
1500-3000 mt - Temperature
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forests with conifers Pine,
Decodar, Silver Fir, Spruce, Cedar ARID DESERT
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(southern slopes of Himalayas) GRASSLAND SHRUB
1000-2000 mt- Wet temperate, ever- Animals-Kashmir stag, spotted
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green broad leaf forest Oak & dear , wild sheep, jackrabbit,
Chestnut Tibetan antelope, yak, snow leo-
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pard, squirrels, Shaggy horn wild
ibex, bear and rare red panda,
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sheep and goats with thick hair.
cm
Mangrove <70 cm Areas of coasts influenced by tides. Ganga Brahmaputra delta,
Mud and silt get accumulated on sundari trees are found, which
Forests
coasts.
ps provide durable hard timber.
Dense mangroves are the common Palm, coconut, keora, agar, also
grow in some parts of the delta.
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varieties with roots of the plants
Royal Bengal Tiger is the famous
submerged underwater. animal in these forests. Turtles,
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Deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, crocodiles, gharials and snakes

the Krishana, the Godavari and the are also found in these forests.
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Kaveri.
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THE INDIA STATE OF FOREST REPORT (ISFR): Biennial report by the Forest Survey of India (FSI).
Starting 1987, 16 assessments completed.
om
FSI: Estb-June 1,1981,under MoEFCC, for assessment and monitoring of the forest resources.
'FOREST AREA' (or recorded forest area) all the geographic areas recorded as forest in
government records.
Fr
'FOREST COVER' all lands more than one hectare in area, having a tree canopy density of more
than 10%.
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FSI REPORT HIGHLIGHTS:
Total forest and tree cover - 80.73 million ha,

24.56% of the geographical area of the country.
The Total Forest cover- 7,12,249 sq km which is 21.67% of the geographical area of the country.
Target is to achieve 33% of area under forest cover.
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Tree cover is 2.89% of the geographical area of the country.
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There is an increase of 5,188 sq. km in the total forest and tree cover of the country.
nl
Range increase in forest cover has been observed in open forest followed by very dense forest
and moderately dense forest.
l.o
Top three states showing increase in forest cover are Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala.
Area-wise Madhya Pradesh has the largest forest cover, followed by Arunachal Pradesh,
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Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Maharashtra.
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In terms of forest cover as percentage of total geographical area, the top five- Mizoram,
Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Manipur and Nagaland.
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Mangrove cover has been separately reported in the ISFR 2019. Total mangrove cover-
cm
4,975 sq km. An increase of 54 sq Kmas compared to 2017.Top three states showing increase
are Gujarat followed by Maharashtra and Odisha ps
Bamboo- Bamboo bearing area-16.00 million hectare. Increase of 0.32 million hectare as
compared to ISFR 2017.
.u
Wetlands- FSI did a national level to identification of wetlands of more than 1 ha within
RFA- 62,466 wetlands covering 3.8% of the area within the Recorded Forest Area/ Green Wash
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(RFA/GW) of the country.

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Carbon Stock- Total carbon stock in country’s forest-7,124.6 million tonnes. An increase of 42.6
million tonnes in the carbon stock of country as compared to 2017. Annual increase- 21.3 million
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tonnes, which is 78.2 million tonnes CO2 eq.

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CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FOREST:

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National Forest Policy, 1988: To Ensure environmental stability and maintenance of ecological
Fr
balance including atmospheric equilibrium.

Derivation of direct economic benefit must be subordinate to this aim.
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Since its inception, forest and tree cover has increased 19.7 % to 24.6 % of the geographical area
(SFI, 2019).
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Involvement of local communities through Joint Forest Management Programme.

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Meeting the requirement of fuel wood, fodder minor forest produce and small timber of the
rural and tribal populations.
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Conservation of Biological Diversity and Genetic Resources of the country through ex-situ and
in-situ conservation measures.
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SOCIAL FORESTRY:
Management and protection of forests and afforestation on barren lands with the purpose of
helping in the environmental, social and rural development.
NATIONAL AGROFORESTRY POLICY 2014 OBJECTIVES
Promote agroforestry to increase farm income and livelihoods of rural households, especially
the small and marginal farmers.
Protect and stabilise ecosystems, and promote resilient cropping and farming systems to
minimise the risk during extreme climatic events.
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Provide raw material to wood-based industries, creating new avenues for rural employment,
in
and reduce pressure on the forests.
To develop capacity and strengthen research in agroforestry and create a massive people’s
nl
movement for achieving these objectives.
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NAGAR VAN SCHEME (MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, FOREST AND CLIMATE CHANGE)
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It aims at developing 200 Nagar Van (Urban Forests) across the country in next five years in
cities having Municipal Corporation or Municipalities by involving local communities, educ-
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ational institutions, local bodies, NGOs etc.
cm
Minimum of 20 ha of forests will be created in the city-either on existing forest land or on any
other vacant land offered by urban local bodies.
Van Udyan once established will be maintained by the State Government.
ps
Cities authorities will be encouraged to have a city forest comprising area up to 100 ha in forest
area within their jurisdiction.
.u
In part, paid for by the CAMPA funds.
Also linked to the Schools Nursery Yojana that aims to build lasting bond between students and
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nature.
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Warje Urban Forest in Pune (Maharashtra) - role model for the Scheme.
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NATIONAL AFFORESTATION PROGRAMME:

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Formulated by the merger of four 9th Plan centrally sponsored afforestation schemes of the
MoEFCC.
Objective is ecological restoration of degraded forests and to develop the forest resources with
Fr
peoples’ participation, with focus on improvement in livelihoods of the forest-fringe com-

munities, especially the poor.
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GREEN INDIA MISSION (GIM):

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Under the umbrella of National Action Plan for Climate Change, launched in 2014.
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The primary aim is to protect, restore and enhance India’s diminishing forest cover.
Objectives: Growth in forest or tree cover to 5 million hectares (mha) and increase the quality
of forest cover in another 5 million hectares of forest or non-forest lands.
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SUB-TARGETS
Increase the quality of degrading moderately dense forests – 1.5 million hectares (ha).
Ecologically restore open forests which are being degraded – 3 million hectares (ha)
Grasslands revival – 0.4 million hectares
Wetlands revival – 0.10 million hectares
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Ecological restoration of shifting cultivation areas, mangroves, scrub, ravines, cold deserts, &
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abandoned mining areas – 1.8 million hectares with different sub-targets.
Increase in forest cover in urban areas and its outskirts – 0.20 million hectares.
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Increase forest and tree cover on marginal agricultural lands/fallows and other non-forest
l.o
lands which comes under agroforestry – 3 million ha.
Increase forest-based livelihood income for about 3 million households in and around these
forest areas.
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Increase Carbon Dioxide sequestration to a range of 50 to 60 million tonnes by 2020.
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ACT OBJECTIVES PROVISIONS
cm
Compensatory It refers to the affore- National Compensatory Afforestation Fund (NCAF)
Afforestation Fund station and regeneration under the Public account of India
ps
Act 2016 activities carried out as a State Compensatory Afforestation Funds under public
way of compensating for accounts of states. -Centre:state - 10:90.
.u
forest land which is div- For compensatory afforestation, additional compe-
erted to non- forest nsatory afforestation, penal compensatory affore-
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purposes. station, net present value, catchment area treatment

plan or any money for compliance of conditions stipul-
w
ated by the Central Government while according app-

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roval under the provisions of the Forest (Conservation)

Act, 1980.
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Statutory status-National Compensatory Afforestation

Fund Management and Planning.
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Authority (NCAFMPA),State Compensatory Affore-

station Fund Management and Planning
Authority for utilisation of State Compensatory Affore-
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station Fund.
Constitution of a multidisciplinary monitoring group
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to monitor activities undertaken from these funds.

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Annual audit of the accounts by the Comptroller and

Auditor General.
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Forest To check further defore- Restricts use of forest for non-forest purpose Restricts
Conservation Act, station and conserve de- reservation of reserve forests.
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1980 forests Regulates diversion of forest land by way of lease to

private industries and individuals.
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Restricts clear felling of trees.

Constitution of Advisory Committee for grant of
approval for any of the activities above.
Indian Forest Act, To consolidate laws Establishes three classes of forests-Reserve Forest ,
1927 relating to forests, transit Protected Forest and Village Forest.
of forest produce and Detailed process of settlement of rights through the
duty leviable on timber FSO.
and forest produce
Deals with control over forests not being the property
of the Government.
Deals with duty on timber and other forest produce
e
and in transit.
in
Regulate the rights of the ownersin drift and stranded
nl
timber.
Power to reserve specific tree species in reserve forest.
l.o
The Biological Conservation of Estb National Biodiversity Authority, State Biodiversity
ia
Diversity Act 2002 Biological Diversity, Board.
sustainable use of its
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Requires the Central Government to develop National
components and Strategies, plans, programmes for the objectives of
equitable sharing of the
at
the Act.
benefits of biological
resources. Requires the Central Govt. to notify threatened
cm
species and the State Govt. to notify biodiversity
heritage sites.
Mandates every local body to constitute Biodiversity
ps
Management Committee.
Provides for establishment of Local Biodiversity Funds
.u
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NATIONAL BAMBOO MISSION (NBM):

w
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Centrally Sponsored Scheme in 2006-07 and was subsumed under Mission for Integrated
Development of Horticulture (MIDH) during 2014-15 and continued till 2015-16.
--
Restructured in 2018-19 for holistic development of complete value chain of sector.

In 2017, Indian Forest Act 1927 was amended to remove bamboo from the category of trees.
om
This allows cultivation and felling of bamboo and its products without any felling and transit
permissions outside forests.
Fr
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FOR DETAILED ENQUIRY, PLEASE CALL:

12
Vision IAS
www.visionias.in GUWAHATI
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cm
ps
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QUICK REVISION MODULE ( UPSC PRELIMS 2022)
BIODIVERSITY
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Fr
INTRODUCTION
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Biodiversity is the diversity of and in living nature

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The term biodiversity was coined by Walter G. Rosen in the year 1986.
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The 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro defined biodiversity as: “The variability
among living organisms from all sources, including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and
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other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this
includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.”
ENQUIRY@VISIONIAS.IN /C/VISIIONIASDELHI /VISION_IAS VISION_IAS WWW.VISIONIAS.IN /VISIONIAS_UPSC

LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY
It is determined by the number of species within a biological
community and by the relative abundance of individuals in that
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community.
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Species abundance is the number of individuals per species, and
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Species
diversity relative abundance refers to the evenness of distribution of
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individuals among species in a community.
ia
It describes the aggregation of and interaction of species with
er
one another and deals with the variations in ecosystems within a
at
Ecosystem geographical location and its overall impact on human existence
diversity and the environment especially during stress conditions.
cm
ps
It is the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic
makeup of a species and is distinguished from genetic variability,
.u
which describes the tendency of genetic characteristics to vary.
Genetic
w
The magnitude of variation increases along with size and

diversity environmental parameters.
w
w
Ecosystem Diversity
--
Physical and chemical diversity of ecotones and habitats in
and niches, e.g. the diversity of pollutant

Diversity of realized ecological functions
om
oceans, lakes and streams

Fr
degradation pathways
Community and Species Diversity
Functional Diversity
Diversity of biological communities and species, e.g. the

d
number of species in a stream

oa
nl
Intraspecic Diversity
ow
Polulation diversity and phenotypic variation within species,

including behavioural variation
D
Genetic Diversity
Genetic variation within individuals or populations, to the
genetic diversity of entire ecosystems

Intraspecic Population Phenotype Functional
e
diversity diversity refers to all Diversity is a
in
is the variation may be measured the observable function of
within a population in terms of the characteristics of functionally
nl
from the same variation in genetic an organism that disparate species
l.o
species. and morphological result from the within a
features that interaction of its population.
ia
define the different genotype with the
er
populations. environment.
at
MEASURMENT OF BIODIVERSITY
cm
ps
.u
ά-Diversity- Alpha diversity refers to diversity within a particular area,

w
community or ecosystem, and is measured by counting the number of

w
taxa (usually species) within the ecosystem.

w
Species β-Diversity- Beta diversity is species diversity between ecosystems; this

Richness involves comparing the number of taxa that are unique to each of the
--
ecosystems.
ϒ-Diversity- Gamma diversity is a measurement of the overall diversity
om
for different ecosystems within a region.

Fr
It refers to how close in numbers each species in an environment is.

Species
d
Mathematically, it is defined as a diversity index, a measure of

Evenness
oa
biodiversity which quantifies how equal the community is numerically.

nl
ow
D

Biodiversity is variety of organisms present in a ecosystem
e
Richness- The number of Evenness- if a habitat has
in
different species present similar abundance for each
nl
species present, the habitat is
said to have evenness
l.o
ia
er
at
cm
ps
More species therefore highest Greatest evenness as the two
richness populations have similar
.u
abundance.
w
Species richness and evenness in measurement of biodiversity

w
w
Species diversity and Ecosystem Stability- A stable community should not show too
--
much variation in productivity from year to year; it must be either resistant or resilient to
occasional disturbances (natural or man-made), and it must also be resistant to
om
invasions by alien species.

David Tilman’s Long-term Ecosystem experiments using outdoor plots found that
Fr
plots with more species diversity showed less year-to-year variation in total biomass. He
also showed that increased biodiversity contributed to higher productivity.
d
Rivet Popper Hypothesis: It was given by ecologist Paul Elrich to explain the
oa
importance of species richness in maintaining the health of an ecosystem.

Simpson’s Index: The Simpson’s reciprocal index can be used to measure the relative
nl
biodiversity of a given community. It takes into account both the number of species
ow
present (richness) and the number of individuals per species (evenness). A higher index
value is indicative of a greater degree of biodiversity within the community.
D
Shanon-Wiener Index: is used to describe the disorder and uncertainty of individual

species. The higher the uncertainty, the higher the diversity. There are two factors in
Shannon-Weiner diversity index= number of species, i.e. richness and the average or
evenness of individual distribution in the species. A large number of species can increase
diversity.

PATTERNS OF BIODIVERSITY
Patterns of Biodiversity
e
in
Latitudinal gradient
nl
1. The diversity of plants and animals shows an uneven distribution
throughout the world.
l.o
2. Species diversity decreases as we move away from the equator towards the poles.
With very few exceptions, tropics (latitudinal range of 23.5° N to 23.5° S) harbour
ia
more species than temperate or polar areas.
er
at
Impact of Altitude
cm
1. Elevational diversity gradient (EDG) is an ecological pattern where biodiversity
changes with elevation. The EDG states that species richness tends to increase as
ps
elevation increases, up to a certain point, creating a "diversity bulge" at middle
elevations.
.u
2. Larger areas are able to support more species. As elevation increases, total area
w
decreases; thus, there are more species present at middle elevations than high
elevations.
w
3. Diversity increases with increasing rainfall, however the correlation between rainfall
w
and plant diversity varies from region to region. Rainfall and soil richness affect
productivity trends which are also believed to affect diversity. A mid elevation peak
--
is usually seen in mean annual rainfall.

om
4. An increase in diversity can be seen when an increase in the diversity of available

resources such as soil and food is present. Diversity increases in an area of higher
resource diversity even when resource abundance is constant.
Fr
5. Productivity decreases with an increase in elevation, however there is some research

that shows a peak in productivity at mid elevation which may be related to a peak in
d
rainfall within the same area.

oa
6. Increasing temperature results in increase in species diversity, mainly because of

temperature's effect on productivity.
nl
7. Competition either leads to increase in diversity or decrease in diversity

ow
D
Species Area Relationship

1. Within a region, species richness increases with increased explored area, but only
upto a limit.

THE BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONES OF
INDIA AND THEIR BIODIVERSITY
Biogeographic zones represent the major species groupings. In addition, each of these
e
ten zones indicates a distinctive set of physical, climatic and historical conditions.
in
nl
INDIA
l.o
Biogeographic
ia
Zones
er
at
cm
ps
.u
w
w
w
--
om
Fr
Lakshadweep Andaman and Nicobar

d
oa
nl
Trans - Himalayas Deccan Peninsula

ow
Himalayas Gangetic plain

Desert North East India
D
Semi - Arid Island

Western Ghats Coasts

Biogeographic Geographical Flora Fauna
zones area
Area= 1,86,200 sq. km Alpine steppe. Wild Yak, Tibetan
e
• Ladakh and Lahul- Ass, Tibetan
in
Spiti, with altitude Gazelle, Ibex and
between 4,500 and Tibetan Antelope.
nl
1. Trans 6,000 m. • Snow Leopard,
Himalayan
l.o
• Extremely fragile Indian Wolf,
Zone ecosystem- harsh Pallas’s Cat, Fox,
climatic conditions and • Black-necked
ia
the inhospitable terrain. Crane.
er
at
Over 2,000 km from Lower sub-tropical Central part= Ibex,
east to West in India. foothills= Chir Pine and Markhor and Hangul.
cm
• One of the richest Ban Oak. • Eastern part=
areas of India in • Temperate areas=
ps Mishmi Takin, a Snow
2. The terms of habitat and Maples, Walnuts, Leopard, Indian
Himalayas species diversity. Oak, Blue Pine, Fir and Rhinoceros, clouded
.u
Spruce. Leopards.
• Sub-alpine region= • Western part=
w
Birch and Kashmir stag or

Rhododendrons. Hangul.
w
• Western region=
w
Blue Pine and

Deodars.
--
Occupies 15% of the Natural vegetation= • Blackbuck,

om
total area in our Tropical thorn Chowsingha,

country. forests and tropical Gazelle and Nilgai
Fr
• It is a transition dry deciduous (largest

zone between the forests, moisture Asian antelope).
desert and the forests (extreme • Endemic species=
d
3. The dense forests of north) and mangroves. Lion of Gir.

oa
Desert Western Ghats. • Acacia and

Prosopis, Calotropis,
nl
Gymnosporia, etc.
• Salvadora and
ow
Tamarix.
D


• Occupies 15% of • Natural vegetation= • Blackbuck,
the total area in our Tropical thorn forests Chowsingha,
country. and tropical dry Gazelle and Nilgai
• It is a transition zone deciduous forests, (largest
4. The between the moisture forests Asian antelope).
e
Semi-Arid desert and the dense (extreme north) and • Endemic species=
in
forests of mangroves. Lion of Gir.
Western Ghats. • Acacia and
nl
Prosopis, Calotropis,
l.o
Gymnosporia, etc.
• Salvadora and
ia
Tamarix.
er
• One of the major • Tropical evergreen • Primates – Nilgiri
tropical evergreen forests, moist Langur and Lion-tailed
at
forest regions in India. deciduous forests, Macaque.
cm
• A large chunk of the dry deciduous • Rodents –
forest cover has forests, scrub Plataconthomys,
been lost in recent jungles, sholas,
ps the Spiny Dormouse.
5. The years. savannas including • Squirrels – Several
Western • About two-thirds of high rainfall subspecies of Ratufa
.u
Ghats India’s endemic savannas, peat bogs indica with separate
plants are confined to and Myristica forms in Maharashtra,
w
this region. swamps. Mysore, Malabar and

w
Tamil Nadu Ghats. The

Grizzled Squirrel is
w
restricted to two
localities in the drier
--
Tamil Nadu Forest.

om
• Carnivores – Malabar
Civet in southern
evergreen forests,
Fr
Rusty spotted Cat in

northern deciduous
d
forests.
oa
• Ungulates – Nilgiri
Tahr in Nilgiris to
nl
Agastyamalai
montane grassland.
ow
• Hornbills – Malabar
Grey Hornbill.
• Tiger, Leopard,
D
Dhole, Sloth Bear,

Indian Elephant and
Gaur.

