Chem Lec Compiled Merged Compressed

MELS 1015:Inorganic and Organic Chemistry
BASIC CHEMISTRY
Learning Outcomes: At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. Describe the breadth, depth and scope of chemistry.
2. Explain the states of matter.
3. Enumerate the properties of matter.
4. Differentiate Inorganic chemistry from Organic chemistry.
Introduction:
Chemistry is useful in a wide range of discipline and career paths. Discover that
an understanding of chemistry helps one make informed decisions about many issues
that can affect the community and the world. It is important to know the basic of
chemistry, and its branches before going to the broader concepts of it.
Lesson Proper:
Chemistry is a rational and empirical study of matter; its composition, structure,

properties and the changes it undergo either through planned experiments or natural
processes. It primarily focuses on atoms, ions, and molecules which in turn, make up
elements and compounds.
 Matter→ Anything that occupies space and has mass.
 Atom → The smallest unit of an element.
 Elements → Substances that can’t be broken down any further.
 Molecule → Atoms chemically bonded with other atoms.
 Compounds → Molecules composed of two or more different kinds of elements.
Relationship between Chemistry and other branches of Science

Science can be defined as the systematic study of the natural
universe, its structure, and everything it encompasses. The three
primary subcategories of science under which these disciplines
can be grouped are:
 Formal Science- involves the study of language
disciplines that concern formal system. It can be thought
as the language of science. Examples: Logic,
Mathematics
 Natural Science- involves the study of
natural phenomena through experiments
and observations. Examples: Chemistry,
Physics, Biology
 Social Science- involves the study of human
societies and the relationship between
humans that dwell in these societies.
Example: Psychology, Sociology,
1
BASIC CHEMISTRY
Branches of Chemistry
1. Organic Chemistry
-It is defined as the chemistry of hydrocarbon compounds and their
derivatives. It primarily deals with the structure, chemical composition, physical
properties of organic compounds and the chemical reactions they undergone.
This is the study of chemistry of life.
2. Inorganic Chemistry
-It is the study of compounds, which does not consist of carbon-hydrogen atoms
in it. The substances without carbon-hydrogen bonding are the metals, salts all the
remaining elements in the periodic table.
3. Analytical Chemistry
-The study of the chemistry of matter and the development of tools to measure properties
of matter.
4. Physical Chemistry
-Deals with the application of physics to the study of chemistry, which commonly
includes the applications of thermodynamics and quantum mechanics to
chemistry.
5. Biochemistry
-It is the study of chemical processes that occur inside of the living organisms.
MATTER
Chemists study the structures, physical properties, and chemical properties of
material substances. These consist of matter, which is anything that occupies space
and has mass. The mass of an object is the quantity of matter it contains. Do not
confuse an object’s mass with its weight, which is a force caused by the gravitational
attraction that operates on the object. Mass is a fundamental property of an object that
does not depend on its location. Weight, on the other hand, depends on the location of
an object.
States of Matter
1. Solid-particles are compact, has definite shape, volume and mass. It does not exhibit
compressibility.
2. Liquid-does not have definite shape but has fixed volume. Particles are
little far from each other. Itdoes not exhibit compressibility.
3. Gas-no definite shape and fixed volume. It exhibits compressibility. Its
volume strongly depends ontheir temperature and pressure.
2
BASIC CHEMISTRY
Types of Matter
1. Mixtures-combination of two or more substance not chemically combined. It

can be separated by physical means: evaporation, distillation, filtration,
decantation and crystallization.
 Heterogenous -mixture not uniform. Parts can be distinguished because
they do not mix due todifference in properties.
 Homogenous-mixture with uniform properties hence can’t be distinguished
because they mixfreely.
 Colloidal Dispersion-intermediate between heterogenous and homogenous.
2. Pure Substance-matter has definite composition and distinct properties. It can

be separated bychemical means: electrolysis.
 Elements-made up of only one kind of matter. It cannot be decomposed

 Metal-metallic shine, malleable, ductile
 Non-metal-brittle, no sound. Poor conductor of heat and electricity.
 Metalloid-element properties of metal and non-metal.
 Compounds-made up of two or more elements. It can be decomposed by

chemical means. It isclassified into: acid, base, salt.
 Classified according to BONDS: IONIC and COVALENT
 Classified according to CARBON CONTENT: ORGANIC and INORGANIC
 Classified according to ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY: ELECTROLYTES and
NON-ELECTROLYTES
Properties of Matter
1. Physical Property-use to determine the qualities through the senses. It can be

observed without changing the identity and composition of the substance. These
properties include color, odor, density, melting point, boiling point, and hardness.
 Intensive/Intrinsic-depends on quality of material
 Extensive/Extrinsic- depends on quantity of material
2. Chemical Property-ability of matter to change when it interacts with other substances.
A common chemical property is flammability, the ability of a substance to burn in the
presence of oxygen.
Kinds of Changes in Matter

1. Physical Change-results in change in size, shape and temperature but no new
substance.
2. Chemical Change -results in the disappearance of the original substance and
then termination of the new ones. There is change in the composition.
3
BASIC CHEMISTRY
Relationships between the Types of Matter and the Methods Used to Separate Mixtures
*** END of LESSON 1***
4
BASIC CHEMISTRY
DRILLS/ ACTIVITIES/ APPLICATION

1. Enumerate 5 Physical Change and 5 Chemical Change in Matter.
2. Differentiate evaporation, distillation, filtration, decantation and crystallization from each
other.
EVALUATION
A. Identify each substance as a compound, an element, a heterogeneous mixture, or a
homogeneous mixture(solution).
1. Hydrogen peroxide
2. Air
3. Salad dressing
4. Selenium
5. Table sugar
B. Classify each statement as a physical property or a chemical property.
1. Fluorine etches glass.
2. Chlorine interacts with moisture in the lungs to produce a respiratory irritant.
3. Bromine is a reddish-brown liquid.
4. Iodine has a density of 11.27 g/L at 0°C.
5. Soft Bond Paper
References:
1. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy
& Physiology (10th ed.).New York: McGraw-Hill Education.
2. Hart H., Hadad C., Craine L., Hart D., (2016). Organic Chemistry. Cengage
Learning. Singapore. 13thEdition.
3. Smith J. (2013). General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry. McGraw-Hill. New York.
2nd Edition.
4. Meissler G.,& Tarr D.,(2008). Inorganic Chemistry (3rd ed.). Pearson Education Inc.
5
8/30/2021 CODE 688 MATH 1013 Mathematics in the Modern World - Week 3 Introduction to Sets. -
Code 591 Lec MELS 1015 - Inorganic and Organic Chemistry

WEEK 1
PERIODIC TABLE & ELECTRON CONFIGURATION

MUST KNOW ABOUT THE PERIODIC TABLE & ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
Modern Periodic Table
Based on the discovery of Moseley that the frequencies of xrays emitted form elements followed the atomic number and not the atomic weight, elements in
the periodic table are now arranged in order of increasing atomic numbers. Moseley summarizes his discoveries by stating the modern periodic table law,
“the properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers.”
Periods and Groups
Single horizontal line in the periodic table is called period. Period 1, the first period at the top of the table, contains only H and He. The second period, which
is the second row of elements, contains Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F and Ne.
Group or family, is a vertical column of elements that have similar physical and chemical properties. Groups are identified by numbers across the top of the
periodic table. Elements in the periodic table are divided into sections: A groups, which are the representative elements (1A-7A), and the B groups, which are
called transition elements. Elements in the two long rows below the main body of the inner transition elements, elements 58-71 are called lanthanide and
90-103 elements are called the actinide elements. Groups are also identified by the numbers 1 to 18 from left to right.
https://usl-tuguegarao.neolms.com/student_lesson/show/2742003?from=%2Fstudent_lesson%2Fshow%2F2742003%3Flesson_id%3D12536860%26… 1/4
To standardize the table, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), is responsible for setting standards in chemistry, officially adopted a
3rd system in which groups are simply numbered sequentially from left to right using Arabic numerals. Thus, IA in old system is Group 1 in IUPAC table, and
Group VIIA in the old system is Group 7 in the IUPAC table.
Classification of Groups
Group is often called as Family because of the similarity of the elements in it.
Group 1A elements are part of a family of elements known as alkali metals. These elements are soft, shiny metals, with high ductility, relatively low melting
points, and are excellent conductors of heat and electricity. They react vigorously with water, releasing hydrogen and forming strong caustic solutions.
Halogens F, Cl, Br and I are found in group 7A or group 17. Halogens exist as combinations of two atoms forming diatomic molecules. Therefore, halogens
exist as F2, Cl2, Br 2 and I2 molecules.
Group 8A/ group 18 consists of the noble gases. These gases are quite unreactive elements, are seldom found in combination with other elements, and
have very stable configuration.
Group 1,2,and 13 to 17 are classified as representative elements. The outer energy level of these elements is incomplete and the electrons occupy s or p
orbitals. The electron configurations of these elements include ns1and np5 .
Group Special Name
1A or 1 ALKALI METALS
2A or 2 ALKALINE EARTH METALS
3A or 13 BORON FAMILY
4A or 14 CARBON FAMILY
5A or 15 NITROGEN FAMILY
6A or 16 OXYGEN FAMILY
7A or 17 HALOGEN FAMILY
8A or 18 NOBLE GASES
THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE
1. Define atomic number, mass number, isotope, atomic mass, and mole.
2. Explain what creates a hydrogen bond, and relate its importance.
3. Describe solubility and the process of dissociation, and predict if a compound or
molecule is an electrolyte or a nonelectrolyte.
Introduction:
Chemistry is useful in a wide range of discipline and career paths. Discover that
an understanding of chemistry helps one make informed decisions about many issues
that can affect the community and the world. It is important to know the basic of
chemistry, and its branches before going to the broader concepts of it.
Lesson Proper:
Chemistry is a rational and empirical study of matter; its composition, structure,

properties and the changes it undergo either through planned experiments or natural
processes. It primarily focuses on atoms, ions, and molecules which in turn, make up
elements and compounds.
 Matter→ Anything that occupies space and has mass.
 Atom → The smallest unit of an element.
 Elements → Substances that can’t be broken down any further.
 Molecule → Atoms chemically bonded with other atoms.
 Compounds → Molecules composed of two or more different kinds of elements.
Relationship between Chemistry and other branches of Science

Science can be defined as the systematic study of the natural
universe, its structure, and everything it encompasses. The three
primary subcategories of science under which these disciplines
can be grouped are:
 Formal Science- involves the study of language
disciplines that concern formal system. It can be thought
as the language of science. Examples: Logic,
Mathematics
 Natural Science- involves the study of
natural phenomena through experiments
and observations. Examples: Chemistry,
Physics, Biology
 Social Science- involves the study of human
societies and the relationship between
humans that dwell in these societies.
Example: Psychology, Sociology,
1
Branches of Chemistry
1. Organic Chemistry
-It is defined as the chemistry of hydrocarbon compounds and their
derivatives. It primarily deals with the structure, chemical composition, physical
properties of organic compounds and the chemical reactions they undergone.
This is the study of chemistry of life.
2. Inorganic Chemistry
-It is the study of compounds, which does not consist of carbon-hydrogen atoms
in it. The substances without carbon-hydrogen bonding are the metals, salts all the
remaining elements in the periodic table.
3. Analytical Chemistry
-The study of the chemistry of matter and the development of tools to measure properties
of matter.
4. Physical Chemistry
-Deals with the application of physics to the study of chemistry, which commonly
includes the applications of thermodynamics and quantum mechanics to
chemistry.
5. Biochemistry
-It is the study of chemical processes that occur inside of the living organisms.
MATTER
Chemists study the structures, physical properties, and chemical properties of
material substances. These consist of matter, which is anything that occupies space
and has mass. The mass of an object is the quantity of matter it contains. Do not
confuse an object’s mass with its weight, which is a force caused by the gravitational
attraction that operates on the object. Mass is a fundamental property of an object that
does not depend on its location. Weight, on the other hand, depends on the location of
an object.
States of Matter
1. Solid-particles are compact, has definite shape, volume and mass. It does not exhibit
compressibility.
2. Liquid-does not have definite shape but has fixed volume. Particles are
little far from each other. Itdoes not exhibit compressibility.
3. Gas-no definite shape and fixed volume. It exhibits compressibility. Its
volume strongly depends ontheir temperature and pressure.
2
Types of Matter
1. Mixtures-combination of two or more substance not chemically combined. It

can be separated by physical means: evaporation, distillation, filtration,
decantation and crystallization.
 Heterogenous -mixture not uniform. Parts can be distinguished because
they do not mix due todifference in properties.
 Homogenous-mixture with uniform properties hence can’t be distinguished
because they mixfreely.
 Colloidal Dispersion-intermediate between heterogenous and homogenous.
2. Pure Substance-matter has definite composition and distinct properties. It can

be separated bychemical means: electrolysis.
 Elements-made up of only one kind of matter. It cannot be decomposed

 Metal-metallic shine, malleable, ductile
 Non-metal-brittle, no sound. Poor conductor of heat and electricity.
 Metalloid-element properties of metal and non-metal.
 Compounds-made up of two or more elements. It can be decomposed by

chemical means. It isclassified into: acid, base, salt.
 Classified according to BONDS: IONIC and COVALENT
 Classified according to CARBON CONTENT: ORGANIC and INORGANIC
 Classified according to ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY: ELECTROLYTES and
NON-ELECTROLYTES
Properties of Matter
1. Physical Property-use to determine the qualities through the senses. It can be

observed without changing the identity and composition of the substance. These
properties include color, odor, density, melting point, boiling point, and hardness.
 Intensive/Intrinsic-depends on quality of material
 Extensive/Extrinsic- depends on quantity of material
2. Chemical Property-ability of matter to change when it interacts with other substances.
A common chemical property is flammability, the ability of a substance to burn in the
presence of oxygen.
Kinds of Changes in Matter

1. Physical Change-results in change in size, shape and temperature but no new
substance.
2. Chemical Change -results in the disappearance of the original substance and
3
then termination of the new ones. There is change in the composition.
Relationships between the Types of Matter and the Methods Used to Separate Mixtures
4
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5
Structure and Properties of Ionic and Covalent Compounds
1. Explain the differences between ionic and covalent compounds according to their structures
and properties
2. Write and name formulas of compounds
3. Use the periodic table and electron configurations to predict the type of bond atoms will
form
4. Draw Lewis structures of covalent compounds and polyatomic ions
Introduction:
Why do atoms of different elements react? What are the forces that hold atoms together in
molecules and ionic compounds? What shapes do they assume? These are some of the questions
that will be addressed in this material. We begin by looking at the two types of bonds—ionic and
covalent—and the forces that stabilize them
Lesson Proper:
Chemical Bonding refers to the formation of a chemical bond between two or more atoms,
molecules, or ions to give rise to a chemical compound.
I. Types of Chemical Bonds
A. Ionic bonds
 Formed when atoms of metals transfer their outer electrons to atoms of non-metals
 Occurs when there is an electrostatic attraction between a metal and a nonmetal
wherein electrons are transferred to form oppositely charged ions.
 When atoms lose or gain electrons, they become ions to have the same number of
electrons as the nearest noble gas. Metal loses electrons to form positive ion or
cation and nonmetal gains electrons to form negative ion or anion.
 Compounds that contain ionic bonds are called ionic compounds.
B. Covalent bonds
 Occurs through the process of sharing electrons between atoms, typically between a
nonmetal and a nonmetal
 Since atoms are neither gaining nor sacrificing electrons, no ions are formed by
covalent bonding
 Covalent compounds result when atoms share pair of electrons to attain octets.
C. Metallic bonds
 Metallic bonding, the main type of chemical bond that forms between metal atoms is
the attraction of the metal cations for the mobile electrons, often described as islands
of cations in a sea of electrons.
 It is the type of chemical bond formed between positively charged atoms in which the
free electrons are shared among a lattice of cations.
MELS 1015 –Inorganic and Organic Chemistry (Lecture)| 1

Lewis Structure and the Octet Rule
A. The Octet Rule

 Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons until they are surrounded by eight
valence electrons to achieve the same number of electrons as the noble gas closest
to them in the periodic table.
B. Lewis structure
Introduction:
o The electrons involved in chemical bonding are the valence electrons, which, for most
atoms, are those in the outermost occupied shell. When atoms interact to form a
chemical bond, only their outer regions are in contact. For this reason, when we study
chemical bonding, we are concerned primarily with the valence electrons of the atoms.
o To keep track of valence electrons in a chemical reaction, and to make sure that the
total number of electrons does not change, chemists use a system of dots devised by
Lewis called Lewis dot symbols.
o Lewis structure is a combination of Lewis symbols that represents either the transfer or
the sharing of electrons in a chemical bond.
o Lewis dot symbol consists of the symbol of an element and one dot for each valence
electron in an atom of the element.
Figure 1: Valence electrons
C. Writing Lewis Structures
The basic steps are as follows:

1. Write the skeletal structure of the compound, using chemical symbols and placing bonded
atoms next to one another. For simple compounds, this task is fairly easy. In general, the
least electronegative atom occupies the central position. Hydrogen and fluorine usually
occupy the terminal (end) positions in the Lewis structure.
2. Count the total number of valence electrons present, referring, if necessary, to Figure-1. For
polyatomic anions, add the number of negative charges to that total. (For example, for the
CO3−2 ion we add two electrons because the - 2 charge indicates that there are two more
electrons than are provided by the atoms.) For polyatomic cations, we subtract the number
of positive charges from this total.(Thus, for NH4+ we subtract one electron because the +1
charge indicates a loss of one electron from the group of atoms.)
3. Draw a single covalent bond between the central atom and each of the surrounding atoms.
Complete the octets of the atoms bonded to the central atom. (Remember that the valence
shell of a hydrogen atom is complete with only two electrons.) Electrons belonging to the
central or surrounding atoms must be shown as lone pairs if they are not involved in
bonding. The total number of electrons to be used is that determined in step 2.