• It covers the largest • Deciduous forest, Chital, Sambar,
area in India that thorn forests and Nilgai, Chowsingha,
amounts to about 43% degraded shrublands. Barking Deer,
of the total land • Small areas of semi- Gaur, Blackbuck,
6. The Deccan mass. evergreen forests Elephant and
e
Peninsula in the Eastern Ghats Wild Buffalo.
in
and, dry evergreen
forests or thorn scrub
nl
on the coastal side of
l.o
the plains of Andhra
Pradesh and Tamil
ia
Nadu.
er
• One of the most • Moist deciduous • Nilgai, Blackbuck
fertile areas in the forests. and Chinkara.
at
7. The world. • The forests have • Crocodile – Mugger
cm
Gangetic • Major portion of this largely been and Gharial, Gangetic
Plain area has been replaced with Dolphin and
brought under intensive agriculture.
ps freshwater turtle.
cultivation.
.u
• It represents the • Natural vegetation • Rhinoceros, Buffalo,
transition zone of Brahmaputra Swamp Deer, Hog
w
between India, valley– swamps, Deer, Pygmy Hog

w
Indo-Malayan and grasslands and and Hispid Hare,

w
Indo-Chinese regions fringing woodlands Elephant.

as well as the and forests. • Flyway for waterfowl
8. North-East
--
meeting point of and other birds

India Himalayan mountains traveling between
om
and Peninsular India. the warmth of the

• Rich biological subcontinent and their
diversity and a large summer grounds in
Fr
number of endemic Siberia and China.

species.
d
oa
• A unique kind of 1. Andaman and 1. Andaman and

plant and animal life Nicobar group of Nicobar group of
nl
exhibiting a high islands in the Bay of islands in the Bay of

degree of endemism. Bengal- Bengal-
ow
• Tropical rainforest • The state bird of

canopy. Andaman (the
9) The Islands
D
• South Andaman Andaman wood

Forest= Eepiphytic pigeon), the
vegetation, mostly Narcondam hornbill
ferns, and orchids.

Middle Andamans= (found exclusively in
Moist deciduous the Narcondam
forests. islands), the Andaman
• North Andaman= scop’s owl, the
Wet evergreen type. blue-eared kingfisher,
e
• North Nicobar and the fulvous
in
Islands= Complete breasted woodpecker.
absence of evergreen • Wild boars,
nl
forests. elephants, various
l.o
• Central and species of sea turtles,
Southern islands of and wild saltwater
ia
the Nicobar group= crocodiles.
Evergreen forests.
er
2) Lakshadweep in the
• Grasslands occur
Arabian Sea-
only in the Nicobars,
at
• Elaborate marine life.
and while deciduous
• Commonly seen
cm
forests are common
vertebrates are cattle
in the Andamans,
and poultry.
they are almost
ps • Oceanic birds like
absent in the
Tharathasi and
Nicobars.
.u
Karifetu.
2) Lakshadweep in • Molluscan forms,
w
the Arabian Sea- Money Cowrie, Crabs,

w
• Banana, Vazha, Colorful coral fish such

Colocassia, Chambu, as parrot fish, Butterfly
w
Bread Fruit, Chakka, fish, Surgeon fish are

wild almond. also found in plenty.
--
• Shrub jungles plants

like Kanni, Punna,
om
Chavok, Cheerani.
• Two different
Fr
varieties of sea grass

are seen on the
beaches.
d
oa
10. The A vast coastal Mangroves, Dugong, Hump-back

Coasts Dolphin of estuarine
nl
stretch of about Casuarina, Calophyllum,

5689 km. Pandanus. turbid waters,
ow
• West= Arabian Sea • Marine angiosperm Estuarine or salt-

washes the shores pastures, Raised water Crocodile,
of Gujarat, corals and rocky coast Olive Ridley, Green,
D
Maharashtra, Goa, lines. Hawksbill, Leather

Karnataka and Kerala and Loggerhead Sea
States. Turtles, the

• East= Bay of Bengal Estuarine Turtle –
washes the coasts Batagur basker of
of Sunderbans in Sunderbans and the
West Bengal, Odisha, huge Softshell
Andhra Pradesh and Estuarine Turtle,
e
Tamil Nadu states. Pelochelys birbornii off
in
• South= Gulf of the Utkal-Bengal
Manaar and Indian Coast fish –mud
nl
Ocean. skippers or
l.o
semiterrestrial Gobies,
small Crabs in
ia
association with
Anemones, avifaunal
er
communities of
mangrove, mud flats
at
and lagoons.
cm
• Spotted Deer, Pigs,
Monitor Lizards,
ps Monkeys, and the
Sunderban Tiger.
.u
w
BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS
w
w
--
• Conservation International was a pioneer in defining and promoting the concept of

hotspots.
om
• Hot spots are areas that are extremely rich in species, have high endemism and are
under constant threat.
Fr
• Myers (1988) identified 18 regions or “Hot spots” around the world which contain
nearly 50,000 endemic plant species, or 20% of the world’s plant
d
species, in just 746,000 km2, or 0.5% of the Earth’s total land surface.
oa
• Two criteria to qualify as biodiversity hotspots- 1) It must have at least 1,500 vascular
plants as endemics. 2) It must have 30% or less of its original
nl
natural vegetation, i.e., it must be threatened.

ow
D


e
in
nl
l.o
ia
er
at
HOTSPOT
Conservation International
cm
February 2005
The map shows 34 biodiversity hotspots which cover 2.3% of the Earth's land surface,
ps
yet more than 50% of the world’s plant species and 42% of all terrestrial vertebrate
species are endemic to these areas (Conservation International).
.u
BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS IN INDIA

w
w
w
It includes the entire Indian Himalayan region (and that falling in

Pakistan, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, China and Myanmar).
--
Large areas of remaining habitat in the hotspot are highly

Himalaya
om
degraded.
Threats= Overgrazing, poaching, mining, the construction of roads
and large dams, and pollution due to the use of agrochemicals.
Fr
d
It includes entire North-eastern India, except Assam and

oa
Andaman group of Islands (and Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam,

Laos, Cambodia and southern China).
nl
Endemism in freshwater turtle species.

Bird life in IndoBurma is also incredibly diverse that includes
ow
threatened species like white-eared night-heron, the grey crowned

Indo-Burma
crocias, and the orange-necked partridge.
D
One of the most threatened biodiversity hotspots-only about 5%

of natural habitats remain in pristine condition.
Threats= Forest destruction; tree plantations (teak, rubber, oil palm),
logging, mining for gems and ore, firewood collection, and charcoal
production.

It includes Nicobar group of Islands (and Indonesia, Malaysia,
Singapore, Brunei, Philippines).
Sundalands
Threats= explosive growth of industrial forestry, international
animal trade, forests are being cleared for commercial uses.
e
in
It includes entire Western Ghats (and Sri Lanka).
Western
Species= Asian Elephants, Indian Tigers, and the Endangered
nl
Ghats and Lion-tailed Macaque,freshwater fish endemism, with over 140
l.o
Sri Lanka native species.
Threats= Population pressure, forest fragmentation, poaching.
ia
er
at
N
cm
Jammu - Kashmir
0 150 300
ps 600 900
Kilometers
Himachal
Pradesh Chandigarh
.u
Punjab
Uttarakhand
Haryana
w
Delhi Arunachal
Pradesh
w
Sikkim
Uttar Pradesh Assam
Rajathan
w
Nagaland
Bihar Meghalaya
Manipur
--
Jharkhand Tripura
Madhya Pradesh West
Gujarat Bengal Mizoram
om
h
ar
sg
tti
ha
Orissa
Ch
Fr
Daman and Diu

Maharashtra
Dadra and
Nagar Haveli
Telangana
d
oa
sh
de
ra
Goa r aP
ARABIAN SEA dh
Karnataka An
nl
ow
Biodiversity Hostspots
Tamil Nadu Puducherry
Andaman and Nicobar
Kerala Islands The Himalaya
D
Lakshadweep
Indo-Burma Region
The Western Ghats

INDIAN OCEAN
Sundaland

India- A Mega-Biodiversity Country:
Four hot spots out of 34 global biodiversity hot spots are in India.
The endemics of Indian biodiversity is high i.e., about 33% of the recorded flora is
endemic to the country.
India has 26 recognized endemism centers that are home to nearly a third of all the
e
flowering plants identified and described to date in the country.
in
India has two major realms called the Palearctic and the Indo-Malayan.
nl
India has three biomes i.e., tropical humid forests, tropical deciduous forests and the
warm deserts/semi-deserts.
l.o
India has ten biogeographic regions.
ia
India is one of the 12 centers of origin of cultivated plants
er
at
cm
ps
.u
w
w
w
--
om
Fr
d
oa
nl
ow
D

D
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nl
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at
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nl
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nl
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--
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nl
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--
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(UPSC PRELIMS 2022)
at
WETLANDS AND cm
ps
.u
w
MANGROVES
w
w
--
om
WETLANDS ARE TRANSITION ZONES (ECO TONE)

BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL AND AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS.
Fr
Static or flowing, fresh, brackish or saline

d
oa
Includes areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed 6 m.
nl
e.g. Mangroves, lake littorals , floodplains and other marshy or swampy areas.
ow
Has hydrophytes and hydric soils.

D
Occupy 18.4% of the country’s area of which 70% are under paddy cultivation.
NATURAL
e.g. Lake/pond, Cut-off meander,
Swamp, Marsh, Waterlogged.
INLAND WETLAND
MAN MADE
e
e.g. Reservior, Tanks.
in
nl
WETLAND
NATURAL
l.o
e.g. Estuary, Lagoon, Creek, Coral Reef,
Mangroove.
ia
COASTAL WETLAND
er
MAN MADE
at
e.g. Aquaculture, Salt Pan.
cm
ps
TYPES OF WETLANDS:
.u
w
MARINE
w
Coastal wetlands including coastal lagoons, rocky shores, and coral reefs.
w
--
ESTUARINE
Including deltas, tidal marshes, and mangrove swamps.
om
LACUSTRINE
Fr
Wetlands associated with lakes.

d
RIVERINE
oa
Wetlands along rivers and streams.

nl
PALUSTRINE
ow
Meaning “marshy” - marshes, swamps and bogs.

D
HUMAN-MADE WETLANDS
such as fish and shrimp ponds, farm ponds, irrigated agricultural land, saltpans,
reservoirs, gravel pits, sewage farms and canals. Also termed as urban wetland.
e
in
nl
l.o
ia
er
at
cm
ps
.u
PEATLAND are a heterogeneous mixture of plant material that had accumulated in a
water-saturated area and are only partially decomposed due to the absence of oxygen.
w
w
Types of peat are – swamp forests, fens, bogs or mires.

w
Formed in areas with permanent water saturation i.e. either terrestrialisation or palaudification
They are mostly found in permafrost regions towards the poles and at high altitudes, in coastal
--
areas, beneath tropical rainforest and in boreal forests.

om
Countries with the largest peatland areas are – Russia, Canada, Indonesia, USA, Finlandetc.
Brazzaville Declaration was signed to promote better management and conservation of Cuvette
Fr
Centrale Region in Congo Basin

GPI: Global Peatlands Initiatives: is an initiative by leading experts and institutions to save
d
peatlands as the world’s largest terrestrial organic carbon stock and to prevent it from being
oa
emitted.
nl
ow
D
CHARACTERISTIC LAKE WEATLAND (SHALLOW LAKE)
Origin Largest is due to tectonic Mostly Fluvial, Residual lakes
forces: Fluvial, Geomorphic,
in the water table, etc.
Water turnover Permanent Permanent or Temporary
Water level changes Relatively Small Relatively Large
e
in
Thermal stratification Yes No
nl
Vertical mixing Thermally regulated Wind regulated
l.o
Dominant Producer Phytoplankton Macrophytes
ia
Food chain Graxing Pathway Detritus pathway
Productivity Low High
er
Trophic status Oligotrophic Mostly Eutrophic
at
Functions-Flood control Less Significant Significant
cm
Waster treatment No Yes
ps
.u
WETLAND BIODIVERSITY MATTERS
w
FOR CLIMATE AND BIODIVERSITY

w
30% of land-based carbon is stores in peatlands.

w
Role in flood mitigation by controlling the rate of runoff

Act as a riparian buffer against erosion and pollutants.
--
Habitat to aquatic flora and fauna, numerous species of native and migratory birds
om
FOR CLEAN WATER

Swaps and rewards remove pollutants.
Fr
Water purification, filtration of sediments and nutrients from surface water.

Nutrients recycling, groundwater recharging and stabilisation of local climate.
d
oa
FOR JOBS
nl
One billion people depend on wetlands for their livelihoods.

ow
FOR ECONOMIES
Wetlands provide USD 47 trillion in essential services annually
D
Important resource for sustainable tourism.

Genetic reservoir for various species of plants (especially rice).
REASONS FOR DEPLETION:
Excessive pollutants dumped into wetlands beyond the recycling capacity.

Habitat destruction and deforestation.
Conversion of wetlands for agriculture and encroachments.
Overfishing and fish farming (Aquaculture).
e
Overgrazing in marshy soils.
in
Removal of sand from beds near seas makes the wetland vulnerable to wave action and
nl
tidal bore.
l.o
ia
MEASURE TO PROTECT WETLAND:
er
GLOBAL CONSERVATION EFFORTS:
at
RAMSAR CONVENTION 1975:
cm
For “the conservation and wise use of all wetlands through local and national actions
and international cooperation, as a contribution towards achieving sustainable develop-
ment throughout the world”. The philosophy is the “wise use” of wetlands-“the
ps
maintenance of their ecological character, achieved through the implementation of
ecosystem approaches, within the context of sustainable development”
.u
India has 41 Ramsar sites.
Wetlands in India account for 4.7% of the total geographical area.
w
Chilika Lake (largest Ramsar Site of India) and Keoladeo National Park- first Ramsar
w
Sites of India.
w
Uttar Pradesh has largest number of Ramsar Sites in India with 8 Indian Wetlands.
Renuka Wetland (Himachal Pradesh) smallest wetland of India
--
om
MONTREUX RECORD:
Fr
A register of wetland sites on the List of Wetlands of International Importance where

d
changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring, or are likely to occur as a
oa
result of technological developments, pollution or other human interference.

Indian sites: Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) and Loktak Lake (Manipur). Chilka lake
nl
(Odisha) was placed in the record but was later removed from it.
ow
D
RAMASAR SITES OF INDIA LOCATION
Asan Conservation Reserve Uttarakhand (October 2020)
Ashtamudi Wetland Kerala

Beas Conservation Reserve Punjab
e
Bhitarkanika Mangroves Odisha
in
Bhoj Wetlands Madhya Pradesh
nl
Chandra Taal Himachal Pradesh
l.o
Chilika Lake Odisha
ia
Deepor Beel Assam
er
East kolkata Wetlands West Bengal
at
Harike Wetlands Punjab
cm
Hokera Wetland Jammu and Kashmir
Kabartal Wetland Bihar (October 2020)
ps
Kanjli Wetland Punjab
.u
Keoladeo Ghana National Park Rajasthan

w
Keshopur-Miani Community Reserve Punjab

w
Kolleru Lake Andhra Pradesh

w
Loktak Lake Manipur

--
Lonar Lake Maharashtra (November 2020)

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Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary Gujrat

Nandur Madhameshwar Maharashtra
Fr
Nangal Wildlife Sanctuary Punjab

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Nawabganj Bird Sanctuary Uttar Pradesh

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Parvati Agra Bird sanctuary Uttar Pradesh

nl
Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary Tamil Nadu

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Pong Dam Lake Himachal Pradesh

Renuka Lake Himachal Pradesh
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Ropar Wetland Punjab

Rudrasagar Lake Tripura
Saman Bird Sanctuary Uttar Pradesh
Samaspur Bird Sanctuary Uttar Pradesh
Sambhar Lake Rajasthan
Sandi Bird Sanctuary Uttar Pradesh
Sarsal Nawar Jheel Uttar Pradesh
Sasthamkotta Lake Kerala
e
in
Sunderbans Wetland West Bengal
nl
Surinsar-Mansar Lakes Jammu and kashmir
l.o
Sur Sarovar Uttar Pradesh (November 2020)
Tsomoriri Jammu and Kashmir
ia
Upper Ganga River Uttar Pradesh
er
Vembanad Kol Wetland Kerala
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Wular Lake Jammu and Kashmir
cm
ps
CONSERVATION EFFORTS BY INDIA:
.u
NATIONAL PLAN FOR CONSERVATION OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS (NPCA):

w
For both wetlands and lakes, centrally sponsored scheme, under MoEFCC.
w
Wetlands Authority within a state is the nodal authority for all wetland-specific enforce-
w
ment of the rules.

--
WETLANDS (CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT) RULES, 2017:

om
Central government has empowered the states and union territories to identify and
manage their wetlands.
Shall apply to Wetlands categorised as 'wetlands of international importance' under
Fr
the Ramsar Convention.

Wetlands as notified by the Central Government, State Government and Union Territory
d
Administration.
oa
Constitute State Wetlands Authority in each State and union territories that will be
headed by the State’s environment minister and include a range of government officials.
nl
They will determine, the ‘wide use principle,’ that shall govern the management of
wetlands.
ow
Setting Up National Wetlands Committee: It will replace Central Wetlands Regulatory

Authority (CWRA), to monitor implementation of these rules and advise the Central
D
Government on appropriate policies and action programmes for conservation and wise
use of wetlands.
MANGROVES
Mangroves are Ecotones, characteristic littoral forest ecosystem, mostly evergreen forests
that grow in sheltered low lying coasts, estuaries, mudflats, tidal creeks backwaters, marshes
and lagoons of tropical and subtropical regions, below the high water level of spring tides.
They are highly productive ecosystems, occuring worldwide in the tropics and subtropics,
mainly between latitudes 25° N and 25° S
e
in
They protect the shoreline from the effect of cyclones and tsunamis.
nl
They are breeding and spawning ground for many commercially important fishes.
l.o
They are halophytes, adapted to harsh coastal conditions.
Vegetation facilitates more water loss-Leaves are thick and contain salt-secreting glands.
ia
Some block absorption of salt at their roots itself. They contain a complex salt filtration system
er
and complex root system to cope with salt water immersion and wave action.
at
They are adapted to the low oxygen (anoxic) conditions of waterlogged mud.
cm
They require high solar radiation to filter saline water through their roots
Confined to only tropical and sub-tropical coastal waters
ps
Mangroves exhibit Viviparity mode of reproduction. i.e. seeds germinate in the tree itself
(before falling to the ground). This is an adaptive mechanism to overcome the problem of
.u
germination in saline water.

w
Pneumatophores (blind roots) to overcome the respiration problem in the anaerobic soil
w
conditions.
w
Rhizophora send arching prop roots down into the water.

--
Avicenna stands vertical “Pneumatophores” or air roots up from the mud.

Adventitious roots which emerged from the main trunk of a tree above ground level are
om
called stilt roots.

Fr
MANGROVES IN INDIA:
d
oa
India has nearly 3.3% of worlds’ mangrove vegetation.

nl
EAST COAST:
ow
Sundarbans are the largest single block of tidal halophyticmangroves of the world- famous
for the Royal Bengal Tiger andcrocodiles.
D
Bhitarkanika (Orissa),
Godavari-Krishna deltaic regions of Andhra Pradesh.
Pichavaram and Vedaranyam (Tamil Nadu)
Mangrovers
e
of Gujrat
in
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Mahanadi
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Mangrovers
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Goa Sundarbans
Mangrovers Mangrovers
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Ratnagiri Krishna Godavari Mangrovers
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Mangrovers
cm
Andaman and
Nicobar Islands Mangrovers
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Cauvery deltaic
Mangrovers
.u
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WEST COAST :
w
Mostly scrubby and degraded occur along the intertidal region of estuaries and creeks in
w
Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka.

In Kerala is they are very sparse and thin.
--
In Gujarat mangroves Avicennia marine, Avicennia officinalis and Rhizophora mucronata are
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found mainly in Gulf of Kutchand the Kori creek.

Fr
d
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IMPORTANCE OF MANGROVES
MANGROVE SERVICES
Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems. Ecosystem services can be
grouped in four broad categories:provisining, such as the production of food and water:
regulating, such as disaster risk reduction (DDR) and control of disecase, supporting, such as
nutrient cycling and water purification; and cultural, such as spiritual and recreational benefits.
e
To help inform decision makers many ecosystem services are being assigned economic values.
in
nl
Recreational fishing around mangroves contributes $1 billion
l.o
per year towards Florida’s economy.
ia
ECO TOURISM
As nurseries for many fish species, mangroves have many young fish, jellyfish, urchins and
er
other animals among their intervowen roots, making snorkeling expeditions very popular.
Eco-tourism in mangroves areas is a growing industry with great potentional, which values
at
the mangroves intact and as they stand.
cm
Mangroves can reduce up to 66% of waves heigh-reducing
erosion and flood risk
ps
COASTAL PROTECTION
.u
Mangroves absorb the energy of waves that pass through them, which means they are
highly effective coastal protection. A 100m deep forests can reduced the destructive force
w
of a storm surge by over 90%. Mangroves also keep groundwater fresh and protect
agricultural lands behind from salination.
w
w
Over 500 species of wirds have been recorded nesting in

mangrove area in Belize
--
om
WILDLIFE HABITAT
Mangrove forests have very high biodiversity and support many threatened and
endangered species, such as monkeys, monitor lizard, Royal Bengal tigers and fishing cats.
Fr
Most tropical fish spend their juvenile lives in mangroves, and they are prime nesting sites
for hundreds of bird species.
d
oa
Mangroves are fish factories for the 210 million people who live
and depend on them for food
nl
CLEAN WATER
ow
Specially adapted to the inter-tidal zone, mangroves maintain coastal water quality through
retention, pollutants and particulate matter from rivers and land-based sources, protecting
Seaward habitats such as coral reels and seagrass meadows.
D
Mangroves can sequester 3-5 x more carbon per hectare than than
tropical rainforests
CARBON STORES
Most mangrove forests lay down peat-thick, heavy layers of carbon-rich soil that stays
waterlogged and doesn’t rot. Around 10% of the carbon they produce is sequestered in the
soil without cycling back to the atmosphere, potentially for millennia.
e
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THREATS TO MANGROVES
--
om
NATURAL THREATS:
Fr
Cyclones, typhoons and strong wave actions.

Trampling and overgrazing by wildlife and livestock close to mangrove regions.
d
Damage by crabs, oysters and pests to the young seedlings of mangroves.

oa
ANTHROPOLOGICAL THREATS:
nl
Agriculture
ow
Coastal Development
D
Shrimp Farming
Charcoal and Lumber Industries etc
CONSERVATION OF MANGROVES:
Coastal Regulation Zone Rules are also protecting mangroves.

SMART (Special Monitoring and reporting Tool) monitoring in the Sundarbans empowers local
administration contributing to a more effective management of natural resources.
Gujarat uses direct seed sowing, raised bed plantations, and fishbone channel plantations to
e
in
restore degraded mangroves.
Andhra Pradesh has established Eco-Development Committees and Van Samrakshan Samithi
nl
to implement conservation projects in mangrove areas.
l.o
Maharashtra has been implementing restoration, protection, regeneration, and maintenance
ia
techniques to conservemangroves.
er
Mangrove for Future Initiative: to promote investment in coastal ecosystem conservation for
sustainable development topromote an integrated ocean-wide approach to coastal
at
management and to building the resilience ofecosystem-dependent coastal communities
cm
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An advisory board, chaired by the Prime Minister, that o ers

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advice to the central government on issues of wildlife conserv-

ation in India.
nl
Acts as the apex body to review and approve all matters related
to wildlife, projects of national parks, sanctuaries, etc.
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Salient
Features
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Statutory Bodies
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(NBA)
Authority
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National Biodiversity
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Botanical Survey of India (BSI) Zoological Survey of India (ZSI)
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Apex taxonomic research organization of the country. Genesis in the establishment of the Zoological
Section of the Indian Museum at Calcutta in 1875.
w
Established in 1890 under the direction of Sir George King.

Headquarters: Kolkata, 11 Regional Centers. Established in 1916.
w
w
Exploration, Survey, Inventorying and Monitoring of faunal diver-

sity in various States, Ecosystems and Protected areas of India.
--
Taxonomic studies of all faunal components collected.

Periodic review of the Status of Threatened and Endemic species.
om
Preparation of Red Data Book, Fauna of India and Fauna of States.

Bio-ecological studies on selected important communities/species.
Fr
Preparation of databases for the recorded species of the country.

Maintenance & Development of National Zoological Collections.
Training, Capacity Building and Human Resource Development.
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Faunal Identification, Advisory services and Library Services.

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Publication of results including Fauna of India and Fauna of States.

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22 Species Identified under the recovery programme: Snow Leopard; Bustard (including Floricans); Dolphin, Hangul; Nilgiri Tahr; Marine
Turtles; Dugongs; Edible Nest Swiftlet; Asian Wild Bu alo; Nicobar Megapode; Manipur Brow-antlered Deer; Vultures; Malabar Civet;
Fr
Indian Rhinoceros; Asiatic Lion; Swamp Deer; Jerdon’s Courser; the Northern River Terrapin; Clouded Leopard; Arabian Sea Humpback
Whale; Red Panda and Caracal.
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STAT
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Medium-sized vulture and the smallest of the Gyps

vultures found in India.
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Widely distributed species of small old world vulture.

Found in the north-west part of India.
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3 subspecies of Egyptian vulture found in Indian

subcontinent.
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Implications of water degradation:
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India’s Policy Framework

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transportation agriculture
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natural and gas systems

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Carbon Dioxide
Methane landfills
CO2 CH4
nl
cars
N2O
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Fosil fuel combustion Nitrous oxide

manufacturing
coal and crude oil agricultural soil
hydrofluorocarbons management
HFCs PFCs
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substitute of ODS
Greenhouse gases (GHG) perfluorocarbons
and their sources semiconductor aluminium production
The global warming potential (GWP) of each GHG is manufacturing electrical
measured using the equation ‘Tg CO2Eq’ Each gas's
GWP is measured against the reference gas, CO2.
CO2 measured in Imillion metric tons.
SF6 transmission
1 metric ton is 1000 kilograms-average weight of a sulfur hexafluoride magnesium

female giraffe. production
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( UPSC PRELIMS 2022)
ENVIRONMENT
e
in
nl
SUSTAINABLE
l.o
ia
DEVELOPMENT
er
at
cm
Sustainable development is development that
ps
meets the need of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs
.u
w
w
w
--
om
Fr
d
oa
nl
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D
THE MAIN PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ARE:
Conservation
of the
Ecosystem
e
in
nl
Progressive Population
Social Control and
l.o
Tradition Management
and Culture
PRINCIPLES
ia
OF SUSTAINABLE
INFOGRAPHIC
er
DEVELOPMENT
at
cm
Participatory Proper
approach and Human
Collective Resource
ps Management
responsibility
.u
w
PILLARS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

w
w
--
om
Social
Social
Fr
d
oa
Environmental Economic
nl
SUSTAINABLE
ow
INFOGRAPHIC
DEVELOPMENT
D
HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
UN
Commission
on Sustainable Forest
Development Principles
(CSD)
The Agenda
e
Convention on 21
in
Biodiversity
Rio
nl
Declaration on
l.o
The Environment and
Framework Development
Convention on
ia
Climate Change
(UNFCCC)
er
at
1992- Rio Summit: United Nations
Conference on Environment and
cm
Development (UNCED), also called
Earth Summit resulted in:
ps
.u
w
w
w
1972: UNEP was set up.

1987: Brundtland Report entitled
--
“Our Common Future” defined

Sustainable development
om
Fr
d
oa
1972-Stockholm Conference/
UN Conference on the Human
nl
Environment: The concept of

sustainable development received
ow
recognition.
1789-MALTHUS: Human population
D
grows in a geometric progression,

while subsistence could grow in
only an arithmetic progression.
HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Rio Declaration proclaimed 27 principles of sustainable development.
e
in
Agenda 21 outlines actions to be taken to achieve sustainability.
nl
l.o
Forest Principles provide recommendations for conservation and
ia
sustainable development forestry.
er
at
CSD: It is responsible for monitoring implementation of
cm
UNCED decisions.
ps
.u
1997- Kyoto Protocol

w
w
w
2000- Millennium Summit: Millenium Development Goals from

--
2001 to 2015
om
Fr
2002- Johannesburg Declaration: World Summit on Sustainable

Development (WSSD) held in Johannesburg for a 10-year assessment
d
of the Rio outcomes (Rio +10).

oa
nl
ow
D
THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS
e
2012-UN
These
in
Conference
on Sustainable are based
nl
Development/ Rio+20: on Agenda 21 and
the Johannesburg
l.o
Sustainable
Development Goals Plan of
ia
(SDGs) were Implementation.
launched.
er
at
For the
cm
These are SDGs, the
17 goals ps baseline is from
with 169 2015 estimates
targets. Deadline (It was 1990
.u
for achieving for MDGs).

SDGs: 2030
w
Agenda
w
2030 has five

w
overarching themes,
SDGs came known as the five
--
into effect Ps: people, planet,

om
in January prosperity, peace and

2016 partnerships,
Fr
which span across

the 17 SDGs.
SDG
d
Financing Lab:
oa
An OECD-led initiative SDG Fund:

that strives to inform Created in 2014
nl
decision-makers and by UN to support

ow
policy leaders on how sustainable

to ensure the resources development
D
needed to achieve the activities.

2030
Agenda.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS
1 2 3
e
No
in
Zero Good Health
Poverty Hunger & Well-being
nl
6 5 4
l.o
ia
er
Clean Water Gender Quality
& Sanitation Equality Education
at
7 8 9
cm
ps
Affordable & Decent Work & Industry, Innovation
Economic Growth
.u
Clean Energy & Infrastructure
w
12 11 10
w
w
Responsible
--
Sustanable Cities Reduced

Consumption & & Communities Inequalities
Production
om
13 14 15
Fr
d
Climate Life Below Life On

oa
Action Water Land

nl
17 16
ow
D
Partnerships Peace Justice &

For the Goals Strong Institutions
Coordination by: NITI Aayog
SDG India Index:

By NITI Aayog- To measure the progress of
India and its States towards the SDGs for 2030
e
INDIA &
in
SDGs
nl
23 States have prepared Vision documents and
action plans to guide their efforts on the SDGs.
l.o
ia
NITI Aayog is collaborating with IMF:
er
On estimating the financial cost of achieving
key SDGs.
at
cm
GREEN ECONOMY = ps
.u
w
LOW
+ + SOCIALLY
w
CARBON RESOURCE
GROWTH EFFICIENT INCLUSIVE
w
--
GREEN ECONOMY: A green economy is defined as low carbon, resource

om
efficient and socially inclusive.

Fr
d
oa
nl
ow
D
Partnership for Action on Green Economy (PAGE) :
Launched in 2013
e
in
nl
Aim: To put sustainability at the heart of economic
policies and practices to advance the 2030 Agenda
l.o
for Sustainable Development
ia
er
PAGE brings together five UN agencies
at
UN Environment,
cm
ps
.u
w
International Labour Organization,

w
w
--
UN Development Programme,
om
Fr
UN Industrial Development Organization, and

d
oa
nl
UN Institute for Training and Research

ow
D
MEANING & ORIGIN OF EIA
Meaning: It is the study to predict the effect of a proposed

activity/project on the environment.
e
UNEP defines Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) as a tool
in
used to identify the environmental, social and economic impacts of
nl
a project prior to decision-making.
l.o
ia
Origin:
er
EIA introduced by NEPA in 1970 in US
at
cm
India: Till 1994, it was an administrative decision and
lacked legislative support.
ps
1994, EIA notification promulgated under the
Environmental (Protection) Act 1986.
.u
w
w
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EIA PROCESS
--
om
PROJECT The submission of a project proposal signifies

PROPOSAL: the commencement of the EIA process.
Fr
d
oa
Projects without any negative environmental

SCREENING:
nl
impact are cleared at this stage.

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D
PRELIMINARY If Screening does not clear a project, it moves to this stage.

ASSESSMENT: This step can clear projects of the need for a full EIA.
EIA PROCESS
It is a process of detailing the terms of reference of EIA.