4. After completing steps 1–3, if the central atom has fewer than eight electrons, try adding
double or triple bonds between the surrounding atoms and the central atom, using lone
pairs from the surrounding atoms to complete the octet of the central atom.
PROBLEM SAMPLE 1:

PROBLEM SAMPLE 2:
D. Lewis Structures of Molecular Compounds and Polyatomic Ions

To draw Lewis structures for complicated molecules and molecular ions, it is helpful to follow a step-by-
step procedure as outlined:
1. Determine the total number of valence (outer shell) electrons. For cations, subtract one
electron for each positive charge. For anions, add one electron for each negative charge.
2. Draw a skeleton structure of the molecule or ion, arranging the atoms around a central atom.
(Generally, the least electronegative element should be placed in the center.) Connect each
atom to the central atom with a single bond (one electron pair).
3. Distribute the remaining electrons as lone pairs on the terminal atoms (except hydrogen),
completing an octet around each atom.
4. Place all remaining electrons on the central atom.
5. Rearrange the electrons of the outer atoms to make multiple bonds with the central atom in
order to obtain octets wherever possible.
PROBLEM SAMPLE 3:
Draw the Lewis electron dot structure for the sulfate ion.
Solution
Step 1: List the known quantities and plan the problem.
Known
Molecular formula of sulfate ion: 𝐒𝐎4 2−
1S atom =6 valence electrons
4O atoms =4×6=24valence electrons
add 2 electrons for the 2− charge of the ion
= total of 32 valence electrons
The less electronegative sulfur atom is the central atom in the structure. Place the oxygen atoms
around the sulfur atom, each with a single covalent bond. Distribute lone pairs to each oxygen atom
in order to satisfy the octet rule. Count the total number of atoms. If there are too many electrons in
the structure, make multiple bonds between the SS and OO.
Step 2: Solve.
Figure 9.6.29.6.2: The sulfate ion.
Step 3: Think about your result. MELS 1015 –Inorganic and Organic Chemistry (Lecture)| 6
The Lewis structure for the sulfate ion consists of a central sulfur atom with four single bonds to
III. Molecular Formulas
 A molecular formula consists of the chemical symbols for the constituent

elements followed by numeric subscripts describing the number of atoms of each
elementa present in the molecule.
a. Molecular formula: A formula that describes the exact number and type of
atoms in a single molecule of a compound.
b. Empirical formula: A formula that indicates the simplest whole number ratio of
all the atoms in a molecule.
c. Structural formula: A formula that indicates not only the number of atoms, but
also their arrangement in space.
Molecular formulas describe the exact number and type of atoms in a single molecule of a
compound. The constituent elements are represented by their chemical symbols, and the
number of atoms of each element present in each molecule is shown as a subscript following
that element’s symbol. The molecular formula expresses information about the proportions of
atoms that constitute a particular chemical compound, using a single line of chemical element
symbols and numbers. Sometimes it also includes other symbols, such as parentheses,
dashes, brackets, and plus (+) and minus (–) signs.
A. Formulas of Ionic Compounds
An ionic formula must satisfy the octet rule for the constituent atoms and electric neutrality for
the whole compound.
I. The overall ionic formula for a compound must be electrically neutral, meaning it has no
charge.
II. When writing the formula for the ionic compound, the cation comes first, followed by the
anion, both with numeric subscripts to indicate the number of atoms of each.
III. Polyatomic ions are a set of covalently bonded atoms that have an overall charge,
making them an ion. Polyatomic ions form ionic bonds in the typical way, balancing so
that the overall compound is electrically neutral.
 Start by writing the metal ion with its charge, followed by the nonmetal ion with its
charge. Because the overall compound must be electrically neutral, decide how many
of each ion is needed in order for the positive and negative charges to cancel each
other out.
B. Polyatomic Ions
Polyatomic ions are a set of covalently bonded atoms that have an overall charge,
making them an ion. For example, the hydroxide ion has the formula OH -1. Hydroxide is a

compound made of oxygen and hydrogen that have been bound together. In the process of
becoming a compound, hydroxide gained an extra electron from somewhere, making it OH -1.
When creating ionic compounds with these polyatomic ions, treat them the same way as
typical monatomic ions (only one atom).
For example, calcium hydroxide has the formula Ca(OH) 2 because hydroxide has -1
charge and calcium has a 2+ charge. Two hydroxides were needed to balance off the +2
charge of calcium. The parentheses were used to indicate that OH was a polyatomic ion and
came as a “package deal.” Two hydroxides couldn’t have been written O 2H2 because that is a
very different compound than (OH)2. Parentheses are always used when the compound
contains multiples of the polyatomic ion.Here is a list of common polyatomic ions:
 Ammonium, NH4+
 Carbonate, CO32-
 Bicarbonate, HCO3–
 Cyanide, CN–
 Phosphate, PO43-
 Hydroxide, OH–
 Nitrate, NO3–
 Permanganate, MnO4–
 Sulfate, SO42-
 Thiocyanate, SCN–
 Peroxide, O22-
PROBLEM SAMPLE 4:

PROBLEM SAMPLE 5:
PROBLEM SAMPLE 6:

PROBLEM SAMPLE 7:
PROBLEM SAMPLE 8:

IV. Names and Formulas of Chemical Compounds
Chemical formulas are used to express the composition of molecules and ionic
compounds in terms of chemical symbols.
1. Cations
a. Cations formed from metal atoms have the same name as the metal:
EXAMPLES
Na+ Sodium ion
2+
Zn Zinc ion
Al3+ Aluminum ion
b. If a metal can form cations with different charges, the positive charge is indicated by a
Roman numeral in parentheses following the name of the metal:
Fe2+ iron(II) ion Ferrous ion Cu+ copper(I) ion Cuprous ion
Fe3+ iron(III) ion Ferric ion Cu2+ copper(II) ion Cupric ion
c. Cations formed from nonmetal atoms have names that end in -ium:
EXAMPLES
NH4 + Ammonium ion
+
H3 O Hydronium ion

2. Anions
a. The names of monatomic anions are formed by replacing the ending of the name of
the element with -ide:
𝐇− hydride ion 𝐎𝟐− oxide ion 𝐍𝟑− nitride ion
A few polyatomic anions also have names ending in -ide:

OH − Hydroxide ion CN− Cyanide ion O2 2− Peroxide ion
b. Polyatomic anions containing oxygen have names ending in either -ate or –ite and are
called oxyanions. The -ate is used for the most common or representative oxyanion

of an element, and -ite is used for an oxyanion that has the same charge but one O
atom fewer:
c. Prefixes are used when the series of oxyanions of an element extends to four
members, as with the halogens. The prefix per- indicates one more O atom than the
oxyanion ending in -ate; hypo- indicates one O atom fewer than the oxyanion ending
in -ite:
ClO4 − Perchlorate ion (one more O atom than chlorate)
−
ClO3 Chlorate ion
−
ClO2 Chlorite ion(one O atom fewer than chlorate)
−
ClO Hypochlorite ion (one O atom fewer than chlorite)
d. Anions derived by adding H+ to an oxyanion are named by adding as a prefix the

word hydrogen or dihydrogen, as appropriate:
CO3 2− Carbonate ion HCO3 − Hydrogen carbonate ion
3− −
PO4 Phosphate ion H2 𝑃𝑂 4 Dihydrogen phosphate ion

3. Ionic Compounds
Names of ionic compounds consist of the cation name followed by the anion name:
CaCl2 Calcium chloride

Al(NO3 )3 Aluminum nitrate
Cu(ClO4 )2 Copper(II) perchlorate (or cupric perchlorate)
In the chemical formulas for aluminum nitrate and copper (II) perchlorate, parentheses
followed by the appropriate subscript are used because the compounds contain two or more
polyatomic ions.
4. NAMING ACIDS

5. Names and Formulas of Binary Molecular Compounds
a. The procedures used for naming binary (two-element) molecular compounds are
similar to those used for naming ionic compounds:
b. The name of the element farther to the left in the periodic table (closest to the
metals) is usually written first. An exception occurs when the compound contains
oxygen and chlorine, bromine, or iodine (any halogen except fluorine), in which case
oxygen is written last. If both elements are in the same group, the one closer to the
bottom of the table is named first.
c. The name of the second element is given an -ide ending.
Prefixes Used
1 mono-
2 di-
3 tri-
4 tetra- The following examples illustrate these rules:
5 penta- Cl2 O Dichlorine monoxide NF3 Nitrogen trifluoride
6 hexa- N2 O4 Dinitrogen tetroxide P4 S10 Tetraphosphorus decasulfide
7 hepta SO2 Sulfur dioxide SiI4 Silicon tetraiodide
8 octa- SF6 Sulfur hexafluoride CS2 Carbon disulfide
9 nona- HCl Hydrogen chloride NO Nitrogen oxide
10 deca BrCl Bromine chloride
6. Hydrates are compounds that have a specific number of water molecules attached to them.
BaCl2 ◦ 2H2 O Barium chloride dihydrate

LiCl ◦ H2O Lithium chloride monohydrate
MgSO4 ◦ 7H2 O Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate
Sr(NO3 )2 ◦ 4H2 O Strontium nitrate tetrahydrate
***END OF LESSON 2***

DRILLS/ACTIVITIES/APPLICATION
A. Give the chemical name of the following chemical formula.(10 points)

1. FeF3
2. P2O5
3. P4O10
4. ZnBr2
5. LiClO4
B. Write the chemical formula of the following compounds.(5 points)

1. Magnesium Carbonate
2. Iron(II) Sulfide
3. Hydrogen Sulfide
4. Tin(II) Chloride
5. Phosphorous Trichloride
C. Draw the lewis dot structure of the following compounds.(15 points)

1. F2
2. O2
3. N2
4. H2
5. Br2
EVAUATION:
References:
Chang, R. and Goldsby, K., 2016. Chemistry. 12th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.
Brown T.L., LeMay H. E., Bursten B. E., Murphy C. J., Woodward, P.M., Stoltzfus, M. (2015)
Chemistry.The Central Science:Pearson
Online references:
https://www.jove.com
https://courses.lumenlearning.com
https://chem.libretexts.org


Calculations and Chemical Equations
1. Define Formula and Molecular weights
2. Calculate the formula and molecular weights of chemical compounds
3. Understand the concept of moles as a unit of measurement in chemistry
4. Use Avogadro’s number and moles to manipulate unit conversions related to atoms, molecules, and
compounds
LEARNING CONTENT
Introduction:
If we wanted to react Hydrogen to Oxygen to form H 2O, how do we get the right ratio (2:1) for it? In
chemistry, do you ever wonder how chemists measure units of atoms, molecules and compounds? In this lesson,
we will be able to answer these questions.
Lesson Proper:
I. Formula and Molecular Weights

 The formula weight of a substance is the sum of the atomic weights of each atom in its chemical formula
Using atomic weights we find, for example:
Example 1:
Water (H2O) has a formula weight of: 2 H × (1 amu) + 1O × (16 amu) =18 amu(atomic mass unit)
Example 2:
Sulfuric acid (𝐻2𝑆𝑂4) has a formula weight of:
𝑯𝟐𝑺𝑶𝟒= 2(AW of H) + 1 (AW of S) + 4(AW of O)

= 2(1 amu) + 32.1 amu + 4(16 amu)
= 2 amu +32 amu + 64 amu
= 98 amu
Example 3:
Table salt(NaCl) has a formula weight of: 23 amu +36 amu = 58 amu
If a substance exists as discrete molecules (as with atoms that are chemically bonded together)
then the chemical formula is the molecular formula, and the formula weight is the molecular
weight.


Example 4:
For example, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen can chemically bond to form a molecule of the sugar
glucose with the chemical and molecular formula of𝐶6𝐻12𝑂6. The formula weight and the
molecular weight of glucose is thus:
𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟏𝟐𝑶𝟔= 6 (AW of C) + 12 (AW of H) + 6 (AW of O)

= 6 (12 amu) + 12(1 amu) + 6(16 amu)
= 72 amu + 12 amu + 96 amu
= 180 amu
II. Mole concept and Avogadro’s number

As you have a “dozen” which represents twelve (12) pieces of things, in chemistry the counting unit for
numbers of atoms, ions, or molecules in a laboratory-size sample is the mole, abbreviated mol.
A. MOLE
 Defined as the amount of a substance that contains exactly 6.02× 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑(atoms, molecules,
formula units) of the given substance
B. AVOGADRO’S NUMBER
 Defined as the number of elementary particles (molecules, atoms, compounds, etc.) per mole
of a substance. It is equal to 6.02×1023 moles and is expressed as the symbol NA
1 mol of Carbon atoms = 6.02×1023 Carbon atoms

1 mol of H2O molecules = 6.02×1023 H2O molecules
1 mol of NaCl compounds = 6.02×1023 NaCl formula units
C. Uses of Moles and Avogadro’s constant(CONVERSION)
ATOMS
MOLECULES
MOLES
FORMULA
UNITS
GRAMS

D. Problem Samples Using Moles and Avogadro’s number
Converting MOLES to ATOMS
Problem sample 1:
How many Oxygen atoms are there in 5 moles of Oxygen?
Step 1: Write down the variables
5 moles of Oxygen (O) = x number of Oxygen (O) atoms
Step 2: Position the variables in a way that will make the units cancel each other out.
𝟔. 𝟎𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑𝐎 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬
𝟓 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐎 ×
𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑶
Step 3: Multiply the variables. To simply the answer, move the decimal point to the left and add
+1 to the exponent for every move.
𝟔. 𝟎𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑𝐎 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬
𝟓 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐎 × = 𝟑𝟎. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑𝐎 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬 𝒐𝒓 𝟑. 𝟎𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒𝐎 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬
𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑶
Problem sample 2:
Calculate the number of Carbon atoms in 8 moles of Carbon.

8 moles of Carbon(C) = x number of Carbon(C) atoms
𝟔. 𝟎𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑𝐂 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬
𝟖 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐂 ×
𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑪
Step 3: Multiply the variables. To simply the answer, move the decimal point to the left and add +1
to the exponent for every move.
𝟔. 𝟎𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑𝐂 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬
𝟖 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐂 × = 𝟒𝟖. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑𝐂 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬 𝐨𝐫 𝟒. 𝟖𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 𝐂 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬
𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑪

Converting MOLES to MOLECULES

Problem sample 3:
Convert 2 moles of 𝐶𝐻4 to molecules and determine how many Hydrogen (H) atoms are present in the molecule.
a. Convert 2 moles of 𝑪𝑯𝟒 to molecules using the steps used earlier
𝟔×𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝑪𝑯𝟒 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔

2 mol 𝑪𝑯𝟒 × =𝟏𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟑 𝑪𝑯𝟒 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒓 𝟏. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟒 𝑪𝑯𝟒 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔
𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑪𝑯𝟒
b. Determine H atoms:
2 moles of 𝐶𝐻4 = 𝟏. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 𝑪𝑯𝟒 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔

1.2 × 1024 𝐶𝐻4 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝒙 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑯 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒔
i. In here, we can use Step 2: Position the variables in a way that will make the units cancel each other
out. In this problem, we need to cancel molecules.
𝟔×𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝐂𝐇𝟒 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝟒 𝐇 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬

2 mol 𝑪𝑯𝟒 × ×
𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑪𝑯𝟒 𝟏 𝐂𝐇𝟒 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐞𝐬
ii. After cancelling the units, we can now proceed to do Step 3: Multiply the variables. To simply the
answer, move the decimal point to the left and add +1 to the exponent for every move.
𝟔×𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝐂𝐇𝟒 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝟒 𝐇 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬

2 mol 𝑪𝑯𝟒 × × = 𝟒𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 or 𝟒. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟒 𝑪𝑯𝟒 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔
𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑪𝑯𝟒 𝟏 𝐂𝐇𝟒 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐞𝐬
Problem sample 4:
Convert 3 moles of ammonia (NH3) to molecules.
3 moles of ammonia (NH3) = x molecules of ammonia (NH3)
𝟔×𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝐍𝐇𝟑𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐞𝐬
3 mol (𝐍𝐇𝟑) ×
𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑁𝐻3
Step 3: Multiply the variables. To simply the answer, move the decimal point to the left and add +1 to the
exponent for every move.
𝟔×𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝐍𝐇𝟑𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐞𝐬
3 mol (𝐍𝐇𝟑) × = 18× 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝐍𝐇𝟑𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐞𝐬 or 1.8× 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒𝐍𝐇𝟑𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐞𝐬
𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑵𝑯𝟑
Converting MOLES to FORMULA UNITS
Problem sample 5:
Convert 4 moles of 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙3 to its corresponding formal units (FU). Calculate the chloride 𝐶𝑙− ions present in
the compound.
a. Convert 4 moles of 𝑭𝒆𝑪𝒍𝟑 = x 𝑭𝒆𝑪𝒍𝟑 FU using the steps used earlier
𝟔×𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑𝑭𝒆𝑪𝒍𝟑 𝑭𝑼
4 mol 𝑭𝒆𝑪𝒍𝟑 × = 𝟐𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟑 𝒐𝒓 𝟐. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟒 𝑭𝒆𝑪𝒍𝟑 𝑭𝑼
𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑭𝒆𝑪𝒍𝟑
b. Calculate the number of Chloride ions by using Steps 2 and 3

𝟔×𝟏 𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝑭𝒆𝑪𝒍𝟑 𝑭𝑼 𝟑 𝐶𝑙−
4 mol 𝑭𝒆𝑪𝒍𝟑 × × = 120 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝒐𝒓 𝟏. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝑪𝒍−
𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑭𝒆𝑪𝒍𝟑 𝟏 𝑭𝒆𝑪𝒍𝟑 𝑭𝑼
MOLAR MASS
 Defined as the mass in grams of one mole of a substance. The units of molar mass are
grams per mole, abbreviated as g/mol.
 The mole defines the relationship between mass and the number of atoms. This allows the
number of atoms to be calculated based using suitable forms of the conversion factor: 1 mole of
atoms = 6.022 × 1023 atoms. To convert between the mass of an element (in grams) and the
number of moles, the molar mass of the element (g/mol) is used as a conversion factor.
HOW TO CALCULATE THE MOLAR MASS

Step 1: Find the atomic masses of individual elements in the periodic table
 The first thing we need is to find the individual atomic masses for each element.
Step 2: Count how many atoms there are for each element
 For the compound sodium chloride, since there are no subscripts (small numbers at the
bottom of each element's symbol), that means there is only one sodium and only one
chlorine atom for this compound.
Step 3: Find the molar mass
 Now that we know how many atoms there are for each element, we can find the molar
mass.

Practice problems
1. Find the molar mass of the following compounds. A) NaOH, B) Na2CO3 C) Ca(NO3)2
Solutions
A) NaOH Na 1x 23 23 g/mol
O 1 x 16 16 g/mol
H 1x1 1 g/mol
NaOH 40 g/mol
B) Na2CO3 Na 2 x 23 46 g/mol
C 1 x 12 12 g/mol
O 3 x 16 48 g/mol
Na2CO3 106 g/mol
C) Ca(NO3)2
Ca 1 x 40 40 g/mol
N 2 x 14 28 g/mol
O 6 x 16 96 g/mol
Ca(NO3)2 164 g/mol
Uses of molar mass in conversion:

1. Converting Molar Mass to Number of Moles
2. Converting Between Mass, Number of Moles, and Number of Atoms
MOLAR MASS GRAMS MOLES ATOMS
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. Converting grams to moles
Problem: How many moles of NaOH are there in a 34 g of NaOH?

34 g of NaOH = x mol of NaOH
Step 2: Find the molar mass of NaOH: 40 g/mol
Step 3: Position the variables in a way that will make the units cancel each other out. And
multiply the variables to get the moles.
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
34 g NaOH × 𝐍𝐚𝐎𝐇 = 2 moles NaOH
e)| 7
17 𝑔 𝐍𝐚𝐎𝐇
MELS 1015 –Inorganic and Organic Chemistry (Lectur
2. Converting moles to grams

Problem: Convert 2 moles of Na to grams.

2 moles Na = x grams of Na
Step 2: Find the atomic mass/weight of Na: 23 g/mol
𝟐𝟑 𝒈 𝑵𝒂
2 mol Na × = 64 grams Na
𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑵𝒂
 Another way to interpret this is by using the definition of Molar mass (ratio between grams:
moles of a substance). Therefore,
In every 1 mole of Na = 23 grams of Na

For 2 moles of Na = 64 grams of Na
3. Converting grams to atoms
Problem: How many Oxygen atoms are there in 8 grams of Oxygen.