The Ministry of Environment & Forests has published
SCOPING: guidelines for different sectors, which outlines the
significant issues to be addressed in the EIA studies.
e
Impact Prediction and Assessment of Alternatives.
in
Once alternatives have been reviewed, a mitigation plan should
nl
be drawn up for the selected option and is supplemented with an
l.o
Environmental Management Plan (EMP) to guide the proponent
towards environmental improvements
ia
EIA Report
er
at
The State Pollution Control Boards will conduct
cm
the public hearing before the proposals are sent to
PUBLIC MOEF for obtaining environmental clearance.
HEARING:
Any one likely to be affected by the proposed project is
ps
entitled to have access to the Executive Summary of the EIA.
.u
Decision-Making
w
w
Monitoring the Clearance Conditions.

w
The Project Proponent, IAA and Pollution Control Boards should

monitor the implementation of conditions. The proponent is required to
--
file once in six months a report demonstrating the compliance to IAA

om
IT CATEGORIZED THE PROJECTS INTO 2 CATEGORIES:

Fr
Category A Projects Category B Projects

d
National Level Appraisal State Level Appraisal

oa
nl
Appraised by Impact Assessment Appraised by State Level Environment

Agency and Expert Appraisal Impact Assessment Authority and State
ow
Committee Level Expert Appraisal Committee

D
Requires Mandatory environmental These projects undergo screening and are

clearance. Hence these projects do classified into 2 types:
not undergo screening. 1. Category B1(EIA is mandatory)
2. Category B2(Do not require EIA)
EIA NOTIFICATION, 2006
EIA CYCLE COMPRISES FOUR STAGES:
SCREENING PUBLIC HEARING
e
in
nl
l.o
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SCOPING APPRAISAL
ps
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w
DRAFT EIA NOTIFICATION, 2020

w
--
Published by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change

om
(MoEF&CC).
It will replace the existing EIA Notification, 2006
Fr
d
oa
nl
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Project category Need of environmental clearance
Category A and B1 Need mandatory environment clearance
Category B2 Do not require mandatory Environment

clearance
e
in
1. Offshore and onshore Oil, Gas and shale exploration
nl
2. Hydroelectric projects up to 25 MW
l.o
Exempted projects
3. Irrigation projects between 2000 to 10000 hectares
ia
of command area.
er
4. Small and medium cement plants
5. Acids other than Phosphoric, Ammonia or Sulphuric
at
acid
cm
6. MSMEs in dye and dye intermediates, bulk drugs,
synthetic rubbers, medium-sized paint units.
ps
7. All inland waterway projects and expansion and
.u
widening of highways between 25 KM and 100 KM
with defined parameters.
w
8. Aerial ropeways in ecologically sensitive

w
areas.
w
9. Specified building construction and area

development projects; built-up area up to
--
1,50,000 sq. m.
om
Fr
d
oa
nl
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D
KEY PROVISIONS OF THE 2020 DRAFT
REDUCED TIME FOR PUBLIC HEARINGS:

The notice period for public hearings is reduced
from 30 days to 20 days.
e
in
EXEMPTION OF PROJECTS:
nl
Projects classified into A, B1 and B2 and a number
of projects are exempted from public scrutiny.
l.o
ia
ANNUAL SUBMISSION OF REPORTS:
er
The new draft EIA, proposes the submission of
at
compliance reports annually (Earlier: 6 months)
cm
ps
Report Prepared Solely by Project Proponents
.u
w
w
NO PUBLIC REPORTING FOR NON-COMPLIANCE.

w
Instead, the government will take cognizance of reports

only from the violator-promoter, government authority,
--
Appraisal Committee or Regulatory Authority.

om
POST-FACTO CLEARANCE:
Fr
Another major proposal in the draft 2020 is granting

‘post-facto clearance’ where a project that has been
d
operating without environmental clearance, can be

oa
regularised or allowed to apply for clearance.

nl
ow
PENALTY FOR FIRMS:

Firms found violating the terms of their
D
establishment, if they have to get the clearance,

however, will have to pay a penalty.
FOR DETAILED ENQUIRY, PLEASE CALL:

13
Vision IAS
www.visionias.in GUWAHATI
SUSTAINABLE
AGRICULTURE
e
in
nl
l.o
ia
Financial Environmental Social
er
Sustainability Sustainability Sustainability
at
cm
QUICK REVISION MODULE ( UPSC PRELIMS 2022)
SUSTAINABLE
ps
.u
w
AGRICULTURE
w
w
--
om
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
Fr
d
Sustainable agriculture: an integrated system of plant and animal production practices

oa
having a site-specific application that will over the long-term

nl
Satisfy human food and fiber needs.

Enhance environmental quality and the natural resource base upon which the
ow
agriculture economy depends.

Make the most efficient use of nonrenewable resources and on-farm resources and
D
integrate, where appropriate, natural biological cycles and controls.

Sustain the economic viability of farm operations.
Enhance the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole.

Soil
Rejuvenation
e
in
Seed Collection,
nl
Preservation, Water
utilisation conservation
l.o
and Sharing Importance of
Sustainable
ia
Agriculture
er
at
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Agricultural
ps
methods Pest control
.u
w
w
w
NEED FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURAL

--
PRACTICES
om
Currently, many countries face the challenge of wasted resources due to inefficient of
Fr
practices. Here is how...

d
oa
14% of global greenhouse gas emissions

nl
Conversion of 50% of the world’s habitable land into farming land

ow
D
Increased pesticide usage by 26 times over the past 50 years
Polluted 48% of stream and river water

Unsustainable agricultural practices lead to loss of 12 million hectare of land
each year to decertification
At this rate by 2050, another 120 million hectares of natural habitates will
be lost to farmland
e
This further strengthens the need for using available resources in the best possible
in
way to minimize the adverse impact on our environment and improve the agricultural
productivity by deploying high yielding, water efficient and pesticide resistant seeds.
nl
l.o
ia
PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
er
at
cm
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has established
five basic principles for the global agricultural sector to become increasingly
productive and sustainable. ps
.u
w
Improve the
w
efficiency in
w
the use of the Protect and

resources improve the
--
rural lifestyle
and the social
om
welfare.
Fr
Responsible and
effective governance
mechanism.
d
oa
Promote
direct activities Strengthen the
nl
to preserve, resilience of people,

protect and improve communities and
ow
the natural ecosystems.

resources.
D
With these five principles, FAO aims to create national, regional and global systems
that promote sustainability at the social, economic and ambiental levels.

SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION PRACTICES
Diversification of crops and culture practice
e
Management of soil quality
in
Plant
Production
nl
Practices
Efficient and human use of inputs
l.o
ia
Consideration of farmer’s goals lifestyle
er
choices
at
cm
Management Planning when including
livestock in farming
ps
Animal Selection, considering the form
.u
capabilities and constraints.
Animal
w
Production
Practices
w
Animal Nutrition including feed quality and

monitoring animal health periodically
w
--
Use of good genetic stock and quality

germplasm to improve herd performance.
om
A herd health program is critical to

Fr
sustainable livestock production.

d
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES

oa
nl
1. Mulching
Mulch is simply a protective layer of a material that is spread on top of the soil.
ow
Mulches can either be organic -- such as grass clippings, straw, bark chips, and
similar materials -- or inorganic -- such as stones, brick chips, and plastic. Mulching
enriches and protects soil, helping provide a better growing environment.
D
Signicance of Mulching
Protects the soil from erosion

Reduces compaction from the impact of heavy rains
Conserves moisture, reducing the need for frequent waterings
Maintains a more even soil temperature
e
in
Prevents weed growth
nl
l.o
2. Zero Tillage
Zero tillage is the process where the crop seed will be sown through drillers without
prior land preparation and disturbing the soil where previous crop stubbles are
ia
present. Zero tillage not only reduce the cost of cultivation it also reduces the soil
er
erosion, crop duration and irrigation requirement and weed effect which is better
than tillage. Zero Tillage (ZT) also called No Tillage or Nil Tillage.
at
3. Agro-Ecology
cm
Agroecology is an integrated approach that simultaneously applies ecological
and social concepts and principles to the design and management of food and
ps
agricultural systems. It seeks to optimize the interactions between plants, animals,
humans and the environment while taking into consideration the social aspects
that need to be addressed for a sustainable and fair food system.
.u
w
w
POSITIVE RECYCLING
w
ECOLOGICAL
INTEGR-
ATION
--
om
ECONOMIC INPUT
DIVESIFICATION REDUCTION
Fr
d
COCREATION PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL

AGRO - ECOLOGY
oa
OF HEALTH
KNOWLEDGE
nl
ow
FOOD SYSTEM BIO-DIVESITY

D
BASED ON
CULTURE
SOCIAL LAND AND

PARTICIPATION NATURAL
DECENTRALISED RESOURCE
GOVER- GOVER-
NANCE NANCE

4. Organic Farming
A system of farm design and management to create an eco-system of agriculture
production without the use of synthetic external inputs such as chemicals,
fertilisers, pesticides and synthetic hormones or genetically modified organisms.
e
Maintain Biological Diversity
in
nl
l.o
Maintain long term soil fertility
ia
er
Recycle materials and resources
at
Principles of
Organic
cm
Production Promotes sound health of livestock
and optimise biological productivity
ps
.u
Prepare organic products through
methods maintaining vital qualities
w
of products
w
w
Rely on renewable resources

--
om
Mandatory labeling of Organic food: It should convey full and accurate information
on the organic status of the product. There will be penalties on non-compliance of
regulation.
Fr
Approval authority: Organic food products should carry a certification mark or a quality
d
assurance mark given by

oa
National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP)

Participatory Guarantee System for India (PGS-India)
nl
Voluntary logo from the FSSAI that marked its produce as 'organic.
ow
5. Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF)

D
It is a natural farming technique in which farming is done without use of chemicals

and without using any credits or spending any money on purchased inputs. ZBNF
reduces the cost of production down to zero due to utilisation of all the natural
resources available in and around the crops. Farmers use earthworms, cow dung,
urine, plants, human excreta and other biological fertilizers for crop protection.
It has been developed by Subhash Palekar.

CORE PRINCIPLE OF ZBNF
1. DEEJAMRUTHAM: Microbial seed 2. JEEVAMRUTHAM: enhance soil

coating through cow urine and dung microbiome through application of cow
based formulations. dung, cow urine and other local
ingredients
3. COVER CROPS AND MULCHING: 4. WAAPHASA
e
Ground to be keept covered with crops Fast build up of soil humus through ZBNF
in
and also crop residues leads soil aeration
nl
l.o
6. Intensive Agricultural Practices
Intensive farming practices which are thought to be sustainable have been
developed to slow the deterioration of agricultural land and even regenerate
ia
soil health and ecosystem services. These developments may fall in the category
er
of organic farming, or the integration of organic and conventional agriculture.
at
Pasture cropping involves planting grain crops directly into grassland without first
applying herbicides. The perennial grasses form a living mulch understory to the
cm
grain crop, eliminating the need to plant cover crops after harvest. The pasture is
intensively grazed both before and after grain production. This intensive system yields
equivalent farmer profits (partly from increased livestock forage) while building new
ps
topsoil and sequestering up to 33 tons of CO 2/ha/year.
.u
Biointensive agriculture focuses on maximizing efficiency such as per unit area,
energy input and water input.
w
w
Agroforestry combines agriculture and orchard/forestry technologies to create more

w
integrated, diverse, productive, profitable, healthy and sustainable land-use systems.

--
Intercropping can increase yields or reduce inputs and thus represents

(potentially sustainable) agricultural intensification. However, while total yield per
om
acre is often increased, yields of any single crop often diminish. There are also
challenges to farmers relying on farming equipment optimized for monoculture,
often resulting in increased labor inputs.
Fr
Vertical farming is intensive crop production on a large scale in urban centers, in

d
multi-story, artificially-lit structures, for the production of low-calorie foods like

oa
herbs, microgreens, and lettuce.

nl
ow
7. Permaculture
Permaculture is an innovative framework for creating harmonious integration
of landscape and people- providing their food, energy, shelter, and other material
D
and non-material needs in a sustainable way. The term was coined by Bill
Mollison in 1978.

Signicance of Permaculture
Environment friendly: It discourages uses of chemical and pesticide and promotes
the uses of eco-friendly means to maintain soil health and increase productivity.
Decrease Global warming: Increasing area under permaculture from current 108
million acres to 1 billion acres by 2050 could result in a total reduction of 23.2
gigatons of CO2, from both sequestration and reduced emissions.
Promotion of Traditional practice: It incorporates traditional farming practices with
e
modern technological and scientific knowledge to create efficient systems. It can
in
also reduce the dependency of farmers on multi-national companies for genetically
modified seeds.
nl
Improve income: Instead of monoculture, permaculture uses polyculture where a
l.o
diverse range of vegetation and animals are utilised to support each other to
create a self sustaining system.
ia
8. Vertical Farming Systems
er
Vertical farming is cultivating and producing crops/ plants in vertically stacked layers
and vertically inclined surfaces. In 1915, Gilbert Ellis Bailey coined the term
at
“vertical farming”.
cm
Advantages of vertical farming ps
High productivity per unit area i.e. almost 80% more harvest per unit of area.
Production throughout the year without the risk of vagaries of nature
.u
Reduces the transport cost

w
70 to 95 % less water utilisation compared to traditional farming

w
90%less or no soil is needed and thus no pest and disease

w
Infestations so organic food is produced.

Fresh produce with all its original nutrient qualities.
--
Help in greening of the urban areas and help to reduce the rising temperatures
and mainly the air pollution in cities.
om
Disadvantages of vertical farming Initial high cost

Fr
High energy cost as growing plant is entirely with artificial lights.

d
The excess nutrients used in vertical farming may interfere and contaminate the
oa
main urban water system if not taken care of.

LED lighting systems emit heat though small amount will create problem of
nl
maintaining the temperatures especially in summer months and may overload the
air conditioning systems which will again incur high energy cost
ow
Lot of garbage, plant residues, etc. will be generated around the buildings with
vertical farming which needs to be dispose off properly.
D
Skilled workforce is needed

Systems of Vertical farming
1. Hydroponics:
It is a method of growing food in water using mineral nutrient solutions without
soil. The basic ges of this method is that it reduces soil-related cultivation
problems like soil borne insects, pest and diseases.
2. Aeroponics
In aeroponics, there is no growing medium and hence, no containers for growing
e
crops. In aeroponics, mist or nutrient solutions are used instead of water. As the
plants are tied to a support and roots are sprayed with nutrient solution,
in
it requires very less space, very less water and no soil.
nl
3. Aquaponics
l.o
It is a bio-system that integrates recirculated aquaculture (fish farming) with
hydroponic vegetable, flower, and herb production to create symbiotic
relationships between the plants and the fish.
ia
It achieves this symbiosis through using the nutrient-rich waste from fish tanks to
er
“fertigate hydroponic production beds. In turn, the hydroponic beds also function
as bio-filters that remove gases, acids, and chemicals, such as ammonia, nitrates,
at
and phosphates, from the water.
cm
Simultaneously, the gravel beds provide habitats for nitrifying bacteria, which
augment the nutrient cycling and filter water. Consequently, the freshly cleansed
water can be recirculated into the fish tanks.
ps
.u
Aquaponics
w
w
Hydroponics
w
Biofilter
--
Subsetract
Air Hydroponic tank
om
pump
Fr
Nutrient container
d
oa
Water Sediment Fish tank

Pump tank
Aeroponics
nl
ow
D

9. Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
IPM is an ecosystem-based strategy that focuses on long-term prevention of pests or
their damage through a combination of techniques such as biological control,
habitat manipulation, modification of cultural practices, and use of resistant
varieties.
Components of IPM
e
in
Pest identification.
nl
Monitoring and assessing pest numbers and damage.
l.o
Preventing pest problems.
ia
Using acombination of biological, cultural, physical/mechanical and chemical
er
management tools.
at
After action is taken, assessing the effect of pest management.
cm
ps
Approaches for managing pests are often grouped in the following categories.
.u
Biological control: It is the use of natural enemies— predators, parasites,
pathogens,and competitors —to control pests and their damage.
w
Cultural controls: These are practices that reduce pest establishment,

w
reproduction, dispersal, and survival. For example, changing irrigation practices

can reduce pest problems, since too much water can increase root disease and
w
weeds.
--
Mechanical and physical controls: It kills a pest directly, block pests out, or
make the environment unsuitable for it. Traps for rodents are examples of
om
mechanical control. Physical controls include mulches for weed management,

etc.
Fr
Chemical control: It is the use of pesticides. In IPM, pesticides are use only when
needed and in combination with other approaches for more effective, long- term
control. Pesticides are selected and applied in a way that minimizes their possible
d
harm to people, non-target organisms, and the environment.

oa
nl
ow
D

Sustainable Development
Sustainable Agriculture
e
Integrated crop Management
in
nl
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
l.o
ia
Basic Components Technologies and Service IPM Implementation
er
at
cm
Prevention Improved Crop vanities Education and Training
Crop rotation through genetic enginnering Multi-stakeholder
Cropping pattern Disease control throughps partnership including
Seed Selection biopesticides private sector, scientists
Fertilisation and Insect control through etc
.u
Irrigation pheromones Technology transfer and

w
Inter-cropping Erosion control through cover capacity building of

Harvesting and storage crop management no tillage framers.
w
etc.
w
--
Observation
om
Crop monitoring
Decision support
Fr
Systems
Area Wide Management
d
oa
Interventions
nl
Cultural and Physical

ow
Control
Biological Control
Chemical Control
D


1
10. Integrated Farming System (IFS)
Integrated Farming System is the integrated crop production with livestock
management which in a way complements each other with a nice symbiotic
relationship which at the time is economically viable and profitable, environmentally
suitable, and benefit giver of diversification of production.
e
in
nl
ORGANISATION
&
l.o
PLANNING
COMMUNNITY SOIL
ia
ENGAGEMENT MANAGEMENT
& FERTILITY
er
at
cm
CROP HEALTH &
LANDSCAPE PROTECTION
Integrated
& NATURE
ps
CONSERVATION
Farming
.u
System
w
w
POLLUTION
w
CONTROL & BY-

PRODUCT
--
WATER MANAGEMENT
MANAGEMENT
om
ENERGY
EFFICIENCY ANIMAL
Fr
HUSBANDRY
d
oa
nl
ow
D

1
Fixed
nitrogen Harvest
Feed sold
Storage
Crops Volatile
loss
e
in
Volatile loss Grazing
nl
Deposition Soil
l.o
Purchased
Puprchased feed,
Animal animals,
ia
fertilizer Manure dedding,
er
Runoff & etc.
leaching loss
at
Milk &
cm
Exported manure animals sold
Volatile loss
ps
Process of Integrated Farming system
.u
w
GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES
w
w
--
1. National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture

It aims at making agriculture more productive, sustainable, remunerative and
om
climate resilient by promoting location specific integrated /composite farming

systems; soil and moisture conservation measures; comprehensive soil health
management; efficient water management practices and mainstreaming rainfed
Fr
technologies.
d
oa
NMSA will have following objectives:

To make agriculture more productive, sustainable, remunerative and climate
nl
resilient by promoting location specific Integrated/Composite Farming Systems;

ow
To conserve natural resources through appropriate soil and moisture conservation

measures;
To adopt comprehensive soil health management practices based on soil fertility
D
maps, soil test based application of macro & micro nutrients, judicious use of
fertilizers etc.;
To optimize utilization of water resources through efficient water management to
expand coverage for achieving 'more crop per drop';

1
To develop capacity of farmers & stakeholders, in conjunction with other ongoing
Missions e.g. National Mission on Agriculture Extension & Technology, National Food
Security Mission, National Initiative for Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) etc., in
the domain of climate change adaptation and mitigation measures;
To pilot models in select blocks for improving productivity of rainfed farming by
mainstreaming rainfed technologies refined through NICRA and by leveraging
resources from other schemes/Missions like Mahatma Gandhi National Rural
Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS), Integrated Watershed Management
e
Programme (IWMP), RKVY etc.; and
in
To establish an effective inter and intra Departmental/Ministerial co-ordination for
nl
accomplishing key deliverables of National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture under
the aegis of NAPCC.
l.o
ia
Different strategies for implementation of National Mission for Sustainable
Agriculture includes Integrated farming system, technology adoption, water resources
er
management, agronomic practices, involvement of professionals and creation of
database etc.
at
cm
Mission Interventions
Rainfed Area Development (RAD): RAD will adopt an area based approach for
ps
development and conservation of natural resources along with farming systems.
On Farm Water Management (OFWM): OFWM will focus primarily on
.u
enhancing water use efficiency by promoting efficient on-farm water management

w
technologies and equipment.

w
Soil Health Management (SHM): SHM will aim at promoting location as well as
w
crop specific sustainable soil health management including residue management,

organic farming practices by way of creating and linking soil fertility maps with
macro-micro nutrient management, appropriate land use based on land capability,
--
judicious application of fertilizers and minimizing the soil erosion/degradation.

om
Climate Change and Sustainable Agriculture Monitoring, Modeling and

Networking (CCSAMMN): CCSAMMN will provide creation and bidirectional
Fr
(land/farmers toresearch/scientific establishments and vice versa) dissemination

of climate change related information and knowledge by way of piloting
climate change adaptation/mitigation research/model projects in the domain of
d
climate smart sustainable management practices and integrated farming system

oa
suitable to local agro-climatic conditions.

nl
2. Climate Smart Agriculture

ow
FAO defines CSA as “agriculture that sustainably increases productivity, enhances

resilience (adaptation), reduces/removes GHGs (mitigation) where possible, and
enhances achievement of national food security and development goals”.
D


1
Food Production
E.g. expansion of agricultural

land, increased use of
mechanisation, fertilizer and other
inputs
e
in
E.g., improved E.g., use of
nl
irrigation high-yielding
infrastructure varieties
l.o
and weather Practices that
forecasting benefit food
production, adaptation
ia
and mitigation. E.g.,
er
restoration of degraded
E.g., land, improvement
diversification
at
of macro-and E.g.,
of crop, livestock, micronutrients reforestation,
cm
and fisheries in soils decreased livestock
varieties; production,
improved on-farm ps agroforestry
and off-farm food E.g., on-farm options that have
strage production low food benefits
and use of
.u
biofuels
w
Adaptation Mitigation
w
w
3. Soil Health Card Scheme

--
Soil Health Card (SHC) is a printed report that a farmer will be handed over for
each of his holdings. It will contain the status of his soil with respect to 12
om
parameters, namely N,P,K (Macro-nutrients); S (Secondary nutrient); Zn, Fe, Cu,

Mn, Bo (Micro-nutrients); and pH, EC, OC (Physical parameters). Based on this, the
SHC will also indicate fertilisers recommendations and soil amendment required for
Fr
the farm.
d
Objectives of Soil Health Card Scheme

oa
To issue soil health cards to farmers every two years and provide a basis to
address nutrient deficiencies in fertilization practices
nl
ow
To develop and promote soil test based nutrient managements
To develop and cultivation cost by application of right quality of fertilizer

D
To ensure additional income to farmers by increase in yields
To improve soil health for Sustainable Farming

1
SHC is provided to all farmers in the country at an interval of 2 years to enable the
farmers to apply recommended doses of nutrients based on soil test values to realize
improved and sustainable soil health and fertility, low costs and higher profits. Farmers
can track their soil samples and also obtain their Soil Health Card report. It is a field-
specific detailed report of soil fertility status and other important soil parameters that
affect crop productivity.
e
Other Miscellaneous Steps
in
Mandatory neem coating of urea since 2015 to reduce nitrous oxide emissions.
nl
Creating sustainable and climate-resilient agricultural systems is part of India's plan
to meet pledge to the UNFCCC to reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by up to
l.o
35% by 2030, compared to 2005 levels.
ia
India has installed 200,000 solar water pumps and another 2.5 million are planned
to reduce emissions from energy use in agriculture.
er
at
cm
ps
.u
w
w
w
--
om
Fr
d
oa
nl
ow
D

1
e
in
nl
l.o
ia
er
at
cm
QUICK REVISION MODULE ps
(UPSC PRELIMS 2022) ENVIRONMENT
.u
w
w
w
MAMMALS
--
om
Fr
HABITAT/
NAME STATUS FEATURES THREATS
DISTRIBUTION
d
oa
Critically World’s smallest Undisturbed tall Loss and

PGMY HOG Endangered; wild pig, ‘terai’ grasslands, degradation of
nl
Schedule 1 of captive-breeding Manas Wildlife grasslands,

ow
the Wildlife programme was Sanctuary and its dry-season

Protection Act initiated in 1996 buffer burning,
1972 in Assam and reserves. livestock
D
reintroduction in grazing and

Sonai Rupai area afforestation of
in 2009. grasslands,
Hunting.

HABITAT/
DISTRIBUTION
NAMDAPHA Critically Arboreal species Namdapha Degradation

FLYING Endangered; that is likely most National Park, the of forests,
e
SQUIRREL Schedule 1 of active at dusk. largest protected hunting.
in
the Wildlife area in the
Protection Act Eastern Himalaya
nl
1972 biodiversity
l.o
hotspot
ia
MALABAR Critically Small, dog like Declared possibly Habitat loss
er
CIVET Endangered; carnivore. extinct in 1978 and hunting.
at
Schedule 1 of but was
the Wildlife rediscovered nine
cm
Protection Act years later in
1972 ps western
ghats
.u
ASIAN WILD Endangered; Asian wild dogs, Key populations Ongoing
DOG (DHOLE) Schedule 2 of plays an found in three habitat loss,
w
the Wildlife important role as landscapes- Depletion of

w
Protection Act apex predators in Western Ghats, prey base,

w
1972 forest ecosystems. Central India and Persecution

Northeast India. due to livestock
--
First dhole predation and

conservation disease
om
breeding centre transfer from

at the Indira domestic and
Fr
Gandhi feral dogs.

Zoological Park
d
(IGZP) in
oa
Visakhapatnam
nl
ow
D

HABITAT/
DISTRIBUTION
ASIAN Endangered; Active during In India, Habitat loss

ELEPHANT Schedule 1 of twilight hours, Uttarakhand, and hunting.
e
the Wildlife adult females and Uttar Pradesh,
in
Protection Act calves move West Bengal,
1972 together as Assam, Arunachal
nl
groups while Pradesh, Odisha,
l.o
males disperse on Jharkhand,
their own when Southern part of
ia
reaching West Bengal,
adolescence. Karnataka, Tamil
er
subspecies of the Nadu, Kerala.
at
Asian Elephant. Some of the
They are as largest elephant
cm
follows: Sri reserves in India
Lankan Elephant,
ps are located in
Indian Elephant Periyar and
and Sumatran Nilambur in
.u
Elephant. Kerala and the
Shivalik in
w
Uttarakhand.
w
w
BENGAL Endangered; National animal Chooses the Climate

TIGER Schedule 1 of of India, also lowlands and is change, habitat
--
the Wildlife national animal of frequently seen in loss and

Protection Act Bangladesh, grasslands, hunting.
om
1972 South Korea, swamps, and

Vietnam, and mangroves. The
Fr
Malaysia, largest Bengal mangrove

specimen in the ecosystem is a
d
cat family, Project rich habitat.

oa
Tiger started by
government in
nl
1973.
ow
D

HABITAT/
DISTRIBUTION
CLOUDED Vulnerable; State animal of Grassland, shrubs, Habitat loss

LEOPARD Schedule 2 of Meghalaya. subtropical and due to
e
the Wildlife dense tropical deforestation,
in
Protection Act forest up to a changing
1972 height of 7,000 rainfall
nl
feet occurring from patterns,
l.o
the Himalayan human-animal
foothills through conflict,
ia
mainland development
Southeast Asia into projects
er
China, In India, it
at
occurs in Sikkim,
northern West
cm
Bengal, Meghalaya
ps subtropical forests,
Tripura, Mizoram,
Manipur, Assam,
.u
Nagaland and
Arunachal Pradesh.
w
w
SANGAI Endangered; State animal of Endemic and rare Climate

w
DEER Schedule 1 of Manipur, sub species of change, habitat

the Wildlife popularly called brow antlered deer loss and
--
Protection Act as ‘dancing deer’ found only in hunting.

om
1972 of Manipur. Manipur, habitat of

the sangai is now
protected as the
Fr
Keibul Lamjao
National Park (only
d
floating national
oa
park in India)
nl
GOLDEN Endangered; Old World found in a small electrocution,

ow
LANGUR Schedule 1 of monkey, exhibits region of western road accidents,

the Wildlife sexual Assam and in the retaliatory
Protection Act dimorphism. neighbouring killing, illegal
D
1972 foothills of the pet keeping

Black Mountains of and
Bhutan. inbreeding.

HABITAT/
DISTRIBUTION
GAUR Vulnerable; Tallest species of Native to South Food Scarcity,

Schedule 1 of wild cattle found and Southeast Poaching,
e
the Wildlife in India and Asia. In India, they Habitat Loss,
in
Protection Act largest extant are found in Human-Animal
1972 bovine. Recently, Nagarhole, Conflict.
nl
the first Bandipur,
l.o
population Masinagudi
estimation National Parks and
ia
exercise of the BR Hills.
Indian Gaur
er
(Bison) was
at
carried out in the
Nilgiris Forest
cm
Division, Tamil
Nadu. ps
Conservation
breeding of Gaur
.u
was started at
Mysuru zoo.
w
w
HIMALAYAN Least concern; Goes into Prefers open Habitat loss,

w
BROWN BEAR Schedule 1 of hibernation valleys and climate

the Wildlife around October pastures. change, human
--
Protection Act and emerges fragmented alpine animal conflict.

om
1972 around April and and subalpine

May, Omnivores, habitats.
least arboreal Himalayan brown
Fr
bear and is bears live in

largely terrestrial. remote parts of the
d
western
oa
Himalayas.
Already speculated
nl
to have become
ow
extinct in Bhutan.
Sanctuary for
Himalayan Brown
D
Bears is in
Himachal Pradesh
in the tribal
Chumba region.

HABITAT/
DISTRIBUTION
MUSK DEER Endangered; Adapted for high Inhabits high Habitat loss,
Schedule 1 of altitudes, waxy alpine poaching, live
e
the Wildlife substance called environments stock grazing,
in
Protection Act musk that the above altitudes of natural
1972 male secretes from 2,500 m in predation.
nl
a gland in the Himalayas of
l.o
abdomen used to Nepal, Bhutan,
mark territories India, Pakistan and
ia
and attract China. Kedarnath
females, but the Musk Deer
er
musk is also used Sanctuary
at
in the manufacture
of perfumes and
cm
medicines.
HOOLOCK Western only ape found in Western hoolock Habitat

ps
GIBBON hoolock India, two types: gibbon (all the destruction,
gibbon: Western hoolock states of the habitat
.u
Endangered gibbon and north-east, fragmentation,

w
and Eastern Eastern hoolock restricted between habitat

w
hoolock gibbon. the south of the degradation

gibbon: Brahmaputra river and hunting.
w
Vulnerable; and east of the

--
Schedule 1 of Dibang river) and

the Wildlife Eastern hoolock
om
Protection Act gibbon(specific

1972 pockets of
Arunachal Pradesh
Fr
and Assam).
d
BLACK BUCK Least concern; Indian Antelope, Inhabits grassy habitat loss
oa
Schedule 1 of sole extant plains and lightly due to devel-

the Wildlife member of the forested areas with opmental work
nl
Protection Act genus Antilope. perennial water and human

1972 sources. Once encroachment
ow
widespread of grassland
throughout the area and
D
Indian hunting
subcontinent, it has
become extinct in
Pakistan and
Bangladesh.

HABITAT/
DISTRIBUTION
INDIAN WILD Near One of the fastest Live in the deserts Disease
ASS (KHUR) Threatened; of Indian animals, and other arid outbreak,
e
Schedule 1 of with speeds areas of Little habitat
in
the Wildlife clocked at about Rann of Kutch degradation
Protection Act 70 – 80 km. per and its due to salt
nl
1972 hour, live surrounding areas activities, the
l.o
either solitarily, or of the Great Rann invasion of the
in small groups. of Kutch in the Prosopis
ia
Gujarat. juliflora shrub,
and
er
encroachment
at
and grazing by
the Maldhari.
cm
LION TAILED Endangered; Diurnal in nature,
ps
Rainforest Habitat loss
MACAQUE Schedule 1 of life expectancy for environments as it due to
.u
the Wildlife a wild lion-tailed is a good climber, anthropogenic
Protection Act macaque is 20 spends most of its activities and
w
1972 years while it is time in the upper hunting.

w
30 years reaches of a
in captivity. tropical rainforest
w
regions of
--
Karnataka, Kerala
and Tamil Nadu.
om
Silent Valley
National Park in
Fr
Kerala has the

largest population
of lion-tailed
d
macaques in
oa
South India.
nl
ow
RED PANDA Endangered; Territorial and Temperate forest habitat loss

Schedule 1 of solitary except of the Himalayas and
the Wildlife during mating and ranges from degradation,
D
Protection Act season, excellent the foothills of human

1972 climbers and western Nepal to interference,
forage from trees, China in the east. illegal trading
omnivores. and poaching.

HABITAT/
DISTRIBUTION
SLOTH BEAR Vulnerable; Adult sloth bears Areas with forest Habitat loss
Schedule 1 of travel in pairs, cover, low hills and poaching.
e
the Wildlife excellent in bordering the
in
Protection Act climbing trees outer range of the
1972 and running Himalayas from
nl
faster than Punjab to
l.o
humans. Arunachal
Pradesh. Sloth
ia
Bear Welfare
Project, Agra Bear
er
Rescue Facility.
at
cm
TIBETIAN Near considered to be Lives at a Poaching for
ANTELOPE Threatened; close to goat 3,250-5,500 wool.
(CHIRU) Schedule 1 of family, underfur is
ps metre elevation in
the Wildlife renowned for its high altitude plains
Protection Act quality which is and montane
.u
1972 traditionally valleys comprising

w
woven into an of alpine and

extremely fine desert steppe and
w
fabric to make pasture,

w
Shahtoosh distinguished by
shawls. low vegetation
--
cover and
om
productivity.
Karakorma
Wildlife Sanctuary
Fr
and Changthang
Cold Desert
d
Wildlife Sanctuary.
oa
nl
ow
D

HABITAT/
DISTRIBUTION
YAK Vulnerable; Belong to the Endemic to the Climate

Schedule 1 of Bovine tribe, Tibetan Plateau change and
e
the Wildlife adapted for living and the adjacent Inbreeding.
in
Protection Act at high altitudes, high-altitude
1972 highly valued by regions, most
nl
Himalayan comfortable
l.o
peoples, lifeline above 14,000
of pastoral feet.
ia
nomads in high
altitudes of the
er
Indian Himalayan
at
region.
cm
HIMALAYAN Vulnerable; Resembles a cross Found at altitudes Poaching and
ps
SEROW Schedule 1 of between a goat, a between 2,000 the destruction
the Wildlife donkey, a cow, metres and 4,000 of their
.u
Protection Act and a pig. Several metres. Found in forested
1972 species of serows, eastern, central, mountain
w
and all of them and western habitats.

w
are found in Asia. Himalayas, but

w
not in the Trans

Himalayan
--
region.
om
Fr
d
oa
nl
ow
D

BIRDS
HABITAT/
e
DISTRIBUTION
in
JERDON’S Critically Nocturnal bird, Undisturbed scrub Clearing of
nl
COURSER Endangered; considered extinct jungles in open scrub jungle,
l.o
Schedule 1 of but rediscovered areas, creation of new
the Wildlife in 1986 SriLankamaleshw pastures,
ia
Protection Act ara Wildlife growing of
1972 Sanctuary in dryland crops,
er
Andra Pradesh. plantations of
at
exotic trees,
quarrying and
cm
the
ps constructions,
Illegal trapping
of birds.
.u
Critically Also known as the Rivers with sand Loss and

w
WHITE
BELLIED Endangered; imperial heron, or gravel bars or degradation of
w
HERON Schedule 1 of mostly found inland lakes, lowland forest

w
the Wildlife solitary. found in five or and wetlands

Protection Act six sites in Assam through direct
--
1972 and Arunachal exploitation

Pradesh, one or and
om
two sites in disturbance.