8 grams Oxygen = x Oxygen atoms
Step 2: Find the atomic mass/weight of Oxygen: 16 g/mol
𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑶 𝟔×𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝑶 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒔 𝟐𝟑
8 g Oxygen × × = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑶 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒔
𝟏𝟔 𝒈 𝑶𝒙𝒚𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑶
4. Converting atoms to grams
Problem: Convert 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 Helium atoms to grams.

𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 He atoms = x grams He
Step 2: Find the atomic mass/weight of Helium: 4 g/mol
𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑯𝒆 𝟒 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎𝒔 𝑯𝒆
𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 He atoms× × = 5.33 × 𝟏𝟎 grams or 53 g
𝟔×𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝐇𝐞 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐬 𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑯𝒆
***End of Lesson 3***

A. Calculate the formula/molecular weights of the following substances. Show your solutions. (15
points)
1. Silver nitrate
2. Barium hydroxide
3. Sucrose
4. Ammonium phosphate
5. Chloroform
B. Convert the following: Show your solutions. (15 points)
1. 16 moles of Methane to molecules
2. 23 grams of Aluminum Chloride to moles
3. 5 × 1024 Argon atoms-grams
C. Essay: Using a maximum of five (5) sentences, explain the statement “Molar mass bridges
conversions of matter”. (5 points)
EVALUATION
References:
Brown T.L., LeMay H. E., Bursten B. E., Murphy C. J., Woodward, P.M., Stoltzfus, M. (2015) Chemistry.The
Central Science:Pearson
Online references: Retrieved August, 2021



ENERGY, RATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
1. Correlate the terms endothermic and exothermic with heat flow between a system and its
surroundings.
2. Describe experiments that yield thermochemical information and calculate fuel based on
experimental data.
3. Describe the concept of reaction rate and the role of kinetics in chemical and physical
change.
4. Describe the importance of activation energy and the activated complex in determining
reaction rate.
Introduction:
All chemical processes are accompanied by energy changes. When a reaction proceeds, it
either releases energy to, or absorbs energy from, its surroundings. In thermodynamics, these two
types of reactions are classified as exothermic or endothermic, respectively.
Lesson Proper:
I. Thermodynamics
− Study of the relationship between heat, work, temperature, and energy.
− In broad terms, thermodynamics deals with the transfer of energy from one place to another and
from one form to another.
− The key concept is that heat is a form of energy corresponding to a definite amount of
mechanical work.
 The first law of thermodynamics, or the law of conservation of energy.
− The change in a system’s internal energy is equal to the difference between heat added to
the system from its surroundings and work done by the system on its surroundings.
 The second law of thermodynamics.
− Heat does not flow spontaneously from a colder region to a hotter region, or, equivalently,
heat at a given temperature cannot be converted entirely into work. Consequently,
the entropy of a closed system, or heat energy per unit temperature, increases over time
toward some maximum value. Thus, all closed systems tend toward an equilibrium state in
which entropy is at a maximum and no energy is available to do useful work.
 All chemical processes are accompanied by energy changes. When a reaction proceeds, it
either releases energy to, or absorbs energy from, its surroundings. In thermodynamics, these
two types of reactions are classified as exothermic or endothermic, respectively.
A. Enthalpy
 Enthalpy (signified as H) is a measure of the total energy of a system and often expresses and
simplifies energy transfer between systems.
ΔH: symbol representing the change in enthalpy which is often referred to as the “heat of
reaction.
B. System and the surroundings.
When physical or chemical changes occur, they are generally accompanied by a transfer
of energy. In order to better understand the energy changes taking place during a
reaction, we need to define two parts of the universe: the system and the surroundings.
 System: is the specific portion of matter in a given space that is being studied
during an experiment or an observation.
 Surroundings are everything in the universe that is not part of the system.
 Boundary is the closed three-dimensional surface that encloses the system and
separates it from the surroundings.
During most processes, energy is exchanged between the system and the surroundings. If the
system loses a certain amount of energy, that same amount of energy is gained by the surroundings. If
the system gains a certain amount of energy, that energy is supplied by the surroundings.
C.Exothermic and Endothermic Processes

Endothermic
 A chemical reaction or physical change is endothermic if heat is

absorbed by the system from the surroundings.
 In the course of an endothermic process, the system gains heat
from the surroundings and so the temperature of the
surroundings decreases.
 It is signified by a positive change in enthalpy.
 In an endothermic reaction, the products are higher in energy
than the reactants. Therefore, the change in enthalpy is positive,
and heat is absorbed from the surroundings by the reaction.
Exothermic
 A chemical reaction or physical change is exothermic if heat is

released by the system into the surroundings.
 Because the surroundings are gaining heat from the system, the
temperature of the surroundings increases.
 It is signified by a negative change in enthalpy
 In an exothermic reaction, energy is released because the total
energy of the products is less than the total energy of the reactants

Differences
between
Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions
Endothermic Reaction Exothermic Reaction
A reaction that the system absorbs energy from A reaction that releases energy from the system
its surrounding in the form of heat. in the form of heat.
The energy is absorbed from the surrounding The energy is released from the system to its
into the reaction environment.
Energy in the form of heat Energy is released as heat, electricity, light or

sound.
Melting ice, evaporation, cooking, gas molecules, Rusting iron, settling, chemical bonds, explosions,
photosynthesis are a few examples nuclear fission are a few examples.
Examples of Endothermic reactions: Phase changes

 Phase changes are always accompanied by a change in the energy of a system.
 The stronger the attractive forces, the more energy is needed to overcome them
 Any transition from a more ordered to a less ordered state (solid to liquid, liquid to gas, or
solid to gas) requires an input of energy; it is endothermic.

Example number 1: MELTING AN ICE CUBE

Rationale: Melting ice is an ENDOTHERMIC reaction because the ice absorbs (heat) energy;
the energy absorbed by the system (ice) will break the chemical bonds of the solid structure.
Example number 2: BOILING WATER
Rationale: Boiling water is an ENDOTHERMIC reaction because in boiling water, you are
adding heat to the container (system) which holds the water molecules.
Exothermic reactions: Phase changes
 Any transition from a less ordered to a more ordered state (liquid to solid, gas to liquid, or gas to
solid) releases energy; it is exothermic.
Example number 3: Freezing water

Rationale: Freezing water is an EXOTHERMIC reaction because when you put water on the
freezer the water slowly loses heat to the surrounding cold air. The water molecules on losing
energy begin to move slowly, come closer and pack close enough to change to ice.

Example number 4: Condensation
Rationale: Condensation is the process by which water vapor turns into liquid water. This
typically occurs when water vapor molecules come into contact with cooler molecules. This
causes the water vapor molecules to lose some energy as heat. Hence, condensation is an
EXOTHERMIC reaction.
Bond-breaking is an endothermic process. Energy is absorbed to break bonds.
Example: When ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) is dissolved in water, an endothermic reaction takes
place. The salt dissociates into ammonium (NH4+) and chloride (Cl–) ions. The chemical equation can
be written as follows:
NH4Cl (s) + H2O (l) ⟶ NH4Cl (aq) – Heat

Bond-making is an exothermic process. Energy is released when new bonds form.
Example: Calcium chloride was dissolved in water
CaCl2 (s) + 2(H2O) ---> Ca(OH)2 (aq) + 2 HCl (g) + heat.
II. Chemical kinetics

 Branch of physical chemistry that is concerned with understanding the rates of chemical
reactions.
 It is to be contrasted with thermodynamics, which deals with the direction in which a process
occurs but in itself tells nothing about its rate.
a. Activation energy
− Activation energy is the minimum amount of energy that is needed to start a chemical
reaction.
b. Activated complex
− Unstable arrangement of atoms that exists momentarily at the peak of the activation energy
barrier.
− Because of its high energy, the activated complex exists only for an extremely short period
of time.
− The activated complex is equally likely to either reform the original reactants or go on to form
the products.

An activated complex is a short-lived state in which

the colliding particles are at the peak of the potential
The activation energy (Ea) of a reaction is the barrier that energy curve
must be overcome in order for the reactants to become
products. The activation energy is high, meaning that the
reaction is likely to be slow.
A. Reaction Rate
 For a given chemical reaction is the measure of the change in concentration of the reactants or
the change in concentration of the products per unit time. Sometimes it is expressed as
numbers of molecules formed or consumed in unit time.
 The speed of a chemical reaction may be defined as the change in concentration of a substance
divided by the time interval during which this change is observed:
𝚫𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞 =
𝚫𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞
 During the course of chemical reactions, reactants are consumed while the concentration of
product/s increases. The reaction rate can be determined by measuring how fast the
concentration of reactants decreases, or by how fast the concentration of product/s increases.
 The rate of reaction can be observed by watching the disappearance of a reactant or the
appearance of a product over time.
Take the chemical reaction: A+2B→3C
B. Measuring Reaction Rate: the following examples describe various ways to measure the rate
of a reaction:
a. Rates of reactions that consume or produce gaseous substances, for example, are conveniently
determined by measuring changes in volume or pressure.
b. For reactions involving one or more colored substances, rates may be monitored via
measurements of light absorption.
c. For reactions involving aqueous electrolytes, rates may be measured via changes in a solution’s
conductivity.

C. Factors Affecting Reaction Rates

1. Chemical Nature of the Reacting Substances
2. Physical States of the Reactants
3. Temperature of the Reactants
4. Concentrations of the Reactants
5. Presence of a Catalyst
***END OF LESSON 4****

1. Classify the following reactions whether they are exothermic and endothermic. Justify. (15
points)
a. Combustion reaction
b. Sublimation
c. Burning of candle
d. Fluorine molecule break into fluorine radicals
e. Sodium hydroxide dissolved in water produces sodium hydroxide ions.
2. Describe the importance of activation energy and activated complex in the process of chemical
reactions. (10 points)
EVALUATION
References:
Brown T.L., LeMay H. E., Bursten B. E., Murphy C. J., Woodward, P.M., Stoltzfus, M. (2015)
Chemistry.The Central Science:Pearson
WARNING: No part of this E-module/LMS Content can be reproduced, or transported or shared to

others without permission from the University. Unauthorized use of the materials, other than personal
learning use, will be penalized. Please be guided accordingly.

Organic and inorganic compounds form one of the primary basis for chemistry. The
study of organic compounds is termed as organic chemistry and the study of inorganic
compounds is inorganic chemistry. These are said to be one of the large class of members. The
primary difference that lies between these organic compounds and inorganic compounds is that
organic compounds always have a carbon atom while most of the inorganic compounds do not
contain the carbon atom in them. Almost all the organic compounds contain the carbon-
hydrogen or a simple C-H bond in them.
LESSON PROPER
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ORGANIC AND INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
The most common fact that differentiates organic compounds from inorganic compounds is that
the organic compounds mainly result from activities of a living being. Whereas, inorganic
compounds are obtained from the natural processes which are not related to any of the life forms
on earth or any result of human experiments which are conducted in laboratories.
The difference between organic and inorganic compounds does not end with the presence or the
absence of carbon atoms in them. These have characteristics of both the types of compounds
which are said to be different.
Organic Compounds Inorganic Compounds
1. Organic compounds are characterized by the Most inorganic compounds do not have carbon atoms in
presence of carbon atoms in them them (some exceptions do exist)
2. Organic compounds consisting of hydrogen, They do not possess hydrogen or oxygen and their
oxygen, carbon, and their other derivatives derivatives
3. Organic compounds are said to be more volatile These compounds are not inflammable and are non-
and also highly inflammable volatile in nature
4. These compounds exist in the form of Solids, These exist as solids

gases, and liquids.
5. These are insoluble in water These are soluble in water and also non-soluble in some
of the organic solutions.
6. These compounds have the carbon-hydrogen These do not have the carbon-hydrogen bonds
bonds
7. Organic compounds are mainly found in most of These compounds are found in non-living things
the living things
8. Organic compounds form covalent bonds Inorganic compounds form ionic bonds between the
atoms of molecules
9. In most of the aqueous solutions, these are poor In aqueous solutions, these are known to be good
conductors of heat and electricity conductors of heat and electricity
10. Examples of organic compounds include fats, The example for inorganic compounds includes non-
nucleic acids, sugars, enzymes, proteins, and metals, salts, metals, acids, bases, substances which are
hydrocarbon fuels made from single elements
11. These have relatively low melting points and These have low melting and boiling points compared to
boiling points. organic compounds
12 These are biological and more complex in nature These are of mineral and not much complexity in nature
13 Organic compounds cannot make salts Inorganic compounds can make salts
14 The rate of reaction is slow in organic Inorganic compounds have a high rate of reaction
compounds
History
Organic chemistry deals with the compounds of carbon. The science of organic chemistry is
considered to have originated in 1685 with the publication by Lémery1 of a chemistry book that
classified substances according to their origin as mineral, vegetable, or animal. Compounds
derived from plants and animals became known as organic and those derived from nonliving
sources were inorganic. Until 1828 it was believed that organic compounds could not be formed
except by living plants and animals. This was known as the vital-force theory, and belief in it
severely limited the development of organic chemistry. Wöhler,2 in 1828, by accident, found that
application of heat to ammonium cyanate, an inorganic compound, caused it to change to urea,
a compound considered organic in nature. This discovery dealt a death blow to the vital-force
theory, and by 1850 modern organic chemistry became well established. Today about 13 million
organic compounds are known.3 Many of these are products of synthetic chemistry, and similar
compounds are not known in nature. Approximately 70,000 organic chemicals are in commercial
use.
Elements
All organic compounds contain carbon in combination with one or more elements. The
hydrocarbons contain only carbon and hydrogen. A great many compounds contain carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen, and they are considered to be the major elements. Minor elements in
naturally occurring compounds are nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur, and sometimes halogens
and metals. Compounds produced by synthesis may contain, in addition, a wide variety of other
elements.
Properties
Organic compounds, in general, differ greatly from inorganic compounds in seven respects:
1. Organic compounds are usually combustible.
2. Organic compounds, in general, have lower melting and boiling points.
3. Organic compounds are usually less soluble in water.
4. Several organic compounds may exist for a given formula. This is known as isomerism.
5. Reactions of organic compounds are usually molecular rather than ionic. As a result, they
are often quite slow.
6. The molecular weights of organic compounds may be very high, often well over 1000.
7. Most organic compounds can serve as a source of food for bacteria.
Sources
Organic compounds are derived from three sources:
1. Nature: fibers, vegetable oils, animal oils and fats, alkaloids, cellulose, starch, sugars, and
so on.
2. Synthesis: A wide variety of compounds and materials prepared by manufacturing
processes.
3. Fermentation: Alcohols, acetone, glycerol, antibiotics, acids, and the like are derived by
the action of microorganisms upon organic matter.
The wastes produced in the processing of natural organic materials and from the synthetic organic
and fermentation industries constitute a major part of the industrial and hazardous waste
problems that environmental engineers and scientists are called upon to solve.
FOUR WAYS TO WRITE CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF A COMPOUND
1. Lewis Structure
There are the three general rules for drawing Lewis structures.
1. Draw only the valence electrons.

2. Give every main group element (except hydrogen) an octet of electrons.
3. Give each hydrogen two electrons.
How to draw a Lewis Structure
1. Always place hydrogens and halogens on the periphery since these atoms form
only one bond.
As a first approximation, use the common bonding patterns to arrange the atoms.
In truth, sometimes atom arrangement is not obvious. For this reason, atom
arrangement will be specified for you in some problems.
2. Count the valence electrons. Use the group number of a main group element to
give the number of valence electrons. This sum gives the total number of electrons
that must be used in drawing the Lewis structure.
3. Arrange the electrons around the atoms. Place one bond between every two
atoms, giving two electrons to each H and no more than eight to all other main
group atoms. Use all remaining electrons to fill octets with lone pairs, beginning
with atoms on the periphery. If all valence electrons are used and an atom does
not have an octet, proceed to Step [4].
4. Use multiple bonds to fill octets when needed. Convert one lone pair to one
bonding pair of electrons for each two electrons needed to complete an octet. This
forms double or triple bonds in some molecules, as shown in Section 4.2B. While
a single covalent bond contains two electrons, a double bond consists of four
electrons and a triple bond consists of six electrons.
2. Kekule Structure
The first structure for benzene, proposed by August Kekulé in 1872, consisted of a six
membered ring with alternating single and double bonds and with one hydrogen bonded
to each carbon. Kekulé further proposed that the ring contains three double bonds that
shift back and forth so rapidly that the two forms cannot be separated. Each structure has
become known as a Kekulé structure.
3. Condense Formula
Condensed structures are most often used for a compound having a chain of atoms
bonded together, rather than a ring. The following conventions are used.
• All of the atoms are drawn in, but the two-electron bond lines are generally omitted.
• Lone pairs on heteroatoms are omitted.
To interpret a condensed formula, it is usually best to start at the left side of the molecule and
remember that the carbon atoms must have four bonds.
• A carbon bonded to 3 H’s becomes CH3.

• A carbon bonded to 2 H’s becomes CH2.
• A carbon bonded to 1 H becomes CH.
Sometimes these structures are further simplified by using parentheses around like groups. Two
CH2 groups bonded together become (CH2)2. Two CH3 groups bonded to the same carbon
become (CH3)2C.
4. Skeletal Structure
Skeletal structures are used for organic compounds containing both rings and chains of
atoms. Three important rules are used in drawing them.
• Assume there is a carbon atom at the junction of any two lines or at the end of any line.
• Assume there are enough hydrogens around each carbon to give it four bonds.
• Draw in all heteroatoms and the hydrogens directly bonded to them.
Rings are drawn as polygons with a carbon atom “understood” at each vertex, as shown
for cyclohexane and cyclopentanol. All carbons and hydrogens in these molecules are
understood, except for H’s bonded to heteroatoms.
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
The part of an organic molecule that undergoes chemical reactions is called a functional group,
and, as we will see, the same functional group, in whatever organic molecule we find it, undergoes
the same types of chemical reactions. Functional groups are important because they are the units
by which we divide organic compounds into families of compounds. For example, we group those
compounds which contain an -OH (hydroxyl) group bonded to a tetrahedral carbon into a family
called alcohols, and compounds containing a -COOH (carboxyl) group into a family called
carboxylic acids.
To summarize, functional groups
• are sites of chemical reaction; a particular functional group, in whatever compound we find
it, undergoes the same types of chemical reactions.
• determine, in large measure, the physical properties of a compound.
• are the units by which we divide organic compounds into families.
• serve as a basis for naming organic compounds.
A. Alcohols
The functional group of an alcohol is an -OH (hydroxyl) group bonded to a tetrahedral (sp3
hybridized) carbon atom. In the general formula that follows, we use the symbol R to
indicate either a hydrogen or another carbon group. The important point in the general
structure is that the -OH group is bonded to a tetrahedral carbon atom:
Alcohols are classified as primary (1°), secondary (2°), or tertiary (3°), depending on the
number of carbon atoms bonded to the carbon bearing the -OH group:
B. Amines
The functional group of an amine is an amino group—a nitrogen atom bonded to one, two,
or three carbon atoms. In a primary (1°) amine, nitrogen is bonded to one carbon atom. In
a secondary (2°) amine, it is bonded to two carbon atoms, and in a tertiary (3°) amine, it
is bonded to three carbon atoms. The second and third structural formulas that follow can
be written in a more abbreviated form by collecting the CH3 groups and writing them as
(CH3)2NH and (CH3)3N, respectively.
C. Aldehydes and Ketones
Both aldehydes and ketones contain a C=O (carbonyl) group. The aldehyde functional
group contains a carbonyl group bonded to a hydrogen. In formaldehyde, CH2O, the
simplest aldehyde, the carbonyl carbon is bonded to two hydrogen atoms. In a condensed
structural formula, the aldehyde group may be written showing the carbon–oxygen double
bond as CH=O, or, alternatively, it may be written -CHO. The functional group of a ketone
is a carbonyl group bonded to two carbon atoms.
D. Carboxylic Acids, Esters, and Amides

The functional group of a carboxylic acid is a -COOH (carboxyl: carbonyl + hydroxyl )
group. In an ester, the -OH group is replaced with an -OR group, and in an amide, an -
NH2, -NHR, or -NR2 group is bonded to the carbonyl group:

What Are Alkanes?
Methane (CH4) and ethane (C2H6) are the smallest members of the alkane family. The shape of
methane is tetrahedral, and all H-C-H bond angles are 109.5°. Each carbon atom in ethane is
also tetrahedral, and all bond angles are approximately 109.5°. Although the three‐dimensional
shapes of larger alkanes are more complex than those of methane and ethane, the four bonds
about each carbon atom are still arranged in a tetrahedral manner, and all bond angles are still
approximately 109.5°.
The next members of the alkane family are propane, butane, and pentane. In the representations
that follow, these hydrocarbons are drawn first as condensed structural formulas that show all
carbons and hydrogens. They are then drawn in an even more abbreviated form called a line‐
angle formula. In this type of representation, a line represents a carbon–carbon bond, and an
angle represents a carbon atom. A line ending represents a CH3 group. Although hydrogen atoms
are not shown in line‐angle formulas, they are assumed to be there in sufficient numbers to give
each carbon four bonds.
We can write structural formulas for alkanes in still another abbreviated form. The structural
formula of pentane, for example, contains three CH2 (methylene) groups in the middle of the
chain. We can collect these groups together and write the structural formula as CH3(CH2)3CH3.
Note that the names of all these alkanes end in ‐ane.
What Is Constitutional Isomerism in Alkanes?
Constitutional isomers are compounds that have the same molecular formula, but different
structural formulas.
For the molecular formulas CH4, C2H6, and C3H8, only one order of attachment of atoms is
possible. For the molecular formula C4H10, two orders of attachment of atoms are possible. In
one of these, named butane, the four carbons are bonded in a chain; in the other, named 2‐
methylpropane, three carbons are bonded in a chain, with the fourth carbon as a branch on the
middle carbon of the chain.
Butane and 2‐methylpropane are constitutional isomers; they are different compounds and have
different physical and chemical properties. Their boiling points, for example, differ by
approximately 11°C.
To find out whether two or more structural formulas represent constitutional isomers, write the
molecular formula of each and then compare them. All compounds that have the same molecular
formula, but different structural formulas, are constitutional isomers.
EXAMPLE:
How Do We Name Alkanes?
A. The IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) System of Organic
Nomenclature
The IUPAC name of an alkane with an unbranched chain of carbon atoms consists of two parts:
(1) a prefix that indicates the number of carbon atoms in the chain and
(2) the ending ‐ane to show that the compound is a saturated hydrocarbon.
The first four prefixes listed in the table below were chosen by the IUPAC because they were well
established even before there were hints of the structural theory underlying the discipline.
The IUPAC name of an alkane with a branched chain consists of a parent name that indicates
the longest chain of carbon atoms in the compound and substituent names that indicate the
groups bonded to the parent chain.
A substituent group derived from an alkane by the removal of a hydrogen atom is called an alkyl
group and is commonly represented by the symbol R‐. We name alkyl groups by dropping the ‐
ane from the name of the parent alkane and adding the suffix ‐yl. The prefix sec‐ is an abbreviation
for secondary, meaning a carbon bonded to two other carbons. The prefix tert‐ is an abbreviation
for tertiary, meaning a carbon bonded to three other carbons. Note that when these two prefixes
are part of a name, they are always italicized.
The rules of the IUPAC system for naming alkanes are as follows:
1. The name for an alkane with an unbranched chain of carbon atoms consists of a prefix showing
the number of carbon atoms in the chain and the ending ‐ane.
2. For branched‐chain alkanes, take the longest chain of carbon atoms as the parent chain, and
its name becomes the root name.
3. Give each substituent on the parent chain a name and a number. The number shows the
carbon atom of the parent chain to which the substituent is bonded. Use a hyphen to connect
the number to the name:
4. If there is one substituent, number the parent chain from the end that gives it the lower
number:
5. If there are two or more identical substituents, number the parent chain from the end that
gives the lower number to the substituent encountered first. The number of times the substituent
occurs is indicated by the prefix di‐, tri‐, tetra‐, penta‐, hexa‐, and so on. A comma is used to
separate position numbers:
6. If there are two or more different substituents, list them in alphabetical order, and number the
chain from the end that gives the lower number to the substituent encountered first. If there are
different substituents in equivalent positions on opposite ends of the parent chain, the
substituent of lower alphabetical order is given the lower number:
7. The prefixes di‐, tri‐, tetra‐, and so on are not included in alphabetizing. Neither are the
hyphenated prefixes sec‐ and tert‐. “Iso,” as in isopropyl, is included in alphabetizing.
Alphabetize the names of the substituents first, and then insert the prefix. In the following
example, the alphabetizing parts are ethyl and methyl, not ethyl and dimethyl:
B. Common Names
In the older system of common nomenclature, the total number of carbon atoms in an alkane,
regardless of their arrangement, determines the name. The first three alkanes are methane,
ethane, and propane. All alkanes with the molecular formula C4H10 are called butanes, all those
with the molecular formula C5H12 are called pentanes, and all those with the molecular formula
C6H14 are called hexanes. For alkanes beyond propane, iso indicates that one end of an
otherwise unbranched chain terminates in a (CH3)2CH group. Following are examples of
common names:
C. Classification of Carbon and Hydrogen Atoms
We classify a carbon atom as primary (1°), secondary (2°), tertiary (3°), or quaternary (4°),
depending on the number of carbon atoms bonded to it. A carbon bonded to one carbon atom
is a primary carbon; a carbon bonded to two carbon atoms is a secondary carbon, and so forth,
as shown in the following:
What Are Cycloalkanes?
A hydrocarbon that contains carbon atoms joined to form a ring is called a cyclic hydrocarbon.
When all carbons of the ring are saturated, we call the hydrocarbon a cycloalkane. Cycloalkanes
of ring sizes ranging from 3 to over 30 abound in nature, and, in principle, there is no limit to ring
size. When writing structural formulas for cycloalkanes, chemists rarely show all carbons and
hydrogens. Rather, they use line‐angle formulas to represent cycloalkane rings. Each ring is
represented by a regular polygon having the same number of sides as there are carbon atoms
in the ring. For example, chemists represent cyclobutane by a square, cyclopentane by a
pentagon, and cyclohexane by a hexagon.
Cycloalkanes contain two fewer hydrogen atoms than an alkane with the same number of carbon
atoms.
To name a cycloalkane, prefix the name of the corresponding open‐chain hydrocarbon with cyclo
‐, and name each substituent on the ring. If there is only one substituent, there is no need to give
it a number. If there are two substituents, number the ring by beginning with the substituent of
lower alphabetical order. If there are three or more substituents, number the ring so as to give
them the lowest set of numbers, and then list the substituents in alphabetical order.
EXAMPLE:
How Is the IUPAC System of Nomenclature Applied to Molecules that Contain Functional
Groups?
The naming of alkanes and cycloalkanes illustrates the application of the IUPAC system of
nomenclature to these two specific classes of organic compounds. The name we give to any
compound with a chain of carbon atoms consists of three parts: a prefix, an infix (a modifying
element inserted into a word), and a suffix. Each part provides specific information about the
structural formula of the compound.
1. The prefix shows the number of carbon atoms in the parent chain. Prefixes that show the
presence of 1 to 20 carbon atoms in a chain.
2. The infix shows the nature of the carbon–carbon bonds in the parent chain:
3. The suffix shows the class of compound to which the substance belongs:
EXAMPLE:
What Is Cis–Trans Isomerism in Cycloalkanes?
Cycloalkanes with substituents on two or more carbons of the ring show a type of isomerism
called cis–trans isomerism. Cis – trans isomers have (1) the same molecular formula, (2) the
same order of attachment of atoms, and (3) an arrangement of atoms that cannot be interchanged
by rotation about sigma bonds under ordinary conditions. We can illustrate cis–trans isomerism
in cycloalkanes using 1,2‐dimethylcyclopentane as an example. In the following structural
formula, the cyclopentane ring is drawn as a planar pentagon viewed edge on (in determining the
number of cis–trans isomers in a substituted cycloalkane, it is adequate to draw the cycloalkane
ring as a planar polygon):
Carbon–carbon bonds of the ring that project forward are shown as heavy lines. When viewed
from this perspective, substituents bonded to the cyclopentane ring project above and below the
plane of the ring. In one isomer of 1,2‐dimethylcyclopentane, the methyl groups are on the same
side of the ring (either both above or both below the plane of the ring); in the other isomer, they
are on opposite sides of the ring (one above and one below the plane of the ring). Alternatively,
the cyclopentane ring can be viewed from above, with the ring in the plane of the paper.
Substituents on the ring then either project toward you (that is, they project up above the page)
and are shown by solid wedges, or they project away from you (they project down below the page)
and are shown by broken wedges. In the following structural formulas, only the two methyl groups
are shown (hydrogen atoms of the ring are not shown):
Two cis–trans isomers exist for 1,4‐dimethylcyclohexane. For the purposes of determining the
number of cis–trans isomers in substituted cycloalkanes, it is adequate to draw the cycloalkane
ring as a planar polygon, as is done in the following disubstituted cyclohexanes:
We can also draw the cis and trans isomers of 1,4‐dimethylcyclohexane as nonplanar chair
conformations. In working with alternative chair conformations, it is helpful to remember that all
groups axial on one chair are equatorial in the alternative chair, and vice versa. In one chair
conformation of trans‐1,4‐dimethylcyclohexane, the two methyl groups are axial; in the alternative
chair conformation, they are equatorial. Of these chair conformations, the one with both methyls
equatorial is considerably more stable.
The alternative chair conformations of cis‐1,4‐dimethylcyclohexane are of equal energy. In each

chair conformation, one methyl group is equatorial and the other is axial.

ALKENES AND ALKYNES
Ethene is an alkene, a hydrocarbon containing one or more carbon–carbon double bonds, and
ethyne is an alkyne, a hydrocarbon containing one or more carbon—carbon triple bonds.
Arenes are the third class of unsaturated hydrocarbons and are represented by the compound
benzene. How is benzene structurally similar to either ethene or ethyne? How is it different? One
unobvious but very important difference is that the chemistry of benzene and its derivatives is
quite different from that of alkenes and alkynes. We don’t study the chemistry of arenes until
Chapter 9, but we will encounter many compounds containing benzene rings.
Compounds containing carbon–carbon double bonds are especially widespread in nature.

Ethylene, for example, is produced by all higher order plants. Furthermore, several low molecular‐
weight alkenes, including ethylene and propene, have enormous commercial importance in our
modern, industrialized society. The organic chemical industry produces more pounds of ethylene
worldwide than any other chemical. Annual production in the United States alone exceeds 20
billion kg (45 billion pounds). What is unusual about ethylene is that it occurs only in trace amounts
in nature. The enormous amounts of it required to meet the needs of the chemical industry are
derived the world over by thermal cracking of hydrocarbons. In the United States and other areas
of the world with vast reserves of natural gas, the major process for the production of ethylene is
thermal cracking of the small quantities of ethane extracted from natural gas. In thermal cracking,
a saturated hydrocarbon is converted to an unsaturated hydrocarbon plus H2. Heating ethane in
a furnace to 800–900 °C for a fraction of a second cracks it to ethylene and hydrogen.
What Are the Structures and Shapes of Alkenes and Alkynes?

A. Shapes of Alkenes
Using valence‐shell electron‐pair repulsion, we predict a value of 120° for the bond angles
about each carbon in a double bond. The observed H-C-C bond angle in ethylene is
121.7°, a value close to that predicted by VSEPR. In other alkenes, deviations from the
predicted angle of 120° may be somewhat larger as a result of strain between groups
bonded to one or both carbons of the double bond. The C-C-C bond angle in propene, for
example, is 124.7°.
B. Orbital Overlap Model of a Carbon–Carbon Double Bond
A carbon–carbon double bond consists of one sigma bond and one pi bond. It takes
approximately 264 kJ/mol (63 kcal/mol) to break the pi bond in ethylene—that is, to rotate
one carbon by 90° with respect to the other so that no overlap occurs between 2p orbitals
on adjacent carbons. This energy is considerably greater than the thermal energy
available at room temperature, and, as a consequence, rotation about a carbon–carbon
double bond is severely restricted. You might compare rotation about a carbon–carbon
double bond to that about a carbon–carbon single bond, such as the bond in ethane where
the energy barrier is only 13 kJ/mol.
C. Cis–Trans Isomerism in Alkenes
Because of restricted rotation about a carbon–carbon double bond, an alkene in which each
carbon of the double bond has two different groups bonded to it shows cis–trans isomerism.
Consider, for example, 2‐butene: In cis‐2‐butene, the two methyl groups are on the same side of
the double bond; in trans‐2‐butene, the two methyl groups are on opposite sides of the double
bond. These two compounds cannot be converted into one another at room temperature because
of the restricted rotation about the double bond; they are different compounds, with different
physical and chemical properties. Cis alkenes are less stable than their trans isomers because of
nonbonded interaction strain between alkyl substituents on the same side of the double bond in
the cis isomer, as can be seen in space‐filling models of the cis and trans isomers of 2‐butene.
This is the same type of steric strain that results in the preference for equatorial
methylcyclohexane over axial methylcyclohexane.
A. Structure of Alkynes
The functional group of an alkyne is a carbon–carbon triple bond. The simplest alkyne is ethyne,
C2H2. Ethyne is a linear molecule; all of its bond angles are 180°. According to the orbital overlap
model, a triple bond is described in terms of the overlap of sp hybrid orbitals of adjacent carbons
to form a sigma bond, the overlap of parallel 2py orbitals to form one pi bond, and the overlap of
parallel 2pz orbitals to form the second pi bond. In ethyne, each carbon forms a bond to a
hydrogen by the overlap of an sp hybrid orbital of carbon with a 1s atomic orbital of hydrogen.
How Do We Name Alkenes and Alkynes?
Alkenes are named using the IUPAC system, but, as we shall see, some are still referred to by
their common names.
A. IUPAC Names
We form IUPAC names of alkenes by changing the ‐an‐ infix of the parent alkane to ‐en‐. Hence,
CH2 =CH2 is named ethene, and CH3CH=CH2 is named propene. In higher alkenes, where
isomers exist that differ in the location of the double bond, we use a numbering system. We
number the longest carbon chain that contains the double bond in the direction that gives the
carbon atoms of the double bond the lower set of numbers. We then use the number of the first
carbon of the double bond to show its location. We name branched or substituted alkenes in a
manner similar to the way we name alkanes. We number the carbon atoms, locate the double
bond, locate and name substituent groups, and name the main (parent) chain.
Note that there is a six‐carbon chain in 2‐ethyl‐3‐methyl‐1‐pentene. However, because the longest
chain that contains the carbon–carbon double bond has only five carbons, the parent hydrocarbon
is pentane, and we name the molecule as a disubstituted 1‐pentene.
We form IUPAC names of alkynes by changing the ‐an‐ infix of the parent alkane to ‐yn‐. Thus,
HC≡CH is named ethyne, and CH3C≡CH is named propyne. The IUPAC system retains the name
acetylene; therefore, there are two acceptable names for HC≡CH: ethyne and acetylene. Of these
two names, acetylene is used much more frequently. For larger molecules, we number the longest
carbon chain that contains the triple bond from the end that gives the triply bonded carbons the
lower set of numbers. We indicate the location of the triple bond by the number of the first carbon
of the triple bond.
EXAMPLE:
B. Common Names
Despite the precision and universal acceptance of IUPAC nomenclature, some alkenes,
particularly those with low molecular weight, are known almost exclusively by their common
names, as illustrated by the common names of these alkenes:
Furthermore, the common names methylene (a CH2 group), vinyl, and allyl are often used to
show the presence of the following alkenyl groups.
C. Systems for Designating Configuration in Alkenes
The Cis–Trans System
The most common method for specifying the configuration of a disubstituted alkene uses the
prefixes cis and trans. In this system, the orientation of the atoms of the parent chain
determines whether the alkene is cis or trans. Following are structural formulas for the cis and
trans isomers of 4‐methyl‐2‐pentene:
In the cis example, carbon atoms of the main chain (carbons 1 and 4) are on the same side of
the double bond. In the trans example, the same carbon atoms of the main chain are on
opposite sides of the double bond.
EXAMPLE:
The E, Z System
The E, Z system must be used for tri‐ and tetrasubstituted alkenes. This system uses a set of
rules to assign priorities to the substituents on each carbon of a double bond. If the groups of
higher priority are on the same side of the double bond, the configuration of the alkene is Z
(German: zusammen, together). If the groups of higher priority are on opposite sides of the double
bond, the configuration is E (German: entgegen, opposite).
The first step in assigning an E or a Z configuration to a double bond is to label the two groups
bonded to each carbon in order of priority.
Priority Rules
1. Priority is based on atomic number: The higher the atomic number, the higher is the
priority. Following are several substituents arranged in order of increasing priority (the
atomic number of the atom determining priority is shown in parentheses):
2. If priority cannot be assigned on the basis of the atoms that are bonded directly to the
double bond, look at the next set of atoms, and continue until a priority can be assigned.
Priority is assigned at the first point of difference. Following is a series of groups, arranged
in order of increasing priority (again, numbers in parentheses give the atomic number of
the atom on which the assignment of priority is based):
3. In order to compare carbons that are not sp3 hybridized, the carbons must be manipulated
in a way that allows us to maximize the number of groups bonded to them. Thus, we treat
atoms participating in a double or triple bond as if they are bonded to an equivalent number
of similar atoms by single bonds; that is, atoms of a double bond are replicated.
Accordingly,
EXAMPLE:
D. Naming Cycloalkenes
In naming cycloalkenes, we number the carbon atoms of the ring double bond 1 and 2 in the
direction that gives the substituent encountered first the smaller number. We name and locate
substituents and list them in alphabetical order, as in the following compounds:
EXAMPLE:
E. Cis–Trans Isomerism in Cycloalkenes
Following are structural formulas for four cycloalkenes:
In these representations, the configuration about each double bond is cis. Because of angle strain,
it is not possible to have a trans configuration in cycloalkenes of seven or fewer carbons. To date,
trans‐cyclooctene is the smallest trans‐cycloalkene that has been prepared in pure form and is
stable at room temperature. Yet, even in this trans‐cycloalkene, there is considerable
intramolecular strain. cis‐Cyclooctene is more stable than its trans isomer by 38 kJ/mol (9.1
kcal/mol).
F. Dienes, Trienes, and Polyenes
We name alkenes that contain more than one double bond as alkadienes, alkatrienes, and so
forth. We refer to those that contain several double bonds more generally as polyenes (Greek:
poly, many). Following are three examples of dienes:
G. Cis–Trans Isomerism in Dienes, Trienes, and Polyenes
Thus far, we have considered cis–trans isomerism in alkenes containing only one carbon– carbon
double bond. For an alkene with one carbon–carbon double bond that can show cis–trans
isomerism, two cis–trans isomers are possible. For an alkene with n carbon–carbon double
bonds, each of which can show cis–trans isomerism, 2n cis–trans isomers are possible.
EXAMPLE:
Vitamin A is an example of a biologically important compound for which a number of E-Z isomers
are possible. There are four carbon–carbon double bonds in the chain of carbon atoms bonded
to the substituted cyclohexene ring, and each has the potential for E-Z isomerism. Thus, 24 = 16
E-Z isomers are possible for this structural formula. Vitamin A is the all E isomer. The enzyme‐
catalyzed oxidation of vitamin A converts the primary hydroxyl group to a carbonyl group of an
aldehyde to give retinal, the biologically active form of the vitamin:
Academic Intellectual Property Rights: Materials posted over NEO-LMS are the properties of
USL and the Facilitators. Students are not allowed to share it to any third-party individuals not
part of the class without any permission from the owners.
Aromatic rings are a common part of many organic structures and are particularly important in
nuclear acid chemistry and in the chemistry of several amino acids. In this topic, we’ll find out how
and why aromatic compounds are different from such apparently related compounds as alkenes.
LESSON PROPER
Benzene
- simpliest aromatic hydrocarbon
- Molecular Formula : C6H6
- was discovered by Michael Faraday in 1825
- does not behave like the alkene groups and does not react with all the reagents normally added to
Carbon Carbon bonds.
- Friedrich Kekule proposed the first structure for benzene in 1872
- poisonous if ingested in liquid form, its vapor is toxic and can be absorbed either by inhalation, or
by the skin.
How Are Benzene Compounds Named, and What Are Their Physical Properties?
A. Monosubstituted Benzenes
Monosubstituted alkylbenzenes are named as derivatives of benzene; an example is ethyl‐
benzene. The IUPAC system retains certain common names for several of the simpler
monosubstituted alkylbenzenes. Examples are toluene (rather than methylbenzene) and styrene
(rather than phenylethylene):
The common names phenol, aniline, benzaldehyde, benzoic acid, and anisole are also retained by the
IUPAC system.
The physical properties of substituted benzenes vary depending on the nature of the substituent.
Alkylbenzenes, like other hydrocarbons, are nonpolar and thus have lower boiling points than benzenes
with polar substituents such as phenol, aniline, and benzoic acid. The melting points of substituted
benzenes depend on whether or not their molecules can be packed close together. Benzene, which has no
substituents and is flat, can pack its molecules very closely, giving it a considerably higher melting point
than many substituted benzenes.
The substituent group derived by the loss of an H from benzene is a phenyl group (Ph); that derived by the
loss of an H from the methyl group of toluene is a benzyl group (Bn).
B. Disubstituted Benzenes
When two substituents occur on a benzene ring, three constitutional isomers are possible. We
locate substituents either by numbering the atoms of the ring or by using the locators ortho, meta,
and para. The numbers 1,2‐ are equivalent to ortho (Greek: straight); 1,3‐ to meta (Greek: after);
and 1,4‐ to para (Greek: beyond).
When one of the two substituents on the ring imparts a special name to the compound, as, for
example, toluene, phenol, and aniline, then we name the compound as a derivative of that parent
molecule. In this case, the special substituent occupies ring position number 1. The IUPAC system
retains the common name xylene for the three isomeric dimethylbenzenes. When neither group
imparts a special name, we locate the two substituents and list them in alphabetical order before
the ending ‐benzene. The carbon of the benzene ring with the substituent of lower alphabetical
ranking is numbered C‐1.
The common name adopted by the IUPAC system will be