Bhutan, and a
Fr
few in Myanmar.
d
oa
nl
ow
D

HABITAT/
DISTRIBUTION
SIBERIAN Critically Also known as the Shallow wetlands Hunting and

CRANE Endangered; Siberian white in Tundra and habitat loss.
e
Schedule 1 of crane or the snow plains. Three
in
the Wildlife crane. groups: the
Protection Act eastern group,
nl
1972 which migrates
l.o
from eastern
Siberia to China,
ia
the central group,
which migrates
er
from western
at
Siberia to India,
and the western
cm
group, which
ps migrate from
western Russia to
Iran. Keoladeo
.u
(Ghana) National
Park (KNP) was the
w
last consistently
w
confirmed
w
wintering area for

the species in
--
India.
om
GREAT Critically One of the Resides in dry Habitat loss

INDIAN Endangered; heaviest flying grasslands and and hunting.
Fr
BUSTARD Schedule 1 of birds in the world. scrublands on the 90% of its

the Wildlife Indian population has
d
Protection Act subcontinent; its been reduced

oa
1972 largest within 50 years

populations are (six
nl
found in the Indian generations)

ow
state of Rajasthan. majorly due to

poaching
D

HABITAT/
DISTRIBUTION
BENGAL Critically Inhabits lowland Loss of its

FLORICAN Endangered; dry, or seasonally grassland
e
Schedule 1 of inundated, habitat and
in
the Wildlife natural and hunting.
Protection Act semi-natural
nl
1972 grasslands, often
l.o
interspersed with
scattered scrub or
ia
patchy open
forest. Indian
er
Subcontinent
at
mainly in India
(Uttar Pradesh,
cm
Assam and
ps Arunachal
Pradesh.) and
terai region of
.u
Nepal.
w
w
w
--
om
Fr
d
oa
nl
ow
D

REPTILES
HABITAT/
e
DISTRIBUTION
in
GHARIAL Endangered; Most uniquely Clean rivers with Construction
nl
Schedule 2 of evolved sand banks. Only activities like
l.o
the Wildlife crocodilian in the viable population dam,
Protection Act world, a in the National barrages,
ia
1972 specialized Chambal pollution,
river-dwelling Sanctuary, spread sand mining,
er
fisheater. across three States riparian
at
of Uttar Pradesh, agriculture.
Rajasthan and
cm
Madhya Pradesh.
ps Small
non-breeding
populations exist in
.u
Son, Gandak,
Hoogly and
w
Ghagra rivers.
w
Extinct in
w
Myanmar,
Pakistan, Bhutan
--
and Bangladesh.
om
Fr
d
oa
nl
ow
D

HABITAT/
DISTRIBUTION
LEATHERBACK Endangered; Largest of living Tropical and High sea

TURTLES Schedule 2 of sea turtles subtropical fishing
e
the Wildlife weighing as much oceans, Found in operations,
in
Protection Act as 900 kg, tropical and harvesting of
1972 excellent temperate waters eggs,
nl
swimmers, Jelly of the destruction of
l.o
fish are Atlantic, Pacific, nests, Artificial
their primary prey. and Indian lighting
ia
Oceans. disorients
hatchlings and
er
adult and
at
causes them to
migrate inland
cm
rather than
ps back to the
sea. Threats to
habitat include
.u
construction,
mining and
w
plantation of
w
exotics.
w
OLIVE RIDLEY Vulnerable; Smallest and most Distributed in the Face serious
--
TURTLES Schedule 1 of abundant of all tropical and threats across

om
the Wildlife sea turtles found warm-temperate their migratory

Protection Act in the world, regions of the route, habitat
1972 unique mass South Atlantic, and nesting
Fr
nesting called Pacific, and Indian beaches, due

Arribada. Oceans. In India, to human
d
Gahirmatha coast activities such

oa
(Bhitarkanika as unfriendly
National Park) of turtle fishing
nl
the Odisha, practices,

ow
Rushikulya development,
rookery coast in and
Ganjam district of exploitation of
D
Odisha etc. nesting

beaches for
ports, and
tourist centers.

FISH
HABITAT/
e
DISTRIBUTION
in
LARGETOOTH Endangered; Long rostrums, Tropical and Accidentally
nl
SAWFISH Schedule 2 of tolerate a range subtropical waters getting caught
l.o
the Wildlife of salinities, or around the in fishing nets.
Protection Act salt levels. world-anywhere
ia
1972 the waters are
warm.
er
at
HUMPBACK Critically Large freshwater Freshwater of the Overfishing,
cm
MASHEER Endangered fish also called Cauvery river basin habitat loss,
the tiger of the including Kerala’s pollution, dam
water. Pambar, Kabini construction
ps
and Bhavani etc.
rivers.
.u
w
w
w
--
om
Fr
d
oa
nl
ow
D

CORALS
HABITAT/
e
DISTRIBUTION
in
FIRE CORALS Critically Colonial marine Found on reefs in Overfishing,
nl
(MILLEPORA Endangered organisms that the Indian, Pacific, habitat loss
l.o
BOSCHMAI) exhibit physical and Atlantic due to poor
characteristics Oceans and the land
ia
similar to that of Caribbean Sea. management
coral. Not true They form practices
er
corals but are extensive outcrops releasing
at
instead more on projecting parts more
closely related to of the reef where sediment,
cm
Hydra and other the tidal currents nutrients, and
hydrozoans, ps are strong. pollutants into
making them the oceans.
hydrocorals.
.u
w
w
w
--
om
Fr
d
oa
nl
ow
D

STATE ANIMAL OF
VARIOUS STATES IN INDIA
e
in
Musk Deer
Uttarakhand
Red Panda
nl
Sikkim
Hangul
l.o
erstwhile
Jammu & Snow Leopard
Kashmir Himachal Pradesh
ia
Asiatic Lion Nilgai Mithun
er
Gujarat Delhi, Arunachal
Pradesh,
at
Nagaland
One-horned
cm
rhinoceros
Swamp Deer Assam
Madhya Pradesh, ps
Uttar Pradesh
Camel
Rajasthan
Clouded
.u
Leopard
Meghalaya
w
Ox
Bihar
w
Sangai
w
Manipur
Sambar
--
Odisha Serow
Mizoram
om
Phayre’s Langur
Giant Squirrel Tripura
Maharashtra Deer
Fr
Telangana Wild Buffalo

Chhattisgarh
d
Gaur Blackbuck
oa
Goa Andhra Pradesh,

Haryana, Punjab
Fishing Cat
nl
Elephant West Bengal

Jharkhand,
Squirrel
ow
Karnataka,
Kerala Puduchery
D
Nilgiri Tahr
Tamil Nadu

STATE BIRDS OF
VARIOUS STATES IN INDIA
Northern goshawk
Punjab
e
in
Himalayan Monal
Uttarakhand
nl
Black Necked
Crane Blood
l.o
erstwhile Jammu Pheasant
& Kashmir Western Tragopan Sikkim
Himachal Pradesh
ia
Black Francolin
Haryana White Winged Great
er
Wood Duck Hornbill
Assam Arunachal
at
Pradesh, Kerala
cm
Sarus Crane House Sparrow
Uttar Pradesh Delhi, Bihar
Great Indian
ps
Bustard
Rajasthan
.u
Great Flamingo
w
Gujarat
w
Asian Paradise
w
Flycatcher Koel
Madhya Pradesh Jharkhand Mrs. Hume’s
--
Pheasant
Manipur, Mizoram
om
Yellow-footed Hill Myna

green pigeon Chhattisgarh,
Fr
Maharashtra Meghalaya
White-Breasted
Kingfisher
West Bengal
d
Indian Roller
oa
Andhra Pradesh, Blyth’s

Odisha, Telangana, tragopan
Black Crested Karnataka Nagaland
nl
Bulbul
Goa
Asian Koel
ow
Puduchery
Green
D
Imperial
Pigeon
Emerald Dove Tripura
Tamil Nadu
: 18
e
in
nl
l.o
ia
er
at
cm
ps
.u
w
w
w
--
om

( UPSC PRELIMS 2022) ENVIRONMENT
PROMINENT
Fr
d
oa
PROTECTED
nl
ow
AREAS
D

IMPORTANT NATIONAL PARKS
Dachigam N.P.
Hemis N.P.
Salim Ali N.P.
e
Kishtwar N.P.
in
Pin Valley N.P. Namdapha N.P.
Inderkilla N.P.
Govind Pashu Vihar N.P.
nl
Great Himalayan N.P. Gangotri N.P. Dibru-Saikhowa N.P.
Valley of Flowers N.P. Jaldapara N.P.
l.o
Khirganga N.P. Nanda Devi N.P. Mouling N.P.
Simbalbara N.P. Rajaji N.P. Khangchendzonga N.P.
Kalesar Jim Corbet Buxa N.P.
ia
Sultanpur N.P. N.P. Neora Valley
Sariska N.P. N.P. Manas N.P.
N.P.
er
Desert N.P. Dudhwa N.P. Gorumara N.P. Orang N.P.
Keoladeo Ghana N.P. Nameri N.P.
Kaziranga N.P.
at
Madhav N.P. Valmiki N.P. Ntangki
Ranthambhore N.P. N.P.
Panna N.P Singalila N.P.
cm
Mukundra Hills N.P. Nokrek N.P.
Kuno N.P.
Sanjay N.P. Balphakram
Van Vihar Sirohi
Marine N.P. ps N.P. N.P.
N.P. Mandla Plant Hazaribagh N.P.
Blackbuck N.P. Clouded
Fossils N.P. Leopard Keibul
.u
Bandhavgarh N.P . Lamjao
Bison
N.P. N.P. N.P.
w
Gulf of Kutch Satpura N.P. Murlen N.P.

Sundarbans
Kanha N.P.
w
Vansda N.P. Velavadar Gir N.P. Phawngpui Blue

Pench N.P.
Forest N.P Mountain N.P.
w
--
om
Fr
d
oa
nl
ow
D


Guru Ghasidas N.P.
Navegaon N.P.
Simlipal N.P.
Gugamail N.P.
Indravati N.P. Bhitarkan N.P.
Tadoba N.P.
e
Sanjay Gandhi N.P.
Kanger Valley N.P.
in
Kasu Brahmananda
N.P. Mahaveer Vanasthali N.P.
nl
Chandoli N.P. Papikonda N.P. Saddle Peak N.P.
Mrugavani N.P.
North Button
l.o
Rajiv Gandhi
Mollem N.P. Island N.P.
(Rameswaram) N.P.
Anshi N.P. Rani Jhansi Marine
ia
Bannerghatta N.P. Sri Vankatesware N.P. N.P.
Kudremukh N.P.
er
Bandipur N.P. Meddle Button Island N.P.
South Button Island N.P.

Mudumalai N.P.
at
Nagarahole N.P. Mukurthi N.P. Mahatama Gandhi Marine
Mount Harriett N.P.

Silent Valley N.P. Guindy N.P. (Wandoor) N.P.
cm
Anamudi N.P. Indira Gandhi Wildlife
Sanctuary and N.P.
Eravikulam N.P. Campbell Bay N.P.
Mathikettan Shola N.P.
ps Galathea Bay N.P.
Gulf of Manner
Pambadum N.P.
Marine N.P.
.u
Periyar N.P.
w
N.P. - National Park

w
w
--
om
Fr
d
oa
nl
ow
D

S.N. State/UT National Major River Flora/Forest Fauna
Park Type
1 Andaman & Campbell Tropical evergreen Crab-eating Macaque, Giant
Nicobar Bay NP forest, Orchids, Tree robber crabs, Saltwater
Islands fern, Mangroves crocodile, Giant leatherback
turtle, Megapode, Andaman
Wild Pig
e
Tropical and moist Giant leather back Turtle,
in
2 Andaman & Galathea
Nicobar Bay NP broad leaf forest. Water monitor lizard,
nl
Islands Reticulated python, Nicobar
Tree Shrews, Nicobar Long-
l.o
Tailed Macaque.
3 Andaman & Mahatama Mangroves, Gurjan, White-Bellied Sea Eagle,
ia
Nicobar Gandhi Bamboo, Ferns Water Monitor Lizard,
er
Islands Marine Banded Sea Snake, Estuarine
(Wandoor) NP crocodiles
at
4 Andaman & Middle Moist Deciduous Spotted deer, Fruit Bat,
cm
Nicobar Button Forest White-Bellied Sea Eagle,
Islands Island NP ps Scooty Tren, Monitor Lizards,
Dugongs, Andaman Serpants
Eagle
.u
5 Andaman & Mount Tropical evergreen, Andaman Wild Pig, Andaman

Harrient NP
w
Nicobar Hilltop tropical Masked Plam Civet, Andaman

Islands evergreen Rat, Andaman cuckoo dove.
w
w
6 Andaman & North Button Moist Deciduous Corals, Spotted deer, Blue
Nicobar Island NP Forest whale, Monitor Lizard,
--
Islands Dolphins, Dugongs, Humpback

Snappers, Giant Groupers
om
7 Andaman & Rani Jhansi Lowland evergreen Dugong, Fruit-eating beats

Nicobar Marine NP rain forest, semi- Daniel’s Forest Lizard,
Fr
Islands evergreen rain forest Andaman Island Grass Skink,

and mangrove forest. Andaman Water Monitor,
Corals
d
oa
8 Andaman & Saddle Peak Andaman Tropical Dugong, Fruit-eating beats

Nicobar NP Evergreen, Andaman Daniel’s Forest Lizard,
Islands Moist Deciduous Andaman Island Grass Skink,
nl
Andaman Semi- Andaman Water Monitor,

ow
evergreen, Canebrake, Corals

Wet Bamboo and littoral.
D
Dugongs, water lizards, sea

9 Andaman & South Button
turtles, dolphins and blue
Nicobar Island NP
whales.
Islands
Endemic: Subspecies of
edible-nest swiftlet

Park Type
10 Andhra Papikonda Godavari Dry deciduous Teak Tiger, Hyena, Four horned
Pradesh NP forest with Bamboo, antelope, Spotted deer,
Terminalia, and other Muggers
species conforming
to the Eastern Ghat
e
vegetation.
in
11 Andhra Rajiv Gandhi Penna
nl
Pradesh (Rameswaram)
l.o
NP
ia
12 Andhra Sri Dry deciduous mixed Tiger, Golden Gecko, Slender
Pradesh Venkatesw- forest, Patches of Loris, Indian Giant Squirrel,
er
ara NP mixed deciduous Tree Shrew and Flying Lizard
forest. Endemic: Red
at
Sanders, Shorea
cm
talura, Sandalwood
13 Arunachal Mouling NP Siyom Forms a transition

ps Red Pandas, Deers, Hoolock
Pradesh 13 rivers finally zone between Gibbons and Tigers
tropical forests at
.u
join Siang River lower altitudes to
most temperate
w
forest
w
w
14 Evergreen Forests,
--
Arunachal Namdapha Noa Dihing Tiger, leopard, clouded

Pradesh NP Moist leopard, snow leopard,
om
deciduousforests, golden cat, marble cat, red

subtropical forests, panda,
TemperateForests
Fr
and Alpine
Rare Blue vanda
orchid found
d
oa
15 Assam Dibru— Dibru, Forest Type: moist Endemic Fauna: White

Saikhowa Bramhaputra deciduous forest, winged wood duck, Hollock-
nl
NP bamboo, swamp gibbon, Wild buffalo

forests, cane brakes
ow
and grasslands.
Endemic Flora: Rauvo
D
Ifia(Sarpagandh i),
Benteak, Livistona
(orchid)

Park Type
16 Assam Kaziranga Bramhaputra, Forest Type alluviaI Tiger, One-horned Rhino
NP Mora Dhansiri, inundated grasslands,
Diphlu alluvial savannah
woodlands, tropical
moist mixed
e
deciduous
in
forests, andtropical
nl
17 Assam Manas NP Manas Beki Main Forest types: Endemic Fauna: Pygmy hog,
l.o
semi-evergreen forests Golden lungur , Assam roofed
mixed moist and dry turtle
deciduous forests,
ia
alluvial grasslands,
er
creeper swamp forest,
Eastern seasonal
at
Swamp Forest, Cane
and bamboo
cm
brakesEndemic Flora:
Catec hu tree,Sissoo,
ps White siris
18 Nameri NP Jia Bhoroli Semi-evergreen, Tiger,BIack Panther, ,

.u
Assam
moist deciduous Himalayan Black Bear,
w
forests with cane and Elephant

bamboo brakes and
w
narrow strips of open

w
grassland along
rivers.
--
19 Assam Rajiv Gandhi Bramhaputra Eastern Himalayan Tiger, Pygmy hog, elephant,
Orang NP Moist Deciduous Bengal florican
om
Forest, Eastern
Seasonal Swamp
Fr
Forest, Eastern Wet

Alluvial Grassland,
Savannah Grassland,
d
Degraded Grassland
oa
20 Bihar Valmiki NP Gandak, Burhi Tiger, Rhino, black Bear,

Gandak, Pandai Moist mixed Nepal kaleej pheasant
nl
deciduous Open -
ow
land vegetation Sub-

mountainous semi-
evergreen formation
D
Freshwater swamps
Riparian fringes
Alluvial grasslands
and high hill
savannah Wetlands

Park Type
21 Chhattisgarh Guru Umaria, Moist deciduous Tiger, Leopard, Golden
Ghasidas Kodmar forest consisting Hooded Oriole, Egyptian
(Sanjay) NP mainly of sal vulture
22 Chhattisgarh Indravati Indravati Southern Dry Mixed Tiger, leopard, sloth bear,
e
(Kutru) NP Deciduous Forests striped hyena
in
and Southern Moist
Mixed Deciduous
nl
Forests
l.o
23 Chhattisgarh Kanger Kanger mixed moist Tiger, Leopard, mouse deer,
Valley NP deciduous type of Bastar hill Myena
ia
forests with
predominan ce of sal,
er
teak and bamboo
at
24 Goa Mollem NP Mandovi West Coast tropical Black Panther, bonnet
evergreen forests, macaque, Slender loris
cm
West Coast semi-
evergreen forests and
ps
moist deciduous
forests.
.u
25 Gujarat Vansda NP Ambika Deciduous Forest, Indian leopard, rhesus
bamboo macaque,
w
26
w
Gujarat Blackbuck Lies between Grassland, shrubland Blackbuck, wolf and lesser
(Velavadar) Parvalia and florican
w
NP Alang which
drains into Gulf
--
of Cambay
om
27 Gujarat Gir NP Dry Deciduous