the parent chain then we name and locate the
substituents.
C. Polysubstituted Benzenes
When three or more substituents are present on a ring, we specify their locations by numbers. If
one of the substituents imparts a special name, then the molecule is named as a derivative of that
parent molecule. If none of the substituents imparts a special name, we number them to give the
smallest set of numbers and list them in alphabetical order before the ending ‐benzene. In the
following examples, the first compound is a derivative of toluene, and the second is a derivative of
phenol. Because there is no special name for the third compound, we list its three substituents in
alphabetical order, followed by the word benzene.
Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) contain two or more aromatic rings, each pair of
which shares two ring carbon atoms. Naphthalene, anthracene, and phenanthrene, the most
common PAHs, and substances derived from them are found in coal tar and high‐boiling petroleum
residues. At one time, naphthalene was used as a moth repellent and insecticide in protecting
woolens and furs, but its use has decreased due to the introduction of chlorinated hydrocarbons
such as p‐dichlorobenzene. Also found in coal tar are lesser amounts of benzo[a]pyrene. This
compound is found as well in the exhausts of gasoline‐powered internal combustion engines (for
example, automobile engines) and in cigarette smoke. Benzo[a]pyrene is a very potent carcinogen
and mutagen.
What Is the Mechanism of Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution?

A reaction in which an electrophile, E + , substitutes for a hydrogen on an aromatic ring.
A. Chlorination and Bromination
Chlorine alone does not react with benzene, in contrast to its instantaneous addition to
cyclohexene. However, in the presence of a Lewis acid catalyst, such as ferric chloride or
aluminum chloride, chlorine reacts to give chlorobenzene and HCl. Chemists account for this
type of electrophilic aromatic substitution by the following three‐step mechanism:
Treatment of benzene with bromine in the presence of ferric chloride or aluminum chloride
gives bromobenzene and HBr. The mechanism for this reaction is the same as that for
chlorination of benzene. The major difference between the addition of halogen to an alkene
and substitution by halogen on an aromatic ring is the fate of the cation intermediate formed
after the halogen is added to the compound. With aromatic compounds, the cation
intermediate loses H+ to regenerate the aromatic ring and the enhanced stability this
provides. There is no such aromaticity to be regained in the case of an alkene.
B. Nitration and Sulfonation
The sequence of steps for the nitration and sulfonation of benzene is similar to that for
chlorination and bromination. For nitration, the electrophile is the nitronium ion, NO2 + ,
generated by the reaction of nitric acid with sulfuric acid. In the following equations nitric acid
is written HONO2 to show more clearly the origin of the nitronium ion.
Academic Intellectual Property Rights: Materials posted over NEO-LMS are the properties of USL
and the Facilitators. Students are not allowed to share it to any third-party individuals not part of
the class without any permission from the owners.
MELS 1015 –Inorganic and Organic Chemistry
Alcohols, in particular, are very important in both laboratory and biochemical transformations of organic
compounds. They can be converted into other types of compounds, such as alkenes, haloalkanes,
aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and esters. Not only can alcohols be converted to these compounds,
but they also can be prepared from them. Alcohols play a central role in the interconversion of organic
functional groups and thus in our ability to synthesize life‐saving and life‐enhancing compounds.
LESSON PROPER
ALCOHOL
The functional group of an alcohol is an OH (hydroxyl) group bonded to an sp 3 hybridized carbon
atom. The oxygen atom of an alcohol is also sp 3 hybridized. Two sp 3 hybrid orbitals of oxygen form
sigma bonds to atoms of carbon and hydrogen. The other two sp 3 hybrid orbitals of oxygen each contain
an unshared pair of electrons.
Nomenclature
We derive the IUPAC names for alcohols in the same manner as those for alkanes, with the exception
that the ending of the parent alkane is changed from ‐ e to ‐ ol. The ending ‐ ol tells us that the
compound is an alcohol.
1. Select, as the parent alkane, the longest chain of carbon atoms that contains the OH, and number that
chain from the end closer to the OH group. In numbering the parent chain, the location of the OH group
takes precedence over alkyl groups and halogens.
2. Change the suffix of the parent alkane from ‐ e to ‐ ol, and use a number to show the location of the
OH group. For cyclic alcohols, numbering begins at the carbon bearing the OH group.
3. Name and number substituents and list them in alphabetical order.

To derive common names for alcohols, we name the alkyl group bonded to OH and then add the word
alcohol.
Alcohols are classified as primary (1°), secondary (2°), or tertiary (3°), depending on the number of
carbon atoms bonded to the carbon bearing the OH group:
We often refer to compounds containing OH and C=C groups as unsaturated alcohols.
To name an unsaturated alcohol,

1. Number the parent alkane so as to give the OH group the lowest possible number.
2. Show the double bond by changing the infix of the parent alkane from ‐an‐ to ‐en‐, and show the
alcohol by changing the suffix of the parent alkane from ‐e to ‐ol.
3. Use numbers to show the location of both the carbon–carbon double bond and the hydroxyl group.
Recall that the hydroxyl group takes precedence when numbering the parent chain.
Examples:
2-methyl-2-butanol 3,5-dimethyl-1-hexanol 3-penten-2-ol
In the IUPAC system, a compound containing two hydroxyl groups is named as a diol, one containing
three hydroxyl groups is named as a triol, and so on. In IUPAC names for diols, triols, and so on, the final
‐ e of the parent alkane name is retained, as for example, in 1,2‐ethanediol. Compounds containing two
hydroxyl groups on different carbons are often referred to as glycols Ethylene glycol and propylene glycol
are synthesized from ethylene and propylene, respectively—hence their common names:
Physical Properties
• The most important physical property of alcohols is the polarity of their OH groups.
• Alcohols have higher boiling points than alkanes of similar molecular weight, because alcohols
are polar molecules and can associate in the liquid state by a type of dipole–dipole intermolecular
attraction called hydrogen bonding.
• The presence of additional hydroxyl groups in a molecule further increases the extent of
hydrogen bonding
• Alcohols with higher molecular weight are much less soluble in water
ACIDITY
Alcohols have about the same pKa values as water (15.7), which means that aqueous solutions of
alcohols have about the same pH as that of pure water.
BASICITY
In the presence of strong acids, the oxygen atom of an alcohol is a weak base and reacts with an acid by
proton transfer to form an oxonium ion thus, alcohols can function as both weak acids and weak bases.
NAMING A METAL ALKOXIDE
• name the cation first, followed by the name of the anion.

• The name of an alkoxide ion is derived from a prefix showing the number of carbon atoms and
their arrangement (meth‐, eth‐, isoprop‐, tert‐but‐, and so on) followed by the suffix ‐oxide.
• Alkoxide ions are somewhat stronger bases than is the hydroxide ion.
PHENOL
Phenol, or carbolic acid, as it was once called, is a low‐melting solid that is only slightly soluble in water.
• In sufficiently high concentrations, it is corrosive to all kinds of cells.
• In dilute solutions, phenol has some antiseptic properties and was introduced into the practice
of surgery by Joseph Lister, who demonstrated his technique of aseptic surgery in the surgical
theater of the University of Glasgow School of Medicine in 1865.
ACIDITY
• One of the most important of these differences is that phenols are significantly more acidic than
are alcohols.
Ring substituents, particularly halogen and nitro groups, have marked effects on the acidities of phenols
through a combination of inductive and resonance effects. Because the halogens are more
electronegative than carbon, they withdraw electron density from the negatively charged oxygen in the
conjugate base, stabilizing the phenoxide ion. Nitro groups have greater electron‐withdrawing ability than
halogens and thus have a greater stabilizing effect on the phenoxide ion, making nitrophenol even more
acidic than chlorophenol.
THIOLS
•Thiols are organic compounds that contain a sulfhydryl group (SH group) bonded to a tetrahedral
carbon.
• The functional group of a thiol is an SH (sulfhydryl) group. The most outstanding property of low‐
molecular‐weight thiols is their stench.
NOMENCLATURE
The sulfur analog of an alcohol is called a thiol (thi‐ from the Greek: theion, sulfur) or, in the older
literature, a mercaptan, which literally means “mercury capturing.”
Thiols are named by selecting as the parent alkane the longest chain of carbon atoms that contains the
SH group.
To show that the compound is a thiol, we add ‐thiol to the name of the parent alkane and number the
parent chain in the direction that gives the SH group the lower number.
In compounds containing other functional groups, the presence of an SH group is indicated by the prefix
mercapto‐.
According to the IUPAC system, OH takes precedence over SH in both numbering and naming:
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
They have lower boiling points and are less soluble in water and other polar solvents than are alcohols of
similar molecular weight.
ACIDITY: Thiols are stronger acids than alcohols.

OXIDATION TO DISULFIDES: Thiols are readily oxidized to disulfides by molecular oxygen.
ETHERS: atom of oxygen bonded to two carbon atoms that are part of a hydrocarbon chain or ring
Because oxygen is more electronegative than carbon, the C O bonds of an ether are both polar. Since an
ether contains two polar bonds and a bent shape, it has a net dipole. In this way, ethers resemble
alcohols.
Ethers do not contain a hydrogen atom bonded to oxygen, so unlike alcohols, two ether molecules cannot
intermolecularly hydrogen bond to each other. This gives ethers stronger intermolecular forces than
alkanes but weaker intermolecular forces than alcohols.
NOMENCLATURE
In the IUPAC system, ethers are named by selecting the longest carbon chain as the parent alkane and
naming the OR group bonded to it as an alkoxy (alkyl + oxygen) group.
Common names are derived by listing the alkyl groups bonded to oxygen in alphabetical order and
adding the word ether.
Simple ethers are usually assigned common names. To do so, name both alkyl groups bonded to the
oxygen, arrange these names alphabetically, and add the word ether. For ethers with identical alkyl
groups, name the alkyl group and add the prefix di-.
More complex ethers are named using the IUPAC system. One alkyl group is named as a hydrocarbon
chain, and the other is named as part of a substituent bonded to that chain.
• Name the simpler alkyl group + O atom as an alkoxy substituent by changing the -yl ending of the
alkyl group to -oxy.
• Name the remaining alkyl group as an alkane, with the alkoxy group as a substituent bonded to
this chain.
Cyclic ethers are heterocyclic compounds in which the ether oxygen is one of the atoms in a ring. These
ethers are generally known by their common names:
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Ethers are polar compounds in which oxygen bears a partial negative charge and each carbon bonded to
it bears a partial positive charge.
Boiling points of ethers are much lower than those of alcohols of comparable molecular weight.
Ethers have higher melting points and boiling points than hydrocarbons of comparable size and shape.
Ethers have lower melting points and boiling points than alcohols of comparable size and shape.
All ethers are soluble in organic solvents. Like alcohols, low molecular weight ethers are water soluble,
because the oxygen atom of the ether can hydrogen bond to one of the hydrogens of water. When the
alkyl groups of the ether have more than a total of five carbons, the nonpolar portion of the molecule is
too large, so the ether is water insoluble.
STRUCTURES:
ALDEHYDES AND KETONES
Introduction:
Carbonyl compounds are everywhere. In addition to their uses as reagents and solvents,
they are constituents of fabrics, flavorings, plastics, and drugs. Naturally occurring carbonyl
compounds include proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids that make up all plants and
animals. The simplest carbonyl compounds are ketones and aldehydes.
Lesson Proper:
Aldehyde has one alkyl (or aryl) group and one hydrogen atom bonded to the carbonyl carbon
atom.
Ketone has two alkyl (or aryl) groups bonded to the carbonyl carbon atom.
I. IUPAC Names
a) ALDEHYDES
 Systematic names for aldehydes are derived by replacing the final -e of the alkane name
with -al.
 An aldehyde carbon is at the end of a chain, so it is number 1.
1
 For cyclic aldehydes in which the - CHO group is directly attached to a ring, the suffix -
carbaldehyde is used
 If the aldehyde group is a substituent of a large unit (usually a ring), the suffix
carbaldehyde is used
b) KETONES
 Systematic names of ketones are derived by replacing the final -e in the alkane name with -
one. The “alkane” name becomes “alkanone.”
 In open-chain ketones, we number the longest chain that includes the carbonyl carbon
from the end closest to the carbonyl group, and we indicate the position of the carbonyl
group by a number.


2
 In cyclic ketones, the carbonyl carbon atom is assigned the number 1.
c) A ketone or aldehyde group can also be named as a substituent on a molecule with a

higher priority functional group as its root
c.1) Carboxylic acids frequently contain ketone or aldehyde groups named as

substituents
 When it’s necessary to refer to the R-C=O as a substituent, the name acyl group is used and
the name ending -yl is attached.
 When an aldehyde group is a substituent and not part of the longest chain, it is named by
the prefix formyl.
 Thus, −COCH3 is an acetyl group, −CHO is a formyl group, −COAr is an aroyl
group, and −COC6H5 is a benzoyl group.
c.2) If other functional groups are present and the doubly bonded oxygen is considered
a substituent on a parent chain, the prefix oxo- is used.
3
II. COMMON NAMES

a) ALDEHYDES
A few simple and well-known aldehydes have common names that are recognized by IUPAC.
Greek letters are used with common names of aldehydes to give the locations of substituents.
The first letter (a) is given to the carbon atom next to the carbonyl group, which is C2 in the
IUPAC name.
4
b) KETONES
Ketone common names are formed by naming the two alkyl groups bonded to the carbonyl
group.
Some ketones have historical common names. Dimethyl ketone is always called acetone,
and alkyl phenyl ketones are usually named as the acyl group followed by the suffix -
phenone.
Substituent locations are given using Greek letters, beginning with the carbon next to the
carbonyl group.

5
6
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS AND DERIVATIVES
Introduction:
Carboxylic acids, RCO2H, occupy a central place among carbonyl compounds. Not only are
they valuable in themselves, they also serve as starting materials for preparing numerous
carboxylic acid derivatives such as acid chlorides, esters, amides, and thioesters. In addition,
carboxylic acids are present in the majority of biological pathways.
Lesson Proper:
Carboxylic acids
 Distinctly acidic compounds containing the carboxyl group
 Carboxyl group combination of a carbonyl group and a hydroxyl on the same carbon
atom
Carboxylic acids are classified according to the substituent bonded to the carboxyl
group.
 Aliphatic acid has an alkyl group bonded to the carboxyl group
 Aromatic acid has an aryl group.
 Fatty acids are long-chain aliphatic acids derived from the hydrolysis of fats and oils
Common Names
 In common names, the positions of substituents are named using Greek letters.
 With common names, the prefix iso- is sometimes used for acids ending in the–CH(CH3) 2
grouping.
1
IUPAC Names
Carboxylic acids use the name of the alkane that corresponds to the longest continuous chain of
carbon atoms.
 The final -e in the alkane name is replaced by the suffix -oic acid.
 In naming, the carboxyl group takes priority over any of the other functional groups
 The chain is numbered, starting with the carboxyl carbon atom, to give positions of
substituents along the chain.
2
Unsaturated acids are named using the name of the corresponding alkene, with the final -e
replaced by -oic acid. The carbon chain is numbered starting with the carboxyl carbon, and a
number gives the location of the double bond.
The stereochemical terms cis and trans (and Z and E) are used as they are with other alkenes.
Cycloalkanes with −COOH substituents are generally named as cycloalkanecarboxylic acids.
Aromatic acids of the form Ar−COOH are named as derivatives of benzoic acid,
Ph−COOH.
 As with other aromatic compounds, the prefixes ortho-, meta-, and para- may be used to
give the positions of additional substituents.
 Numbers are used if there are more than two substituents on the aromatic ring. Many
aromatic acids have historical names that are unrelated to their structures.
Nomenclature of Dicarboxylic Acids
Common Names of Dicarboxylic Acids

 A dicarboxylic acid (also called a diacid) is a compound with two carboxyl groups.
 The common names of simple dicarboxylic acids are used more frequently than their
systematic names.
− A common mnemonic for these names is “Oh my, such good apple pie,” standing
for oxalic, malonic, succinic, glutaric, adipic, and pimelic acids.
 Benzenoid compounds with two carboxyl groups are named phthalic acids.
− Phthalic acid itself is the ortho isomer
− Meta isomer is called isophthalic acid
− Para isomer is called terephthalic acid.
3
IUPAC Names of Dicarboxylic Acids

 Aliphatic dicarboxylic acids are named simply by adding the suffix -dioic acid to the name of
the parent alkane.
 For straight-chain dicarboxylic acids, the parent alkane name is determined by using the
longest continuous chain that contains both carboxyl groups.
 The chain is numbered beginning with the carboxyl carbon atom that is closer to the
substituents, and these numbers are used to give the positions of the substituents.
 The system for naming cyclic dicarboxylic acids treats the carboxyl groups as substituents
on the cyclic structure.
4
Carboxylic acid derivatives

 Compounds with functional groups that can be converted to carboxylic acids by a simple
acidic or basic hydrolysis.
 The most important acid derivatives are esters, amides, and nitriles. Acid halides and
anhydrides are also included in this group, although we often think of them as activated
forms of the parent acids rather than completely different compounds.
a) ESTERS
 Carboxylic acid derivatives in which the hydroxyl group (−OH 2) is replaced by an alkoxy
(−OR) group
 An ester is a combination of a carboxylic acid and an alcohol, with loss of a molecule of
water.
 Esters can be formed by the Fischer esterification of an acid with an alcohol
5
The IUPAC name is derived from the IUPAC names of the alkyl group and the
carboxylate, and the common name is derived from the common names of each.
 The names of esters consist of two words that reflect their composite structure.
 The first word is derived from the alkyl group of the alcohol, and the second word from the
carboxylate group of the carboxylic acid.
b) AMIDES
 An amide is a composite of a carboxylic acid and ammonia or an amine.
 An acid reacts with an amine to form an ammonium carboxylate salt. When this salt is
heated to well above 100 °C, water is driven off and an amide results.
c) NITRILES
 Nitriles contain the cyano group(−C≡N)
 Although nitriles lack the carbonyl group of carboxylic acids, they are classified as acid
derivatives because they hydrolyze to give carboxylic acids and can be synthesized by
dehydration of amides.
6
 Common names of nitriles are derived from the corresponding carboxylic acids. Begin
with the common name of the acid, and replace the suffix -ic acid with the suffix -
onitrile.
 The IUPAC name is constructed from the alkane name, with the suffix -nitrile added.
 For acids that are named as alkanecarboxylic acids, the corresponding nitriles are named by using the
suffix -carbonitrile.
 The group can also be named as a substituent, the cyano group, −C≡N
d) Acid Halides (Acyl halides)

 Activated derivatives used for the synthesis of other acyl compounds such as esters,
amides, and acylbenzenes (in the Friedel–Crafts acylation).
 The most common acyl halides are the acid chlorides (acyl chlorides)
 An acid halide is
named by replacing
the -ic acid suffix of the acid name (either the common name or the IUPAC name) with -
yl and the halide name.
 For acids that are named as alkanecarboxylic acids, the acid chlorides are named by
using the suffix -carbonyl chloride.
7
Acid Anhydrides
 Contains two molecules of an acid, with loss of a molecule of water.
 The word anhydride means “without water.”
 Addition of water to an anhydride regenerates two molecules of the carboxylic acid.
 Anhydride nomenclature is very simple; the word acid is changed to anhydride in both the
common name and the IUPAC name (rarely used).
 Anhydrides composed of two different acids are called mixed anhydrides and are named
by using the names of the individual acids.
*** END of LESSON 14-15***

References
Hart H., Hadad C., Craine L., & Hart D., (2016). Carboxylic Acids and Their Derivatives. In Hart
H., Hadad C., Craine L., & Hart D., Organic Chemistry (13th ed., pp. 287-304). Cengage
Learning.
8
9
AMIDES and AMINES
Introduction:
Amines are organic derivatives of ammonia with one or more alkyl or aryl groups bonded to the
nitrogen atom. As a class, amines include some of the most important biological compounds. The
amide functional group is extremely important for biological molecules because amides make up
the backbone of proteins. In this chapter, we will learn the nomenclature for both amides and
amines.
Lesson Proper:
AMIDES
An amide is a composite of a carboxylic acid and ammonia or an amine.
1. Primary amide: R−CO−NH2 because there is only one carbon atom bonded to the
amide nitrogen.
2. Secondary amide: R−CO−NHR’ An amide with an alkyl group on nitrogen is called a or
an N-substituted amide.
3. Tertiary amides or N,N-disubstituted amides: R−CO−NR’2 Amides with two alkyl
groups on the amide nitrogen
Nomenclature:
 To name a primary amide, first name the corresponding acid. Drop the -ic acid or -oic
acid suffix, and add the suffix -amide.
 For secondary and tertiary amides, treat the alkyl groups on nitrogen as substituents,
and specify their position by the prefix N-.
1
AMIDES and AMINES
 For acids that are named as alkanecarboxylic acids, the amides are named by using the
suffix -carboxamide. Some amides, such as acetanilide, have historical names that are
still commonly used.
Lactams
 Cyclic amides are called lactams.
 Lactams are formed from amino acids, where the amino group and the carboxyl group
have joined to form an amide.
 Lactams are named by adding the term lactam at the end of the IUPAC name of the
parent acid. Common names of lactams are formed by changing the -ic acid ending of
the amino acid to -olactam.
AMINES
Amines are classified as primary (1°) RNH2, secondary (2°) R2NH, or tertiary (3°) R3N,
corresponding to one, two, or three alkyl or aryl groups bonded to nitrogen.
Trimethylamine
Dimethylamine
2
AMIDES and AMINES
Thus, methylamine (CH3NH2) is a primary amine, dimethylamine [(CH3)2NH] is a secondary

amine, and trimethylamine [(CH3)3N] is a tertiary amine
Quaternary ammonium salts have four alkyl or aryl bonds to a nitrogen atom. The nitrogen atom
bears a positive charge, just as it does in simple ammonium salts such as ammonium chloride.
The following are examples of quaternary (4°) ammonium salts:
In a heterocyclic amine, the nitrogen atom is part of an aliphatic or aromatic ring.
IUPAC Names
The longest continuous chain of carbon atoms determines the root name. The -e ending in the
alkane name is changed to -amine, and a number shows the position of the amino group along
the chain. Other substituents on the carbon chain are given numbers, and the prefix N- is used
for each substituent on nitrogen.
3
AMIDES and AMINES
Amines with more than one functional group are named by considering the −NH2 as an amino
substituent on the parent molecule.
Symmetrical secondary and tertiary amines are named by adding the prefix di- or tri- to the alkyl
group.
Unsymmetrically substituted secondary and tertiary amines are named as N-substituted primary
amines. The largest alkyl group is chosen as the parent name, and the other alkyl groups are
considered N-substituents on the parent (N because they’re attached to nitrogen)
4
AMIDES and AMINES
Aromatic and heterocyclic amines are generally known by historical names. Phenylamine is
called aniline, for example, and its derivatives are named as derivatives of aniline.
Heterocyclic amines—compounds in which the nitrogen atom occurs as part of a ring—are

also common, and each different heterocyclic ring system has its own parent name. The
heterocyclic nitrogen atom is always numbered as position 1.

References
Hart H., Hadad C., Craine L., & Hart D., (2016). Amines and Related Nitrogen Compounds. In Hart H.,
Hadad C., Craine L., & Hart D., Organic Chemistry (13th ed., pp. 315-317, 327-338). Cengage Learning.
5
AMIDES and AMINES
6
BIOMOLECULES
Introduction:
Biomolecules have a wide range of sizes and structures and perform a vast array of functions.
The four major types of biomolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins.
These biomolecules are fundamental building blocks of living organisms, and therefore, the
presence and appropriate concentrations of biomolecules are vital for the structure and proper
function of living cells. In this chapter, we will discuss the structures and importance of each
biomolecule
Lesson Proper:
I. CARBOHYDRATES
→ Carbohydrate derives historically from the fact that glucose, the first simple carbohydrate to
be obtained pure, has the molecular formula C 6H12O6 and was originally thought to be a
“hydrate of carbon,
→ Today, the term carbohydrate is used to refer loosely to the broad class of polyhydroxylated
aldehydes and ketones commonly called sugars.
→ The sugar and starch in food, and the cellulose in wood, paper, and cotton are nearly pure
carbohydrates. Modified carbohydrates form part of the coating around living cells, other
carbohydrates are part of the nucleic acids that carry our genetic information, and still others
are used as medicines.
Classification of Carbohydrates
Simple sugars or monosaccharides: carbohydrates like glucose and fructose that can’t be
converted into smaller sugars by hydrolysis.
Complex carbohydrates are made of two or more simple sugars linked together by acetal
bonds
 Sucrose (table sugar), for example, is made up of one glucose linked to one fructose.
 Cellulose is made up of several thousand glucose units linked together.
 Enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis of a complex carbohydrate breaks it down into its
constituent monosaccharides.
1
BIOMOLECULES
A. Monosaccharides are further classified as either aldoses or ketoses.

→ The –ose suffix designates a carbohydrate, and the aldo- and keto- prefixes identify the
kind of carbonyl group in the molecule, whether aldehyde or ketone.
→ The number of carbon atoms in the monosaccharide is indicated by the appropriate
numerical prefix tri-, tetr-, pent-, hex-, and so forth, in the name.
→ Putting it all together, glucose is an aldohexose, a six-carbon aldehydo sugar; fructose is
a ketohexose, a six-carbon keto sugar; ribose is an aldopentose, a five-carbon aldehydo
sugar; and sedoheptulose is a ketoheptose, a seven-carbon keto sugar. Most of the
common simple sugars are either pentoses or hexoses.
Disaccharides
→ Contain a glycosidic acetal bond between the anomeric carbon of one sugar and an
−OH group at any position on the other sugar.
→ Glycosidic bond between C1 of the first sugar and the −OH at C4 of the second sugar
is particularly common. Such a bond is called a 1→4 link (can be either a or b)
a. Maltose
→ Disaccharide obtained by enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis of starch, consists of two
alpha-D-glucopyranose units joined by a 1→4-a-glycoside bond.
b. Cellobiose
→ Disaccharide obtained by partial hydrolysis of cellulose, consists of two beta-D-
glucopyranose units joined by a 1→4-b-glycoside bond
2
BIOMOLECULES
c. Lactose
→ Disaccharide that occurs naturally in both human and cow’s milk.
→ It is widely used in baking and in commercial milk formulas for infants.
→ Like maltose and cellobiose, lactose is a reducing sugar.
→ It exhibits mutarotation and is a 1→4-b-linked glycoside.
→ Unlike maltose and cellobiose, however, lactose contains two different
monosaccharides—D-glucose and D-galactose—joined by a B-glycosidic bond
between C1 of galactose and C4 of glucose.
d. Sucrose
→ Ordinary table sugar, is probably the most abundant pure organic
chemical in the world.
→ Unlike most other disaccharides, sucrose is not a reducing sugar
and does not undergo mutarotation.
Polysaccharides
→ Complex carbohydrates in which tens, hundreds, or even thousands of simple sugars
are linked together through glycoside bonds
→ Polysaccharides aren’t reducing sugars and don’t show noticeable mutarotation.
→ Cellulose and starch are the two most widely occurring polysaccharides
a. Cellulose
→ Cellulose consists of several thousand d-glucose units linked by 1→4-b-glycoside
bonds like those in cellobiose
→ Nature uses cellulose primarily as a structural material to impart strength and rigidity
to plants. Leaves, grasses, and cotton, for instance, are primarily cellulose.
b. Starch
→ Polymer of glucose in which the monosaccharide units are linked by 1→4-a-
glycoside bonds like those in maltose.
3
BIOMOLECULES
→ Starch can be separated into two fractions: amylose and amylopectin

→ Potatoes, corn, and cereal grains contain large amounts of starch
c. Glycogen
→ Polysaccharide that serves the same energy storage function in animals that starch
serves in plants.
→ Dietary carbohydrates not needed for immediate energy are converted by the body
to glycogen for long-term storage
II. NUCLEIC ACIDS

→ Biopolymers made of nucleotides, joined together to form a long chain.
→ Each nucleotide is composed of a nucleoside bonded to a phosphate
group, and each nucleoside is composed of an aldopentose sugar linked
through its anomeric carbon to the nitrogen atom of a heterocyclic purine
or pyrimidine base.
→ The two major classes of nucleic acids are ribonucleic acids (RNA) and
deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA).
o DNA is found primarily in the nucleus, where it carries the permanent genetic
code
o RNA commonly serves as a working copy of the nuclear DNA being decoded.
4
BIOMOLECULES
→ DNA and RNA each contain four monomers, called nucleotides, which differ in the structure
of the bases bonded to the ribose units
→ Nucleotides are linked together in DNA and RNA by phosphodiester bonds [RO−
(PO2−) −OR′] between phosphate, the 5′ hydroxyl group on one nucleoside, and the 3′ -
hydroxyl group on another nucleoside.
→ One end of the nucleic acid polymer has a free hydroxyl at C3′ (the 3′ end), and the
other end has a phosphate at C5′ (the 5′ end).
Structure of Deoxyribonucleic Acid

 Sugar: D-2-deoxyribose ;Deoxy- means that an oxygen atom is missing; number 2
means it is missing from C2.
5
BIOMOLECULES
 Amine bases: substituted purines (adenine and guanine) and two substituted
pyrimidines (cytosine and thymine)
Structure of Ribonucleic Acid

 Sugar: Ribose
 Amine bases: substituted purines (adenine and guanine) and two substituted pyrimidines
(cytosine and uracil)
6
BIOMOLECULES
Importance of nucleic acids

Nucleic acids( deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid) are the chemical carriers of a cell’s
genetic information. Coded in a cell’s DNA is the information that determines the nature of the
cell, controls the cell’s growth and division, and directs biosynthesis of the enzymes and other
proteins required for cellular functions.
Central dogma of molecular genetics

→ States that the function of DNA is to store information and pass it on to RNA.
→ RNA, in turn, is to read, decode, and use the information received from DNA to make
proteins.
→ Three fundamental processes take place:
 Replication—the process by which identical copies of DNA are made so that information
can be preserved and handed down to offspring
 Transcription—the process by which the genetic messages are read and carried out of
the cell nucleus to ribosomes, where protein synthesis occurs
 Translation—the process by which the genetic messages are decoded and used to
synthesize proteins
III. AMINO ACIDS

 As their name implies, are difunctional. They contain both a basic amino group and an
acidic carboxyl group
 Building blocks of proteins
→ Amino acids can join together into long chains by forming amide bonds between the
−NH2 of one amino acid and the −CO2H of another.
7
BIOMOLECULES
Structures of Amino acids

1. Exist in aqueous solution primarily in the form of a dipolar ion, or zwitterion (German zwitter,
meaning “hybrid”).
2. Amino acids are amphiprotic; they can react either as acids or as bases, depending on the
circumstances.
→ Aqueous acid solution, an amino acid zwitterion is a base that accepts a proton onto
its −CO2− group to yield a cation
→ Aqueous base solution, the zwitterion is an acid that loses a proton from its −NH 3+
group to form an anion.
3. All are a-amino acids, meaning that the amino group in each is a substituent on the a
carbon—the one next to the carbonyl group.
4. Nineteen of the twenty amino acids are primary amines, RNH2, and differ only in the nature
of the side chain—the substituent attached to the a carbon.
→ Proline is a secondary amine whose nitrogen and a carbon atoms are part of a five-
membered pyrrolidine ring.
8
BIOMOLECULES
PROTEINS AND PEPTIDES

Proteins and peptides are amino acid polymers in which the individual amino acids, called
residues, are linked together by amide bonds, or peptide bonds
9
BIOMOLECULES
 Peptide is a compound containing two or more amino acids linked by amide bonds
between the amino group of each amino acid and the carboxyl group of the neighboring
amino acid.
o Each amino acid unit in the peptide is called a residue.
 Polypeptide is a peptide containing many amino acid residues but usually having a
molecular weight of less than about 5000.
 Proteins contain more amino acid units, with molecular weights ranging from about
5000 to about 40,000,000.
EXAMPLE: Alanylserine is the dipeptide that results when an amide bond forms between
the alanine carboxyl and the serine amino group.
Note that two dipeptides can result from reaction between alanine and serine, depending
on which carboxyl group reacts with which amino group. If the alanine amino group reacts
with the serine carboxyl, serylalanine results.
10
BIOMOLECULES
The long, repetitive sequence of –N–CH–CO atoms that makes up a continuous chain is called
the protein’s backbone.
→ Peptide structures are generally drawn with the N terminus at the left and the C terminus
at the right,
→ The end of the peptide with the free amino group (–NH3+) is called the N-terminal end
or the N terminus, and the end with the free carboxyl group (–COO-) is called the C-
terminal end or the C terminus.
Peptide Nomenclature
The names of peptides reflect the names of the amino acid residues involved in the amide
linkages, beginning at the N terminus. All except the last are given the -yl suffix of acyl groups.
11
BIOMOLECULES
 Bradykinin is named as follows (without any spaces):
arginyl prolyl prolyl glycyl phenylalanyl seryl prolyl phenylalanyl arginine
 A shorthand system is more convenient, representing each amino acid by its three-letter
abbreviation.
 The amino acids are arranged from the N terminus at the left to the C terminus at the right.
Bradykinin has the following abbreviated name:
Arg-Pro-Pro-Gly-Phe-Ser-Pro-Phe-Arg
 Single-letter symbols are becoming widely used as well. Using single letters, we symbolize
bradykinin by
RPPGFSPFR
Disulfide Linkages
→ Amide linkages (peptide bonds) form the backbone of the amino acid chains we call
peptides and proteins.
→ A second kind of covalent bond is possible between any cysteine residues present.
→ Cysteine residues can form disulfide bridges (also called disulfide linkages) that can
join two chains or link a single chain into a ring
LIPIDS
→ Naturally occurring organic molecules that have limited solubility in water and can be
isolated from organisms by extraction with nonpolar organic solvents.
→ Fats, oils, waxes, many vitamins and hormones, and most nonprotein cell-membrane
components are examples.
→ Lipids are defined by a physical property (solubility) rather than by structure
12
BIOMOLECULES
Two major classes: complex lipids and simple lipids.