Asiatic lion, Chital, chinkara,
Scrub, Dry
Indian Leopard
Savannah
Fr
Dominant
Species: Teak
d
oa
28 Gujarat Marine Dry Deciduous Corals, Blue Whales, greater

(Gulf of Scrub, Dry flamingo, Whale sharks
nl
Kachchh) Savannah
NP Dominant
ow
Species: Teak
D

Park Type
29 Haryana Kalesar NP Yamuna Dense old forest Barking Deer, Ghoral, Leoprda
River forms dominated by
the Eastern Sat
boundary
e
30 Haryana Sultanpur Kanger Tropical and Dry Migratory Birds: Amur
in
NP Deciduous falcons, Egyptian vultures,
nl
plovers. Resident Birds:
Common hoopoe, paddyfield
l.o
pipit, purple sunbird,
31 HimachaI Great Tirthan, Sainj, Temperate broad- Himalayan Musk Deer, Snow
ia
Pradesh Himalayan Jiwa Nal, and leaved forests, Leopard, Himalayan Brown
er
NP Parvati Temperate conifer Bear, Himalayan tahr
forests, Upper
at
temperate broad-
leaved and mixed
cm
conifer forests, Sub-
alpine (Birch-
Rhododendr on)
ps
forests, Alpine scrubs,
Alpine meadows,
.u
Riverine forests (along
the rivers), Temperate
w
grassy slopes,
w
Temperate secondary
scrub near village
w
pastures and forest

edges
--
32 HimachaI Inderkilla
om
Pradesh NP
33 HimachaI Khirganga NP
Pradesh
Fr
34 HimachaI Pin Valley NP Pin, Spiti Dry Temperate, Alpine Tibetan Gazelle, Wooly Hare,
d
Pradesh dominated by Juniper Snow Leopard, Himalayan

and Birch Trees Ibex, Tibet Snow Finch,
oa
35 HimachaI Simbalbara Pin, Spiti Sai forest, mixed Himalayan Bear, Brown Bear,
nl
Pradesh NP mixed forest grassy Snow Leopard

slopes, mixed forest
ow
riverine, pine mixed

woodland and
D
Mixed forest with

khair plantations.
36 Erstwhile City Forest Mangrove Kashmiri stag, Chakkar, Snow
Jammu & (Salim Ali) shrubberies Cock, Serow, hangul
Kashmir NP

Park Type
37 Erstwhile Dachigam NP Daghwan Coniferous forest, Kashmiri Stag, leopards,
Jammu & grasslands, scrubs Himalayan Gray Langurs,
Kashmir Monal
38 Erstwhile Hemis NP Markha, pine forests, alpine Argali, Bharal, Shapu, Tibetan
e
Jammu & Sumdah, shrublands and wolf, Snow Leopard
in
Kashmir Rumbak, meadows, and alpine
bounded by tundra.
nl
Indus in the
north
l.o
39 Erstwhile Kishtwar NP Kiar, Nath, Coniferous, Alpine, Himalayan Snowcock, Brown
ia
Jammu & Kibar, Marwa, Meadows and Scrub Bear
Kashmir Rinnay forests.
er
40 Jharkhand Betla NP North Koyal Sal and Bamboo Sloth Bear, Panther
at
forest
cm
41 Karnataka Anshi NP Kali North Western Ghats Tiger, Black Panther
montane rain forests
ps
and North Western
Ghats moist
.u
deciduous forests
42 Karnataka Bandipur NP Kabini, Moyar Dry Deciduous Tiger, Leoprad
w
Scrub, Tropical Dry

w
Deciduous Forest,
w
Tropical Moist Mixed

Deciduous Forest
--
43 Karnataka Bannergh- Suvarnamuk hi Moist Deciduous, Elephant, Leopard

atta NP Scrubs
om
44 Karnataka Kudremukh Tunga, Bhadra, Evergreen, Semi- Tiger, Leopard, Lion- tailed
NP Netravati evergreen, Macaque, Malabar trogon,
Fr
eucalyptus Malabar whistling thrush

d
45 Karnataka Nagarahole Lakshmmant North Western Ghats Tiger, Leoprad

(Rajiv irtha river, moist deciduous
oa
Gandhi) NP Sarati Hole, forests with (teak and

Nagar Hole, rosewood), Central
nl
Balle Halla, Deccan Plateau dry

ow
Kabini River deciduous forests with

Pala indigo and thorny
wattle, Sub- montane
D
valley swamp forests

with several species of
the Eugenia genus.

Park Type
46 Kerala Anamudi Chinnar, West coast tropical Elephant, Tiger, Panther,
Shola NP Pambar evergreen, Southern Parantica nilgiriensis (a RET
Hilltop Tropical Shola listed species of butterfly)
Forest predominantly
Vegetation
e
47 Kerala Eravikulam Periyar, Southern montanewet Nilgiri Tahr, Nilgiri marten
in
NP Chalakudiyar, temperate forests,
nl
Cauvery southernwest coast Endemic: Salea Anamalayana,
evergreen forest, Ahatulla disper (reptiles)
l.o
Mixed Deciduous
Predominance of
ia
shoal forest,
er
grasslands
Endemic: The
at
genusimpatiens has 6
cm
species endemic to
grasslands
48 Kerala Mathikettan Panniyar

psWest coast
Shola NP tropical evergreen
.u
forests, west coast
semi evergreen
w
forests, moist
deciduous forests,
w
shola forests and

w
grasslands.
--
49 Kerala Pambadum Pambar Shola Forests, Elephant, Gaur, Leopard, Wild

Shola NP Grasslands boar
om
50 Kerala Periyar NP Periyar, Pamba West Coast Tropical Tiger, Leoprad, Elephant,
Evergreen Forests, Niligiri Tahr
Fr
West Coast Semi

Evergreen Forests,
d
Moist Deciduous
oa
Forest, Southern
Montane Wet
nl
Grassland, Eucalyptus
Plantations
ow
51 Kerala Silent Valley Bharathapuz ha South Western Nilgiri wood-Pigeon, Malabar

NP River, Ghats mountain parakeet, Malabar grey
D
Kuntipuzha rain forests and hornbill, Great Indian

River tropical moist Hornbill, lion-tailed macaque,
evergreen forest Niligiri langur, Malabar giant
squirrel, Nilgiri tahr

10
Park Type
52 Madhya Bandhavgarh Charanganga Moist Peninsular Tiger, leopard, wild dog
Pradesh NP Low Level Sal, West
Gangetic Moist
Mixed Deciduous
Forests
e
in
53 Madhya Fossil NP Narmada Dry Mixed Deciduous Tiger, Leopard, Wild Dog,
Pradesh Forest Gaur, Chinkara
nl
54 Madhya Indira Periyar, Pamba Dry Teak Bearing Tiger, Leoprad
l.o
Pradesh Priyadarsh-ini Forest, Sout hern
Pench NP Dry Deciduous
ia
Mixed Forest
er
55 Madhya Kanha NP Banjar, Halon Southern Tropical Tiger, Leoprad Barasingha
at
Pradesh Moist and Dry
Mixed Deciduous
cm
Forest, Peninsular
Sal Forests
56 Madhya Madhav NP Sakya Sagar

ps
Dry Mixed Deciduous Chinkara, Black Buck,
Pradesh and Madhav Forest Leopard, Migratory Birds:
.u
Sag ar Lakes Pochard, Pintail, Geal
created on
w
Manier River
w
57 Madhya Panna NP Ken Southern Tropical Dry Links the eastern and
w
Pradesh Deciduous Dry Teak western wildlife populations

Forest, Northern of the Vindhyan ranges.
--
Tropical Dry
Deciduous Mixed
om
Forest, Dry Deciduous

Scrub Forest,
Boswellia Forest, Dry
Fr
Bamboo Brakes,
Anogeissus pendula
d
Forest.
oa
58 Madhya Sanjay NP Umaria, Kodmar Mixed Deciduous Tiger, Leopard, Chital

Pradesh Forest mainly of Sal,
nl
Bori Teak Forests,

bamboo, Tendua
ow
etc
59 Madhya Satpura NP Denwa Moist deciduous Tiger, Blackbuck

D
Pradesh forest consisting

mainly of sal

Park Type
60 Madhya Van Vihar Sal, Bel, Amaltas, Captive and herbivores. All
Pradesh NP Babul, tendua carnivorous animals are kept
etc inside enclosed areas and
herbivores are allowed to
roam freely.
e
61
in
Maharashtra Kuno National Part of Kathiawar—
Park Gir dry deciduous
nl
forests ecoregion
l.o
62 Maharashtra Chandoli NP Warna Malabar Coast moist Tiger, Leopard, Blackbucks
forests and North
ia
Western Ghats moist
deciduous forests.
er
at
63 Maharashtra Gugamal NP Dolar Southern dry Tiger, Leopard, Ussuri Dhole
deciduous forest.
cm
64 Maharashtra Nawegaon NP Major Source Southern Tropical Dry Tiger, Panther, Sloth bears
of water: Deciduous Forests
ps
Nawegaon
lake
.u
65 Pench Pench, kanhan Dry Teak Bearing Tiger, Leopard, Sambar

w
(Jawaharlal Forest, Sout hern

Nehru) NP Dry Deciduous
w
Mixed Forest
w
66 Maharashtra Sanjay Gandhi two lakes, Vihar Southern mixed- Chital, Barking Deer,
(Borivilli) NP Lake and Tulsi deciduous forest Crocodiles (Tulsi lake)
--
Lake,
om
67 Maharashtra Tadoba NP Tadoba lake, Southern Tropical Tiger, Leopard, sloth Bears
Kolsa lake and Dry Deciduous
Fr
Andhari river Forest
68 Manipur Keibul— Loktak lake Semi— Evergreen Famous for brow— antlered
d
Lamjao NP Forest deer (Sangai)

oa
69 Meghalaya Balphakram Origin of Deciduous Forest wild water buffalo, red panda,
NP Mahadeo, Famous for Pitcher elephant, tiger, golden cat
nl
Maheshkola, plant
ow
Goneswari,
Kanai and
Chimite
D

Park Type
70 Meghalaya Nokrek Ganol, Dareng Evergreen and Slow Loris, tiger, leopard
Ridge NP and Simsang semi- evergreen
deciduous forests
71 Mizoram Murlen NP tropical, semi- Tiger, Leopard, Himalayan
e
evergreen and sub Black Bear, Serrow, Hollock
in
montane Forests Gibbon
nl
72 Mizoram Phawngpui Kolodyne Sub-tropical Broadleaf, Blyth*s tragopan, Tiger,
Blue Tropical Evergreen mountain bamboo partridge,
l.o
Mountain NP forests and oriental pied hornbill, purple
Grasslands cochoa
ia
73 Nagaland Intanki NP Kolodyne Grasslands, Tropical Hoolock gibbon, Golden
er
Deciduous Forest, langur, Palm civets, Tiger
Evergreen Forests
at
74 Odisha Bhitarkanika Estuarine Mangrove saltwater crocodile, white
cm
NP region of Forests crocodile, Indian python,
Brahmani- black ibis
Baitarani
ps
75 Odisha Simlipal NP Budhabalan ga, Northern Tropical Tiger, Leopard, Elephant
.u
Palpala Evergreen Forests,

w
Bhandan, Northern Tropical

KharkaiRiver Moist Deciduous
w
and Deo Forests,

w
Dry Deciduous Hill

Forests, High Level
--
Sal Forest, Grassland

and Savannah
om
76 Rajasthan Mukundra Ramzan, Ahu, Tropical dry Tiger, Panther, Sloth bear
HIIIS NP Kali and Deciduous
Chambal. Forest and
Fr
Tropical thorn
Forest
d
77 Desert NP
oa
Rajasthan Sewan grass and Great Indian Bustard, Desert

aak shrub , Fox, Blackbuck
thorns
nl
78 Rajasthan Keoladeo Ropical dry Migratory Waterfowl,

ow
Ghana NP deciduous forests Siberian Crane

intermixed with dry
grasslands
D
79 Rajasthan Ranthamb- Banas, Chambal Northern Tropical Tiger, Leopard, Characal

hore NP Dry Deciduous
Forest

Park Type
80 Rajasthan Sariska NP Chambal Tropical Dry leopard, caracal, rusty

Deciduous Forest, spotted cat
Tropical thorn
Forest
e
81 Sikkim Khangchendzonga Teesta Sub—tropical broad Tibetan sheep, Musk deer,
in
NP leaved hill forest, Monal pheasant, Snow
Himalayan wet patridge
nl
temperate forest,
l.o
and temperate
broad leaved forest,
ia
mixed coniferous
forest, subalpine a
er
forests and dry
alpine forest
at
Endemic: Sikkim
cm
Rhododendr on,
Sikkim Mahonia
82 Tamil Nadu Guindy NP tropical dry blackbuck, chital, pangolin
ps
evergreen scrub and
thorn forests
.u
83 Tamil Nadu Gulf of Tropical Dry Broad- Hawks bill turtle, Dugongs,
w
Mannar leafed forest, Whales

w
Marine NP seaweed
communities, sea
w
grass communities,
coral reefs, salt
--
marshes and
mangrove forests
om
84 Tamil Nadu Indira Aliayar , Wet evergreen forest Tiger, Elephant, Dhole
Gandhi Apambar , and semi evergreen
Fr
(Annamalai) Chinnar, forest, montane

NP Parambikulam shola- grassland,
d
moist deciduous, dry

oa
deciduous, thorn
forests and marshes
nl
85 Tamil Nadu Mudumalai Moyar Tropical moist Tiger, endangered Indian

NP deciduous, Tropical white-rumped vulture
ow
dry deciduous forest

occurs in the middle,
D
southern tropical dry

thorn forests

Park Type
86 Tamil Nadu Mukurthi Billithadahall a, Montane grasslands Nilgiri Tahr, tiger

NP Pykara and and shrublands
Kundah rivers
87 Telangana Kasu Tropical Dry pangolin, small Indian civet
e
Brahmana-nd Deciduous
in
a Reddy NP
nl
88 Telangana Mahaveer Dry deciduous forest Blackbuck, Water Monitor
Harina mixed with scrub
l.o
Vanasthali jungle and
NP grasslands
ia
89 Telangana Mrugavani Tropical dry Panther, Cheetal, Sambar,
er
NP Deciduous
at
90 Tripura Clouded Mixed Deciduous Clouded Leopard, barking
Leopard NP Forest deer
cm
91 Tripura Bison ps
(Rajbari) NP
92 Uttar
.u
Dudhwa NP Suheli and North Indian Moist tigers, leopards, Asiatic
Pradesh Mohana Deciduous type black bears
w
with predominance
of Sal
w
w
93 Uttarakhand Corbett NP Ramganga Moist Deciduous Tiger, leopard, elephant,

Forest, Tropical Dry sambar,
--
Deciduous Forest,
Himalayan
om
Subtropical Pine
Forests
Fr
94 Uttarakhand Gangotri NP Western Himalayan snow leopard, ibex, tahr,

su conifer forests, Himalayan barbet
Western Himalayan
d
alpine shrub and

oa
meadows
nl
95 Uttarakhand Govind NP Western Snow Leopard, Himalayan

Himalayanbroadleaf tahr, Asian black bear
ow
forests, western
Himalayan subalpine
conifer forests and
D
western
Himalayanalpine
shrub and meadows

Park Type
96 Uttarakhand Nanda Devi Rishiganga Mixed snow leopard, Asiatic black
NP temperate and bear, brown bear, Himalayan
subalpine musk deer
97 Uttarakhand Rajaji NP Rawasan Broadleaved Tiger, Himalayan Black Bear
e
deciduous forests,
in
riverine vegetation,
scrubland, grasslands
nl
and pine forests
l.o
98 Uttarakhand Valley of Mixed Temperate and Snow Leopard, Musk Deer,
Flowers NP subalpine Red Fox
ia
Endemic: Aconitum
er
falconeri, A.balfouri,
Himalayan maple the
at
blue Himalayan
poppy and
cm
Saussurea atkinsoni.
99 Buxa NP
West Bengal Jainti, Kaatulam
ps
Northern Dry Tiger, elephant, leopard cat,
Nala Deciduous Forest,
Eastern Bhabar, Terai
.u
Sal, East Himalayan

w
blue Himalayan Moist

Mixed Deciduous
w
Forest, Sub—
w
Montane Semi-
Evergreen Forest,
--
Northern Tropical
Evergreen Forest
om
poppy and Saussurea

atkinsoni.
Fr
100 West Bengal Gorumara Murti River and Terai—Duar savanna Indian Rhino, elephant
NP Raidak River and grasslands,
Lower Gangetic
d
plains moist
oa
deciduous forests
101 West Bengal Jaldapara Torsa Savannah covered Indian one-horned
nl
NP with tall elephant rhinoceros, Leopard,

ow
grasses. Elephants
102 West Bengal Neora Valley Neora Sino- Himalayan Leopard, civet, black bear,
D
NP Temperate Forest, sloth bear,