Complex lipids
→ Contain ester linkages and can be easily hydrolyzed to simpler constituents; those like
fats and waxes
Simple lipids
→ Do not have ester linkages and can’t be easily hydrolyzed by aqueous acid or base.
→ This term often seems inappropriate, because many so-called “simple” lipids are quite
complex molecules.
→ Three important groups of simple lipids: steroids, prostaglandins, and terpenes
Waxes
→ Esters of long-chain fatty acids with long-chain alcohols.
→ They occur widely in nature and serve a number of purposes in plants and animals.
→ Found in the protective coatings of insects’ exoskeletons, mammals’ fur, and birds’
feathers.
→ For instance, is triacontyl hexadecanoate, the ester of the C30 alcohol 1-triacontanol and
the C16 acid hexadecanoic acid.
13
BIOMOLECULES
Examples of Waxes
 Naturally-occuring: Beeswax
Mixture of waxes, hydrocarbons, and alcohols that bees use to form their honeycomb
 Synthetic: paraffin wax
Mixture of high-molecular-weight alkanes used to seal preserves; not a true wax
Triglycerides, or triacylglycerols
 Triesters of glycerol with three long-chain carboxylic acids called fatty acids
→ The three fatty acids of a specific triacylglycerol molecule need not be the
same, and the fat or oil from a given source is likely to be a complex mixture of
many different triacylglycerols
 Triglycerides are commonly called fats if they are solid at room temperature
and oils if they are liquid at room temperature.
→ Fats and oils are commonly used for long-term energy storage in plants and
animals.
→ Fat is a more efficient source of long-term energy than carbohydrates because
metabolism of a gram of fat releases over twice as much energy as a gram of
sugar or starch.
 Hydrolysis of a fat or oil with aqueous NaOH yields glycerol and three fatty
acids.
→ The fatty acids of common triglycerides are long, unbranched carboxylic acids
with about 12 to 20 carbon atoms
o Palmitic acid (C16) and stearic acid (C18) are the most abundant saturated
fatty acids
o Oleic and linoleic acids (both C18) are the most abundant unsaturated ones.
 Oleic acid is monounsaturated because it has only one double bond,
whereas linoleic, linolenic, and arachidonic acids are polyunsaturated
fatty acids because they have more than one double bond.
14
BIOMOLECULES
 Saturated fatty acids have melting points that increase gradually with their
molecular weights. The presence of a cis double bond lowers the melting point,
however.
Phospholipids
→ Just as waxes, fats, and oils are esters of carboxylic acids, phospholipids are esters of
phosphoric acid, H3PO4.
→ Phospholipids are found widely in both plant and animal tissues and make up
approximately 50% to 60% of cell membranes.
15
BIOMOLECULES
→ Phospholipids are of two general kinds: glycerophospholipids and sphingomyelins.

 Glycerophospholipids are based on phosphatidic acid, which contains a glycerol
backbone linked by ester bonds to two fatty acids and one phosphoric acid.
 Sphingomyelins have sphingosine or a related dihydroxyamine as their backbone

and are particularly abundant in brain and nerve tissue, where they are a major
constituent of the coating around nerve fibers.
Prostaglandins and Other Eicosanoids

Prostaglandins are a group of C20 lipids that have a cyclopentane ring with two long side chains
trans to each other, with one side chain ending in a carboxylic acid.
16
BIOMOLECULES
→ Prostaglandin were first isolated from sheep prostate glands, hence the name.
→ Prostaglandins have an extraordinarily wide range of biological effects: They can lower
blood pressure, affect blood platelet aggregation during clotting lower gastric secretions
control inflammation, affect kidney function, affect reproductive systems, and stimulate
uterine contractions during childbirth.
Eicosanoids
→ Class of compounds that include prostaglandins, thromboxanes and leukotrienes
→ They are derived biologically from 5,8,11,14-eicosatetraenoic acid, or arachidonic acid
Shows schematically how an enzyme oxidizes and cyclizes arachidonic acid to give the
prostaglandin skeleton
Structure and Nomenclature of Eicosanoids
 Prostaglandins (PG) have a cyclopentane ring with two long side chains
 Thromboxanes (TX) have a six-membered, oxygen-containing ring
 Leukotrienes (LT) are acyclic.
→ The numbering of the atoms in the various eicosanoids is the same as in arachidonic
acid, starting with the −CO2H carbon as C1, continuing around the ring, and ending with
the −CH3 carbon at the other end of the chain as C20.
→ Eicosanoids are named based on their ring system (PG, TX, or LT), substitution pattern,
and number of double bonds. The various substitution patterns on the ring are indicated
by letter and the number of double bonds is indicated by a subscript.
17
BIOMOLECULES
Terpenes
→ Diverse family of compounds with carbon skeletons composed of five-carbon isopentyl
(isoprene) units
 Isoprene (2-methylbuta-1,3-diene)
 Isoprene unit maintains its isopentyl structure in a terpene, usually with
modification of the isoprene double bonds
→ Commonly isolated from the essential oils of plants: the fragrant oils that are
concentrated from plant material by steam distillation.
→ They often have pleasant tastes or aromas, and they are widely used as flavorings,
deodorants, and medicines.
18
BIOMOLECULES
Terpenoids
→ Terpene-like compounds derived from terpenes, even though they do not have carbon
skeletons composed exclusively of C5 isoprene units.
→ They may have been altered through rearrangements, loss of carbon atoms, or
introduction of additional carbon atoms.
 Cholesterol is an example of a terpenoid that has lost some of the isoprenoid
carbon atoms.
Steroids
 Molecules that are derived from the triterpenoid lanosterol
 Structures are based on the tetracyclic androstane ring system, shown here.
→ The four rings are designated A, B, C, and D, beginning with the ring at lower left,
and the carbon atoms are numbered beginning with the A ring and ending with the
two “angular” (axial) methyl groups.
Steroid Hormones
There are two main classes of steroid hormones: the sex hormones, which control
maturation, tissue growth, and reproduction, and the adrenocortical hormones, which
regulate a variety of metabolic processes.
19
BIOMOLECULES
Sex Hormones
Adrenocortical Hormones
Synthetic Steroids: oral

contraceptives and anabolic agents
*** END of LESSON 17-18***

References
Hart H., Hadad C., Craine L., & Hart D., (2016). Amines and Related Nitrogen Compounds. In Hart H.,
Hadad C., Craine L., & Hart D., Organic Chemistry (13th ed., pp. 315-317, 327-338). Cengage Learning.
20
BIOMOLECULES
21
LABORATORY PROCEDURES & EQUIPMENT
1. Enumerate the important procedures in the laboratory.
2. Identify the different laboratory glassware and their uses.
3. Recognize the waste disposal procedures.
4. Demonstrate the proper way of pipetting.
Introduction:
In doing experiments and activities in the Laboratory, there are laboratory techniques and
procedures to be followed to accomplish the given tasks precisely and accurately. It is also a must
to know all the laboratory apparatus, their functions and how to use them in order to have a safe
and accident free workplace.
Lesson Proper:
Handing Chemicals:
1. Solids:
Solid chemicals are usually stored in wide-mouth bottles. Always check the label carefully before
using any chemical. Remove the lid or stopper, place the lid or stopper so that it will not be
contaminated, tilt the bottle and roll it gently back until the desired amount of the solid fails into the
bottle lid (Do not waste material).
If a solid reagent is compacted or "caked" ask your instructor for assistance. Chemical should never
be returned to the bottle from which they were removed-discard any excess.
Ways to transfer Solid Chemicals:
1. From the stock bottle use a clean spatula.
2. From a stock bottle into a test tube, pour the granulated solid into a creased piece paper
and into a test tube.
3. From wide-mouthed containers, large quantities of solids can be transferred by shaking
the original container to loosen its contents before opening the cap. Tilt the bottle and
rotate back and forth, without shaking as you pour out its contents.
Figure1. Transfer of solid from a reagent bottle

MELS 1015 –Inorganic and Organic Chemistry (Laboratory)| 1
2. Liquids:
Many commonly used laboratory reagents are solutions while others are (pure) liquids such as
alcohol or acetone. Liquid reagents are stored in a variety of bottles such as those shown in Figure
(2).
Figure2. Common reagent bottles for liquids and solids
Squeeze dropper bottles or bottles fitted with eyedroppers are used when very small amounts of the
liquids are required in experiments. When larger amounts of liquid are required standard reagent bottles
are often used. Hazardous reagents are stored in special bottles with self-fitting dispensers (Brinkman
Dispensettes, Akso SMI) Figure 3 illustrates the transfer of a liquid from a standard reagent bottle. You
should always check the label on reagent bottle carefully before you use any liquid from the bottle.
Careful checking of labels prevents many unnecessary accidents.
Figure3. Transferring liquid from a reagent bottle

WASTE DISPOSAL PROCEDURES
1. Deposit pieces of paper, wood, glass, and dry wastes in the garbage cans.
2. Deposit waste acid solutions into the acid jars.
3. Be very careful in pouring and transporting acids and other corrosive chemicals.
Acids may betransported only if the container is properly capped.
4. Experiments that generate wastes with some degree of toxicity will usually have precautions.
Laboratory Procedures
A. Cleaning Apparatus
All apparatus must be washed with water and detergent, with the aid of a brush. After thoroughly
rinsing, they should be stored upside-down and allowed to drain until completely dry.
B. Reading a Meniscus
 In all volumetric glassware (pipet, buret, volumetric flasks, graduated cylinder, etc.), it is
 necessary to read the level of a liquid. A liquid in a small-diameter container will form a
meniscus or curve at the surface of the liquid. Usually this meniscus curves downward to
a minimum at the center.
 To read the level of the liquid properly, the eye should be at the same level as the bottom
of the meniscus. Sometimes a white card or a white card with a black mark on it will help a
person to see the meniscus clearly.
 For volumetric flasks and transfer pipets, the volume of the glassware is exact when the
bottom of the meniscus is even with the etched line. In a graduated cylinder or a buret, the
volume is read from the graduations etched on the glass. To read the volume correctly,
visualize the distance between the tenths of milliliter marks as divided into ten equal
amounts. The volume is then found by reading the number of tenths of milliliters and
estimating hundredths of milliliters.

C. Care of Reagents
The reagents used by all of the students can be contaminated by one careless student.
Never put anything back into the reagent bottle.
A certain amount of liquid can be obtained in several ways.

1) Pour from the reagent bottle into a beaker and draw up the liquid into a pipet from the beaker.
2) Pour from the beaker into a graduated cylinder to within 0.1 ml of the desired amount,
adding thelast drop with an eyedropper filled from a beaker.
Only use appropriately labeled spatulas for each reagent bottle. Pour the solid into a beaker, onto
weighing paper, or into a weigh boat. Never pour excess back into the bottle. When you are
finished using a chemical, replace the lid! A mix-up of lids could also contaminate an expensive
chemical.
D. Care and Use of Balances
1. Select a suitable container(usually a weigh boat, weigh paper,or glassware) to weigh the
chemical in.
2. Remove the balance cover.
3. Place the container on the balance pan and replace the balance cover. Replacing the balance
cover will greatly reduce fluctuations in the balance reading!
4. Allow the balance reading to stabilize. Zero the balance by pressing the TARE button or bar
which is located at the front of the balance. DO NOT hold down the tare button/bar! This will
cause the balance to change units and you may end up weighing your chemical in units other
than grams which will cause your data to be in error!
5. Remove the balance cover and carefully transfer the desired chemical to the container. If you
use a spatula, use only a clean, dry spatula for obtaining dry chemicals. If you should spill a
chemical on the balance pan, use the brush that is attached to the balance to clean the
balance pan IMMEDIATELY! Chemicals left on the balance pan will corrode the pan.
6. Replace the balance cover and allow the balance reading to stabilize. In the event you
weigh out too much chemical, remove the excess to a secondary container. NEVER return a
chemical to its original container! There will always be some left over. Try to find someone
else who needs it before disposing of it.
7. Discard chemicals as directed in each experiment.
8. Record the balance reading in your notebook.
9. Remove the container from the balance pan and replace the balance cover.
10. Replace the appropriate lids on all reagent bottles when finished.

E. Preparing a Filter Paper For Filtration
Steps in folding a filter paper:
1. The round piece of filter paper is taken and folded in half.
2. This half folded paper is folded again.
3. The twice folded filter paper is opened to form a hollow cone and can now be used for
the processfiltration.
Filtration is used for separating insoluble substances from a liquid. The mixture is poured into a
filter papercone fixed in a funnel by using a glass rod as guided. The liquid passes through the
filter paper which has millions of tiny holes in it. The substance that remains behind on the filter
paper is called residue. The clearliquid obtained is called filtrate.
Laboratory Apparatus/Equipment
Name Use
Ring stand Supports the bunsen burner, iron ring, pipestem
Pipestem triangle Supports the crucible when being heated over an open flame
Test tubes Holds small amounts of liquids for mixing or heating.
Beaker Holds liquid substances
Erlenmeyer flask Narrow-mouthed container used to transport, heat, or store substance.
Often used when a stopper is required.
Volumetric flask Flask calibrated to contain a precise volume at a particular
temperature.Used for precise dilutions and creating standard solutions.
Watch glass Keeping liquid contents in a beaker from splattering
Mortar & pestle Used to grind chemicals to powder

Iron ring Supports a beaker over a bunsen burner. Wire gauze is usually placed on top
of this structure.
Utility clamp Used to hold a test tube or other piece of equipment in place on a ring
stand.
Wire gauze Suspending glassware over the Bunsen burner
Tongs Transport a hot beaker; remove lid from crucible.
Triple-beam balance Obtaining the mass of an object
Test tube clamp Heating contents in a test tube

Bunsen burner Heating (flame-safe) contents in the lab
Forceps Used in dissection to grasp tissues or pick up small items.
File Used to grind down materials or sharpen items.
Wire brush Used to clean the inside of test tubes or graduated cylinders
Test tube rack Holding many test tubes filled with chemicals (or for drying after washing)
Funnel Used to pour liquids into containers with small openings; also used to hold
filter paper
Graduated cylinder Measuring specific amounts of liquids
Spatula Measuring/removing small amounts of solids or powders (often when
obtaining mass)
Wash bottle Used to wash down specific pieces of equipment with water or keepmaterials
moist.
Micropipets Used to measure and dispense very small amounts of liquids.
Buret Measuring specific amounts of liquids (often determining amounts of acids
or bases needed)
Dropper Used to obtain small amounts of liquids
Thermometer Used to measure temperature
Pipet Used to measure and dispense small amounts of liquids
Well plate Mixing very small amounts of chemicals together and comparing results.
Corks Used to seal or stop flasks or test tubes.
Hot plate Used for consistent heat; used to heat substances that may be flammable.
Florence flask Flask with a round body and flat bottom. Used to hold and heat liquids.
Spectrophotometers Measure the absorbance or transmittance of a liquid sample

REFERENCES:
Textbooks
Nucum Z., Calumno F., & Dacumos A.,(2007). Laboratory Manual in General Inorganic
ChemistryMeissler G.,& Tarr D.,(2008). Inorganic Chemistry (3rd ed.). Pearson Education Inc.
Online
www.toperlearning.com Retrieved on August 22,2020

Lesson 2: PROPER PIPETTING TECHNIQUES
1. Classify the different pipets by design, drainage characteristics, and type

2. Enumerate the differences between pipets.
3. Demonstrate the proper way of pipetting.
4. Know how to calibrate a pipet
Introduction:
In performing laboratory procedures, handling liquids will include transferring a particular

volume from the reagent bottle to another container. In doing so, the amount of the volume should be
controlled and precise. This process of transferring can be done using laboratory pipets. In this lesson,
we will learn the types of pipettes and how they are properly used in transferring liquids.
Lesson Proper:
PIPETS
 Glass or plastic utensils used to transfer liquids; they may be reusable or disposable.
PIPET CLASSIFICATION
I. Design
A. To contain (TC)
B. To deliver (TD)
II. Drainage characteristics

A. Blowout
B. Self-draining
III. Type
A. Measuring or graduated
1. Serologic
2. Mohr
3. Bacteriologic
4. Ball, Kolmer, or Kahn
5. Micropipet
B. Transfer
1. Volumetric
2. Ostwald-Folin
3. Pasteur pipets
4. Automatic macropipets or micropipets

I. By Design
A. To contain (TC)
 Holds or contains a particular volume but does not dispense that exact volume
 Delivers the amount by washing it and emptying
B. To deliver (TD)
 Will dispense the volume indicated; transfers exact amount
 Rate of flow is gravity
 When using either pipet, the tip must be immersed in the liquid to be transferred to a level that will
allow it to remain in solution after the volume of liquid has entered the pipet—without touching the
vessel walls.
 The pipet is held upright, not at an angle. Using a pipet bulb or similar device, a slight suction is
applied to the opposite end until the liquid enters the pipet and the meniscus is brought above the
desired graduation line suction is then stopped.
 While the meniscus level is held in place, the pipet tip is raised slightly out of the solution and wiped
with a laboratory tissue of any adhering liquid.
 The liquid is allowed to drain until the bottom of the meniscus touches the desired calibration mark.
With the pipet held in a vertical position and the tip against the side of the receiving vessel, the pipet
contents are allowed to drain into the vessel (e.g., test tube, cuvet, flask).
II. Drainage characteristics

A. Blowout: has a continuous etched ring or two small, close, continuous rings located near the
top of the pipet. The last drop of liquid should be expelled into the receiving vessel.
B. Self-draining: Without markings and the user allows the contents of the pipet to drain by
gravity
.
 The tip of the pipet should not be in contact with the accumulating fluid in the receiving vessel during
drainage. With the exception of the Mohr pipet, the tip should remain in contact with the side of the
vessel for several seconds after the liquid has drained. The pipet is then removed.
III. Type
A. Measuring or graduated pipets are capable of dispensing several different volumes.

Measuring pipets are used to transfer reagents and to make dilutions and can be used to
repeatedly to transfer a particular solution.
1. Serologic: Has graduation marks to the tip and is generally a blowout pipet
2. Mohr: Does not have graduations to the tip
 It is a self-draining pipet, but the tip should not be allowed to touch the
vessel while the pipet is draining
3. Micropipet: A pipet with a total holding volume of less than 1 mL; it may be
designed as either a Mohr or serologic pipet.
B. Transfer pipets are designed to dispense one volume without further subdivisions.
1. Volumetric: designed to dispense or transfer aqueous solutions and is always self-
draining. This type of pipet usually has the greatest degree of accuracy and
precision and should be used when diluting standards, calibrators, or quality-control
material. They should only be used once
2. Ostwald-Folin: used with biologic fluids having a viscosity greater than that of
water. They are blowout pipets, indicated by two etched continuous rings at the top.
3. Pasteur pipets: do not have calibration marks and are used to transfer solutions or
biologic fluids without consideration of a specific volume. These pipets should not be
used in any quantitative analytic techniques.
4. Automatic macropipets or micropipets: the most routinely used pipet
 Micropipette: pipetting capability of less than 1 mL
 Macropipet: a pipet that dispenses greater than 1 mL
 Advantages: safety, stability, ease of use, increased precision, the ability to save
time, and less cleaning required as a result of disposable tips
A. Three general types of automatic pipets:
 Air-displacement: relies on a piston for suction creation to draw the

sample into a disposable tip that must be changed after each use. The
piston does not come in contact with the liquid.
 Positive-displacement: operates by moving the piston in the pipet tip or
barrel, much like a hypodermic syringe. It does not require a different tip for
each use. Because of carryover concerns, rinsing and blotting between
samples may be required.
 Dispenser pipets: automatic pipets that obtain the liquid from a common

reservoir and dispense it repeatedly.
B. TIPS and PRECAUTIONS
 To minimize carry-over contamination with manual or semiautomatic pipets,

careful wiping of the tip may remove any liquid that adhered to the outside of
the tip before dispensing any liquid. Care should be taken to ensure that the
orifice of the pipet tip is not blotted, drawing sample from the tip.
 Another precaution in using manually operated semiautomatic pipets is to move
the plunger in a continuous, slow manner.
 Pipet tips should be fit snugly onto the pipet
Pipet calibration
 It is recommended that pipets be checked initially and subsequently three or four times per year,
or as dictated by the laboratory’s accrediting agency.
A. Gravimetric method: most desirable. This method is accomplished by delivering and
weighing a solution of known specific gravity, such as water.
B. Photometric method: for automatic pipets

DRILLS/ACTIVITIES/APPLICATIONS
A. Illustrate the following types of pipettes and give their respective uses (25 points)
1. Volumetric pipette
2. Micropipette
3. Pasteur pipette
4. Ostwald-folin
5. Mohr
B. Classify the different types of pipets according to design and type. (10 points)
EVALUATION
References:
Bishop, M. L., Fody, E. P., Schoeff, L. E., 2013 Clinical chemistry: Principles, procedures, correlations. 7th
ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott.