Sino- Himalayan
Subtropical Forest,
Indo- Chinese
Tropical Moist Forest

Park Type
103 West Bengal Singalila NP River Rammam Eastern Himalayan Red panda, leopard cat,
and River subalpine conifer barking deer, yellow-
Sirikhola forests, Eastern throated marten, Himalayan
Himalayan broadleaf Newt
forests, Himalayan
e
Sub-Tropical Pine
in
Forest
nl
104 West Bengal Sunderban NP Meghna Tidal Swamp Forest, Tiger, estuarine crocodile
Saline Water Type
l.o
Mixed Forest,
Brackish Water Type
ia
Mixed Forests, Palm
er
Swamp Type
at
cm
ps
.u
w
w
w
--
om
Fr
d
oa
nl
ow
D


BIOSPHERE RESERVE INDIA
COLD DESERT
e
in
nl
Nanda Devi N.P.
Biosphere Reserve Dihang-Dibang Valley
l.o
Dibru-Saikhowa
ia
er
Khangchendzonga Manas N.P
at
Nokrek N.P
cm
Great Rann of Kutch Panna
ps
Achanakmar Amarkantak
Pachmarhi Biosphere Biosphere Reserve
Reserve
.u
Simlipal N.P
w
w
w
--
om
Seshachalam Hills
Fr
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve

d
oa
Gulf of Mannar
Agasthyamalai
nl
Biosphere Reserve Great Nicobar

Biosphere Reserve
ow
D

S.N. Biosphere Reserve State Geographic Protected Fauna And
Al Features Areas Fauna
1 DIHANG-DIBANG ARUNACHAL
VEGETATION 1. Mouling Flora:
PRADESH
DIHANG-DIBANG BIOSPHERE RESERVE
- subtropical National Park Tree fern,
broad-leaved, sub- Begonia, Lady's
BP - Biosphere Reserve
2. Dibang
DIBANG BP
WLS - Wildlife Sanctuary
NP - National Park
tropical pine, slipper orchid
e
Wildlife
DIBANGWLS
temperate broad-
R G
VE
I RI DIBAN
Fauna: Endemic
in
R
SI G
SU
B AN
SI
AN MOULING
NATIONAL
leaved, temperate Sanctuary Fauna: Red
PARK
conifer, subalpine panda,
nl
ARUNACHAL LOHIT
PRADESH woody shrub, Himalayan black
alpine meadow
l.o
NG
KE
ME BRAHMAPUTRA
bear, Green pit
ASSAM bamboo brakes viper, Takin
andgrassland.
ia
er
2 SESHACHALAM HILLS ANDHRA
PRADESH
Climate: Tropical 1. Sri Endemic Flora:
Monsoon
at
SRI VENKATESHWAR Venkateswar a Red Sanders
Forest type: Both and Slender
NP & WLS
National Park
cm
ANDHRA PRADESH
dry and Moist Loris
deciduous Type 2. Sri
SESHACHALAM BR
Fauna: Jungle
Venkateshwa
ps cat, Great
ra wildlife Mouse Deer,
goldenGeckos
.u
Sanctuary
w
3 DIBRU-SAIKHOWA ASSAM
Climate: Tropical 1. Dibru- Endemic Flora:
w
monsoon Saikhowa Rauvolfia

Forest Type: semi (Sarpagandhi),
w
BHUTAN BRAHAMPUTRA National Park Benteak,

DIBRU wet evergreen
Livistona
ASSAM
forests, tropical
--
MANAS MANAS BR SAIKHOWA
(orchid)
RVE BR
WLS. ESE
moist deciduous
ER R G
S TI
NA
MA DIBRU
om
SAIKHOWA
NP.
forest, bamboo, Endemic Fauna:
swamp forests, White winged
cane brakes and wood duck,
Fr
grasslands. Hollock-gibbon,
Wild buffalo
d
4 MANAS
oa
ASSAM
Climate: Tropical Manas Wildlife Endemic Flora:
Monsoon Sanctuary Catechu tree,
Sissoo, White
nl
BHUTAN
BRAHAMPUTRA The monsoon Manas National
ASSAM DIBRU
forests of Manas Park slrls
ow
SAIKHOWA
lie in the Endemic Fauna:
MANAS MANAS BR E
Manas Tiger
ERV BR
WLS. RES
GER
Brahmaputra Pygmy hog,

A S TI
Reserve
MAN DIBRU
SAIKHOWA
Valley semi- Golden lungur,
D
NP.
evergreen forests Assam roofed

ecosystem. turtle

Main Forest types:

semi- evergreen
forests mixedmoist
and dry deciduous
e
forests, alluvial
in
grasslands, creeper
swamp
nl
forest,Eastern
seasonal Swamp
l.o
Forest, Cane and
bamboo brakes
ia
er
5 ACHANAKMAR - CHHATTIS- Climate: Tropical Several
AMARKANTAK GARH - Monsoon Forest thallophyte,
at
MADHYA Type: Tropical bryophyte,
PRADESH
cm
deciduous pteridophyte,
vegetation. gymnosperm,
MADHYA Achanakmar
Further classified
ps and angiosperm
PRADESH Amarkantak BR into Northern species found.
Tropical Moist
CHHATTISGARH
.u
Deciduous and
Southern Dry
w
Mixed Deciduous
forests
w
w
6 PANNA MADHYA Climate: semi-Arid 1. Panna Panna

PRADESH to Dry Sub- humid represents the
--
National
Flora: Vegetation northern
Park/Panna
om
types: Southern boundary of the

Tropical Dry Tiger Reserve natural
Ren-Gharial
Deciduous Dry 2. Gangau distribution of
Fr
WLS
Panna BR Teak Forest, teak, and the
Northern Tropical Wildlife eastern limits of
Dry Deciduous Sanctuary teak-kardhai
d
Panna NR
Mixed Forest, Dry mixed forests.
oa
MADHYA
3. Ken- Gharial
Tiger
PRADESH
Deciduous Scrub
Reserve
Fauna: Tiger,
Pachmarhi BR
Bari WLS
Forest, Boswellia Wildlife
chinkara, , tree
nl
Satpura NP Gangau WLS

Forest, Dry sanctuary shrew, long
Bamboo Brakes,
ow
(dedicated to snouted
Anogeissus crocodile,
pendula Forest. breeding
mugger Links
D
programs and the eastern and

proper western wildlife
housing of populations of
the Vindhyan
Gharials ranges.

7 PACHMARHI MADHYA Climate: 1. Bori Flora:
PRADESH TropicalMonsoon Sanctuary, Forest Types:
River- climate 2. Pachmarhi moist
Denwa ThePanchmarhi deciduous, dry
Sanctuary
e
plateau iscool deciduous,
in
insummer and has 3. Satpura central Indian
heavyrainfall in National Park sub tropical hill
nl
forest.
Ren-Gharial WLS
Panna BR
therainy season, These
l.o
whereas lowlands altogether has Endemic Flora :
inNarmada basin Sal tree,
Panna NR Tiger
also been
MADHYA Reserve
Gangau WLS
PRADESH
areuncomfortabIy Selaginella fern,
ia
notified as
Pachmarhi BR
hot in summer Palimorpha

Bari WLS
Satpura Tiger
er
with less rainfall bamboo
Satpura NP
Reserve
Endemic Fauna:
at
Barasinga, Wild
cm
buffalo, Red
ps jungle fowl.
8 KUTCH GUJARAT Climate: Arid, 1. Kutch Desert Flora:

Desert like
.u
Sanctuary mixed scrub,
conditions thorn, savannah
2. Wild Ass
w
Two major in GRK

Sanctuary (for
RAJASTHAN
w
PAKISTAN LU
NI ecosystems: Great Mangroves in
Rann of Kutch conservation
w
the eastern
RANN OF KUTCH
BA
NA
S
(GRK) and Little of wild ass) border of Banni
Rann of Kutch
--
KUTCH
RJPE
N grassland, inside
GULF OF KUTCH
(LRK) the GRK a place
om
locally known as
LITTLE
RANN
GULF
OF KUTCH
Shrawan
OF
KHAMBHAT
GUJARAT
Kavadia Fauna:
Fr
ARABIAN SEA
Indian wild ass,
Greater and
Lesser
d
Flamingos
oa
9 COLD DESERT HIMACHAL Climate: Cold, 1. Kutch Desert Flora: Herbs,

nl
PRADESH harsh climate Sanctuary shrub species

Fauna: Tibetan
ow
KIBBER WLS
SARCHU
with low mean 2. Wild Ass
CHANDRATAL
gazzle, red fox,
annual rainfall-
Sanctuary (for weasel, marmot,
F1N WALLEY NP
creating desert
D
griffon,
HIMACHAL PRDESH
UTTRAKHAND
NE
PA
L
like conditions. conservation lammergeyer,
INDIA of wild ass) golden eagle,
snow cock, snow
leopard, brown
and black bear,
ibexetc.

10 KeraIa, Climate: Tropical 1. Neyyar Endemic Flora:
TamiI Nadu Monsoon Flora: Wildlife Rudraksha tree,
River- Forest Types: Black plums,
Tambra- thorn, moist Sanctuary Gaub tree, Wild
e
parani deciduous and 2. Peppara dhaman
in
semi- evergreens Wildlife Endemic Fauna:
Lion- tailed
nl
KERALA TAMIL NADU sanctuary
macaque,
3. Shendumey
l.o
AGATSYAMALAI BR Slender loris,
wildlife Great pied
NEYYAR RIVER
hornbill brown
ia
Sanctuary
and black bear,
AGASTHYAMALAI 4. Kalakad
er
ibexetc.
Mundanthura
at
I Tiger
cm
Reserve.
11 KANCHANDEZONGA SIKKIM
ps
Climate: Varies Kanchandezonga Endemic Flora:
with altitude, a National Park Anemone,
aspect Uvaria, Sikkim
.u
Forest Type: Sub- Rhododendron,

w
Sikkim Mahonia
KANCHANDEZONGA
tropical broad
NP.
NEPAL
w
leavedhill forest, Endemic Fauna:

BHUTAN
Himalayan wet Tibetan sheep,

w
INDIA BANGLADESH
temperate forest, Musk deer,

and temperate Monalpheasant,
--
broad leaved Snow patridge

forest, mixed
om
coniferous forest,
sub-alpine a
forests and dry
Fr
alpine forest
d
oa
nl
ow
D

12 SlMLlPAL ODISHA Climate: Tropical 1. SimiIipaI Tiger Flora: Forest
River- Monsoon Reserve, Type: Northern
HADGARH
WLS Budha-bala Relatively higher Tropical Semi
nga, Palpala 2. Hadgarh Evergreen
annual
Bhandan, Wildlife Forests,
e
HA
precipitation of
IS SIMLIPAL
OD
TIGER
Kharkai Northern
in
RESERVE
over 200 cm Sanctuary
KULDIHAR WLS. River and spreadover about Tropical Moist
3. KuIdiha
nl
INDIA Deo 135 days. Deciduous
Markedvariation of Wildlife Forests, Dry
l.o
temperaturerange Sanctuary Deciduous Hill
between the Forests, High
ia
central and Level Sai Forest,
Grassland and
er
southern regions.
Savannah
Endemic Flora:
at
Coix grass
cm
Endemic Fauna:
Red breasted
ps falconet,
Slender billed
scimitar
.u
babbles, Ruddy
mongoose.
w
w
13 SUNDARBANS
w
WEST Climate: Tropical 1. Sundarban Endemic Flora:

BENGAL Monsoon National Park/ Sundari,
--
River- Flora: Passur, Nypa

Meghna Sundarban Fauna:
om
Forest Types tiger Reserve Endemic Fauna:

INDIA BANGLADESH Tidal Swamp 2. SajnekhaIi Bengal tiger,
KOLKATA
Foresta, Saline Bengal monitor
Fr
SUNDERBANS
GANGES FOREST
Water Type Mixed Wildlife
lizard, Salvator
SUNDERBANS BP Forests, Brackish Sanctuary lizard
d
BAY OF BANGAL Water Type Mixed 3. Lothian

Forests, Palm Others:
oa
Swamp Type Wildlife Gangetic

Sanctuary dolphin,
nl
,estuarine
4. HaIiday crocodile, river
ow
Wildlife terrapin, olive

Sanctuary ridley turtle,
D

14 GULF OF MANNAR Tamil Nadu Ecosystem types: Mannar Marine Endemic Flora:
Tropical Dry Broad- National Park Endemic Flora :
leafed forest, Morning glory,
PENNAR
INDIA KAVERI
seaweed Jatropha,
e
communities, sea Halophila grass
in
GULF OF
MANNAR
BP grass Endemic Fauna:
communities,
nl
Sea Cow, Sea
MARINE coral reefs, salt Anemone, Sea
l.o
NP
marshes and
SRI
fans.
LANKA
mangrove forests.
ia
15 NOKREK MEGHALAYA Climate: Tropical- Nokrek National Endemic Flora:
er
(parts of High humidity, Park Grand rasamala,
Garo Hills) Monsoon Rains, White meranti,
at
River- Ganol, High Temperature Lali, Chempaka,
Dareng and
cm
Forest Type: Wild lemon
SIMSANG
RIVER
Simsang Evergreen and Endemic Fauna:
NAKREK
semi-evergreen
NP
MEGHALAYA
Stump tailed
NOKREK BP
ps
deciduous forests.
macaque, Pig-
tailed macaque,
.u
Giant flying
w
squirrel
w
16 GREAT NICOBAR ANDAMAN Climate: Tropical Endemic Flora:

w
& NICOBAR and Sub-tropical Screw pine, Nipa

ISLAND Moist Broad- leafed palm, Ceylon
--
Forest iron wood

Fauna:
om
Endemic Fauna:
Crab- eating
Fr
macaque,
Nicobar
megapode,
d
Giant
oa
robbercrab,
Nicobar serpent
nl
eagle
ow
D

17 NANDA DEVI UTTRA- Climate: Dry with 1. Nanda Devi Endemic Flora:
KHAND low yearly National park Salep Orchid,
RIVER- precipitation Silver weed,
HIMACHAL PRADESH
Rishi Ganga Flora: 2. Valley of Fairy
e
UTTRAKHAND
RISHI GANGA
Forest Type: mixed Flowers candelabra,
in
NANDA DEVI BP temperate and National Park Fairy Primrose
subalpine
VALLEY OF FLOWER NP
Fauna:
nl
NE
VALLEY OF FLOWER NP
PAL
Endemic fauna:
INDIA
Himalay an tahr,
l.o
Brown bear,
Koklas pheasant
ia
er
18 NILGIRI Parts of Climate: 1. MudumaIai Flora:
Wildlife
at
Tamil Nadu, Annual Rainfall- Endemic Flora:
Kerala, Sanctuary
50mm-700mm Vanda, Liparis,
cm
Karnat-aka. (Also Tiger
Temperatur Reserve), Bulbophyllum,
RIVERS- 2. Wyanaad Spiranthes ,
INDIA
Bhavani,Mo e-0-41 C Wildlife
ps Thrixspermum
yar, Kabini
KARNATAKA
TAMIL NADU
Most Evergreen, Sanctuary
Fauna:
WAYANAD
WLS BANDIPUR
(tribuat-ries Semi- Evergreen, 3. Bandipur
.u
TIGER
WAYANAD RESERVE of Cauvery), Thorn, Savannah National Endemic Fauna:
KER
WLS
Chaliyar, Park Nilgiri tahr,
ALA
MUDUMALAI
WLS TIGER Woodland, Sholas (Also Tiger
RESERVE Punampuzha and Grassland Nilgiri langur,
Reserve),
w
4. NagarhoIe Lion — tailed

macaque
w
National
Park
(Also Tiger
--
Reserve),
5. Mukurthi
om
National
Park6.
Silent Valley
Fr
d
oa
nl
ow
D


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e

1. CONCEPT OF ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

» The term was ﬁrst used by German zoologist

Ernst Haeckel in 1869.

organism with their physical environment and

with each other.

plants, human beings, animals and micro-

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 1

hypothesis which states that the earth is a

OTHER RELATED complex living entity, with the sustenance of

life dependent on the self-regulating

interactions among organisms and their

2. SEVEN MAJOR LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF ECOLOGY

» They make the basic unit of study in ecology.

and adaptations in relation to the environmental conditions

» In ecology, a population is a group of individuals of the same

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 2

» This is a large regional unit characterized by a major

vegetation type and associated fauna found in a speciﬁc

communities occuring within the same climatic region, eg.,

grassland, savanna biomes, etc.

» Biosphere is a part of earth where life can exist.

comprising of atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water) and

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 3

» As a biome is a collection of species » An ecosystem has a less diversity of

animal species. of a biome as it is smaller in size.

include desert, tundra, grasslands, coral reefs, ponds, Gulf of Mexico

and tropical rain forests. etc.

interact with each other. ecosystem interact with each other.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 4

Primary Secondary Tertiary Quartenary

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 5

Primary Secondary Tertiary

Feed Directly Feed on Primary Feed on Secondary Eat both plants

Copyright © by Vision IAS

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 6

EDGE EFFECT/ EDGE SPECIES

» Edge eﬀect refers to the changes in population or community structures that

occur at the boundary of two habitats (ecotone), where sometimes the

known as edge species.

what species it competes with; Reproductve niche- how and when it

reproduces; Physical and chemical niche- temperature, land shape, land

knowledge about the niche requirements of the species.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 7

small amount of energy sustains the entire living world.

» TROPHIC LEVEL- The trophic level of an organism is the position it

occupies in a food chain. The trophic level is the number of steps an

2nd Tropic carnivores 3rd

Level Trophic Level

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 8

CORN RAT OWL

A THREE LINKED FOOD CHAIN

CARROT RABBIT FOX LION

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 9

» Begins with dead organic matter.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 10

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 11

Pyramid of Biomass Pyramid of Numbers Pyramid of Energy

» It shows the amount of » It is the graphic » It is a graphical