LESSON 3: CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
1. Define Chemical Equations

2. Determine the different types of Chemical Reaction.
3. Know how to Balance Chemical Equations
4. Recognize the Importance of balancing Chemical equations
LEARNING CONTENT
Introduction:
We represent chemical reactions by chemical equations. Because atoms are neither created nor
destroyed in any reaction, a chemical equation must have an equal number of atoms of each element on each
side of the arrow. When this condition is met, the equation is balanced.
Lesson Proper:
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
 It is an expression that gives the identities and quantities of the substances in a chemical
reaction.
 Chemical reactions are represented on paper by chemical equations. For example, hydrogen gas
(H2) can react (burn) with oxygen gas (O 2) to form water (H2O). The chemical equation for
this reaction is written as:
1. The substances undergoing reaction are called reactants, and their formulas are placed on
the left side of the equation.
2. The substances generated by the reaction are called products, and their formulas are placed
on the right sight of the equation.
3. Plus signs (+) separate individual reactant and product formulas, and an arrow ( →→)
separates the reactant and product (left and right) sides of the equation.
4. The relative numbers of reactant and product species are represented
by coefficients (numbers placed immediately to the left of each formula). A coefficient of 1 is
typically omitted.

Types of Chemical
Explanation General Reaction and Examples
Reactions
Two or more compounds combine to A + B → AB

Combination reaction
form one compound. Ex: Na + Cl2 → NaCl
The opposite of a combination reaction

AB → A + B
Decomposition reaction – a complex molecule breaks down to
Ex: CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
make simpler ones.
Oxygen combines with a compound to

form carbon dioxide and water. These A + O2 → H2O + CO2
Combustion reaction
reactions are exothermic, meaning Ex:𝑪𝟐 𝑯𝟓 𝑶𝑯 + 𝑶𝟐 → 𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
they give off heat.
Single One element takes place with another A + BC → AC + B

Displacement reaction element in the compound. Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu
Reaction in which the positive and

AB+CD→AD+CB
Double negative ions of two ionic compounds
Ex:
Displacement reaction exchange places to form two new
HCl(aq)+NaOH(aq)→NaCl(aq)+H2O(l)
compounds.
Balancing Equations
 A balanced chemical is equation has equal numbers of atoms for each element involved in the reaction is
represented on the reactant and product sides. This is a requirement the equation must satisfy to be consistent
with the law of conservation of matter.
 It may be confirmed by simply summing the numbers of atoms on either side of the arrow and comparing these
sums to ensure they are equal.
 Note that the number of atoms for a given element is calculated by multiplying the coefficient of any formula
containing that element by the element’s subscript in the formula. If an element appears in more than one
formula on a given side of the equation, the number of atoms represented in each must be computed and then
added together.
The Four Steps of Balancing Equations:

1. Write an unbalanced equation, using the correct formulas for all reactants and products.
Remember that the scripts in chemical formulas cannot be changed in balancing an
equation because doing so would change the identity of the substances in the reaction.
2. Add appropriate coefficients to balance the number of atoms of each element
3. Check the equation to make sure the numbers and kinds of atoms on both sides of the
equation are the same.
4. Make sure the coefficients are reduced to their lowest whole-number values

Practice problems
1. Balance the equation:
H2O→H2+O2(unbalanced)H2O→H2+O2(unbalanced)
Comparing the number of H and O atoms on either side of this equation confirms its imbalance:
Element Reactants Products Balanced?
H 1×2=2 1×2=2 2 = 2, yes
O 1×1=1 1×2=2 1 ≠ 2, no
2H2O→2H2+O2(balanced)
Element Reactants Products Balanced?
H 2×2=4 2×2=2 4 = 4, yes
O 2×1=2 1×2=2 2 = 2, yes
Answer: 2H2O→2H2+O2
2. It is sometimes convenient to use fractions instead of integers as intermediate coefficients in the

process of balancing a chemical equation. When balance is achieved, all the equation’s coefficients
may then be multiplied by a whole number to convert the fractional coefficients to integers without
upsetting the atom balance.
For example, consider the reaction of ethane (C2H6) with oxygen to yield H2O and CO2,
represented by the unbalanced equation:
𝑪𝟐 𝑯𝟔 + 𝑶𝟐 →𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝑪𝑶𝟐 (unbalanced)
Following the usual inspection approach, one might first balance C and H atoms by changing the
coefficients for the two product species, as shown:
𝑪𝟐 𝑯𝟔 + 𝑶𝟐 → 𝟑𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝟐𝑪𝑶𝟐 (unbalanced)

This results in seven O atoms on the product side of the equation, an odd number—no integer
coefficient can be used with the O2 reactant to yield an odd number, so a fractional coefficient, 7/2 ,
is used instead to yield a provisional balanced equation:

𝟕
𝑪𝟐 𝑯𝟔 + 𝑶𝟐 →𝟑𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝟐
𝟐
A conventional balanced equation with integer-only coefficients is derived by multiplying each coefficient by
2:
𝟕
(𝑪𝟐 𝑯𝟔 + 𝑶𝟐 →𝟑𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝟐 ) × 2
𝟐
ANSWER: 𝟐𝑪𝟐 𝑯𝟔 + 𝟕 𝑶𝟐 →𝟔 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝟒 𝑪𝑶𝟐
3. Finally with regard to balanced equations, recall that convention dictates use of the smallest whole-
number coefficients. Although the equation for the reaction between molecular nitrogen and molecular
hydrogen to produce ammonia is, indeed, balanced,
𝟑𝑵𝟐 + 𝟗𝑯𝟐 → 𝟔𝑵𝑯𝟑

The coefficients are not the smallest possible integers representing the relative numbers of reactant and
product molecules. Dividing each coefficient by the greatest common factor, 3, gives the preferred
equation:
(𝟑𝑵𝟐 + 𝟗𝑯𝟐 → 𝟔𝑵𝑯𝟑 )÷ 𝟑
ANSWER: 𝑵𝟐 + 𝟑 𝑯𝟐 → 𝟐𝑵𝑯𝟑
Try balancing the following chemical equations:

a. Al + HCl → AlCl3 + H2
b. Ca(PO4)2 + SiO2 → P4O10 + CaSiO3
c. C7H6O2 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
Write a balanced molecular equation describing each of the following chemical reactions.
a. Solid calcium carbonate is heated and decomposes to solid calcium oxide and carbon dioxide
gas.
b. Gaseous butane, C4H10, reacts with diatomic oxygen gas to yield gaseous carbon dioxide and
water vapor.

Balancing chemical equations with polyatomic ions
Aqueous solutions of lead (II) nitrate and sodium chloride are mixed. The products of the reaction are an aqueous
solution of sodium nitrate and a solid precipitate of lead (II) chloride. Write the balanced chemical equation for this
reaction.
Steps
1. Identify the most complex substance. The most complex substance is lead (II) chloride.
Pb(NO3)2(aq)+NaCl(aq)→NaNO3(aq)+PbCl2(s)
2. Adjust the coefficients.
There are twice as many chloride ions in the reactants as there are in the products. Place a 2 in front of the
NaCl in order to balance the chloride ions.
Pb(NO3)2(aq)+2–NaCl(aq)→NaNO3(aq)+PbCl2(s)
 1 Pb atom on both reactant and product sides

 2 Na atoms on reactant side, 1 Na atom on product side
 2 Cl atoms on both reactant and product sides
3. Balance polyatomic ions as a unit.
The nitrate ions are still unbalanced. Place a 2 in front of the NaNO3. The result is:
Pb(NO3)2(aq)+2NaCl(aq)→2–NaNO3(aq)+PbCl2(s)
5. Micropipet
 Transfer
B. 1 Pb atom on both reactant and product sides
 2 1.
NaVolumetric
atoms on both reactant and product sides
2. Ostwald-Folin
 2 3.
NOPasteur
3 atomspipets
-
on both reactant and product sides
 4. Automatic macropipets or micropipets
4. Balance the remaining atoms.
5. Check your work.
Pb(NO3)2(aq)+2NaCl(aq)→2NaNO3(aq)+PbCl2(s)
 1 Pb atom on both reactant and product sides

 2 Na atoms on both reactant and product sides
 2 NO3- atoms on both reactant and product sides

A. Classify the following equations according to types of chemical reactions and give the balanced
reaction. (25 points)
1. KClO3 → KClO4 + KCl
2. Fe2(SO4)3 + KOH → K2SO4 + Fe(OH)3
3. Cu + AgNO3 → Ag + Cu(NO3)2
4. C10H8 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
5. 𝑆8 + 𝐹2 → 𝑆𝐹6
B. Essay: In writing chemical equations to represent chemical reactions, why do the reactants and
products need to be balanced?(5 points)
EVALUATION
Online references:
https://byjus.com
https://chem.libretexts.org/

LESSON 5: ELECTROLYTES AND NON-ELECTROLYTES
1. Determine what type of compound is an electrolyte and non-electrolyte based on the

conductance.
2. Determine whether a compound is an acid, base or salt.
LEARNING CONTENT
Introduction:
At a young age we learn not to bring electrical devices into the bathtub so as not to electrocute
ourselves. That is a useful lesson because most of the water we encounter in daily life is electrically
conducting. Pure water, however, is a very poor conductor of electricity. The conductivity of bathwater
originates from the substances dissolved in the water, not from the water itself. What accounts for this?
Lesson Proper:
Whether or not an aqueous solution is a conductor of electricity depends on the nature of the solute(s).
Conductivity: The ability to form an electric current.
A. Electrolytes:
− Compounds that conducts an electric current when it is in an aqueous solution or melted.
− Solutes that provide ions when dissolved in water are called electrolytes.
1. Strong electrolyte
 Substance that is essentially completely ionized in aqueous solution.
 Stated another way, a strong electrolyte has a strong( or high) tendency for providing ions.
 Solutes that exist in solution completely or nearly completely as ions.
 Essentially all water-soluble ionic compounds (such as NaCl) and a few molecular compounds
(such as HCl) are strong electrolytes.
Strong electrolytes
Acids and bases are also electrolytes. Some acids, including hydrochloric acid (HCl)
and nitric acid (HNO3), are strong electrolytes. These acids are assumed to ionize
completely in water; for example, when hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in water, it
forms hydrated H+ and Cl- ions:
2. Weak electrolyte
 Substance that is only partially ionized in aqueous solution.
 Has a weak (or small) tendency for providing ions.
 Those solutes that exist in solution mostly in the form of neutral molecules with only a small fraction in
the form of ions.
Weak electrolytes
Certain acids, such as acetic acid (CH3COOH), which gives vinegar its tart flavor,
do not ionize completely and are weak electrolytes. We represent the ionization
of acetic acid as:

B. Nonelectrolytes:
− Compounds that does not conduct an electric current in either aqueous solution or in the molten state.
− Solutes that that do not provide ions in water are called nonelectrolytes.
Conduction of electricity through a solution

Two graphite rods called electrodes are placed in a solution. The external source of
electricity pulls electrons from one rod and forces them onto the other, creating a
positive charge on one electrode and a negative charge on the other (right). In the
solution, positive ions (cations) are attracted to the negative electrode, the cathode;
negative ions (anions) are attracted to the positive electrode, the anode. Thus, electric
charge is carried through the solution by the migration of ions.
Sample
1. For example, preparing two aqueous solutions— one by dissolving a teaspoon of (a) table salt in a
cup of water and the other by dissolving a teaspoon of (b) table sugar (sucrose) in a cup of water.
2. An electric current (that is, a flow of electrically charged particles) between the two electrodes
immersed in the solution
3. Both solutions are clear and colorless, but they possess very different electrical conductivities:
a. The conductivity of pure water is not sufficient to complete the electrical circuit and light the bulb.
b. The lack of conductivity of sucrose solutions indicates the absence of ions. When sucrose
(C12H22O11) dissolves in water, the solution contains only neutral sucrose molecules surrounded by
water molecules.
c. The conductivity of NaCl solutions indicates the presence of ions. When NaCl dissolves in water,
the solution contains Na+ and Cl- ions, each surrounded by water molecules.

A classification scheme for solutes
ACIDS, BASES, and SALTS

A. Acid is defined as a proton donor. A hydrogen ion (H+) is a proton because it results when an electron is
lost from a hydrogen atom, which leaves just the proton nucleus. Therefore, a molecule or compound that
releases H+ is an acid.
Example: Hydrochloric acid (HCl) forms hydrogen ions (H+) and chloride ions (Cl−) in solution and
therefore is an acid:
HCl→ H+ + Cl−
B. Base is defined as a proton acceptor. Any substance that binds to (accepts) H+ is a base. Many bases
function as proton acceptors by releasing hydroxide ions (OH−) when they dissociate.
Example: The base sodium hydroxide (NaOH) dissociates to form Na+ and OH−:
NaOH →Na+ + OH−
The OH− are proton acceptors that combine with H+ to form water:
OH− + H+→ H2O
 Acids and bases are classified as strong or weak.

 For a given weak acid or base, the amount of the dissociated ions relative to the weak acid or base
is a constant.
o Strong acids or bases dissociate almost completely when dissolved in water. They release
almost all of their H+ or OH−. The more completely the acid or base dissociates, the stronger it
is.
o Weak acids or bases only partially dissociate in water. They release only some of their H + or
OH−

Some Common Strong and Weak Acids
Strong Acids Weak Acids
Hydrochloric acid ( HCl) Hydrofluoric acid (HF)
Hydrobromic acid (HBr) Nitrous acid (HNO2)
Hydroiodic acid (HI) Phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
Nitric acid ( HNO3) Acetic acid (CH3COOH)
Sulfuric acid( H2SO4)
Perchloric acid (HClO4)
Strong bases Weak bases

Ba(OH)2 Al(OH)3
KOH NH3
NaOH CH3COO-
Properties of acids and bases
Acids
 Acids have a sour taste
 Acids change the color of litmus from blue to red.
 Aqueous acid solutions conduct electricity.
 Acids react with certain metals, such as zinc, magnesium, and iron, to produce hydrogen gas. A
typical reaction is that between hydrochloric acid and magnesium:
2HCl(aq) + Mg(s) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
 Acids react with carbonates and bicarbonates, such as Na2CO3, CaCO3, and NaHCO3, to produce
carbon dioxide gas. For example,
2HCl(aq) +CaCO3(s) →CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) +CO2(g)

HCl(aq) + NaHCO3(s) →NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g
Bases
 Bases have a bitter taste.
 Bases feel slippery; for example, soaps, which contain bases, exhibit this property.
 Bases change the color of litmus from red to blue.
 Aqueous base solutions conduct electricity.
C. Brønsted-Lowry Acid/Base Reaction
According to the Brønsted-Lowry definition, an acid-base reaction is one in which a conjugate base and a
conjugate acid are formed
The general scheme for a Brønsted-Lowry acid/base reaction can be visualized in the form:
acid + base ⇌ conjugate base + conjugate acid

 Conjugate base is the product that remains after an acid donates a proton
 Conjugate acid is formed when the Brønsted base accepts a proton from the Brønsted acid.
Sample 1: Determine the acid, base, conjugate base and conjugate acid in this reaction:
NH3+ (aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH4+(aq)+ OH−(aq)
In this reaction:
a. Water (H2O) loss (donates) a proton (H+) towards ammonia, making it the acid.
b. Ammonia (NH3+) gains(accepts) a proton (H+) from water, making it the base.
c. Ammonium NH4+ becomes the Conjugate Acid, because it gained a proton from H2O
d. Hydroxide (OH−) becomes the Conjugate Base.
Sample 2: Determine the acid, base, conjugate base and conjugate acid in this reaction:
HCl + H2O → Cl− + H3O+

In this reaction:
a. Hydrochloric (HCl) acts as the proton donor, making it the acid
b. Water (H2O) is the base
c. Acid (HCl) will become the conjugate base (Cl−) because it loss the H+
d. Hydronium ion (H3O+ ) becomes the conjugate acid because it gained H+ from the HCl.
The pH Scale
− The pH scale is a means of referring to the H+ concentration in a solution.
− Scale ranges from 0 to 14.
 Neutral solution has equal concentrations of H+ and OH−
Example: Pure water is considered a neutral solution and has a pH of 7.
 Acidic solution has pH less than 7 (greater concentration of H+ than OH−)
Example: Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
 Alkaline(basic) solution has pH greater than 7 (fewer H+ than OH−)
Example : Sodium hydroxide(NaOH)
D. Neutralization reaction is a reaction between an acid and a base.

− The products of the reaction have none of the characteristic properties of either the acidic solution or
the basic solution.
− In general, a neutralization reaction between an acid and a metal hydroxide produces water and a salt.
Acid + Base → Salt + Water

E. Salts
− Compound consisting of a cation other than H + and an anion other than OH−.
− Formed by the interaction of an acid and a base in which the H+ of the acid are replaced by the positive
ions of the base.
For example, in a solution in which hydrochloric acid (HCl) reacts with the base sodium
hydroxide (NaOH), the salt sodium chloride (NaCl) is formed:
Typically, when salts such as sodium chloride dissociate in water, they form positively
and negatively charged ions
****END OF LESSON 5****

A. Classify the following substances whether they are electrolytes or non –electrolytes: (10 points)
1. Hard water
2. Carbon tetrachloride
3. Glycerol
4. C2H2O4
5. Distilled water
6. Cuprous sulfate
7. Soft water
8. Naphthalene
9. Bicarbonate
10. Methanol
B. Identify the conjugate base and conjugate acid: (10 points)
1. H2O
2. HBr + H2O → Br- + H3O+
3. Hydrofluoric acid dissolved in water yields hydronium ions and fluoride ions.
4. Ammonia
5. CO32- + H2O → HCO3 -+ OH-
C. Essay: Rubrics: Content(3); Organization (2)

a. Explain neutralization reaction and its relationships with salts. (5 points)
b. Define acid and base using the Bronsted- Lowry theory. (5 points)
EVALUATION:
References:
Brown T.L., LeMay H. E., Bursten B. E., Murphy C. J., Woodward, P.M., Stoltzfus, M. (2015) Chemistry.The
Central Science:Pearson
WARNING: No part of this E-module/LMS Content can be reproduced, or transported or shared to others
without permission from the University. Unauthorized use of the materials, other than personal learning use,
will be penalized.Please be guided accordingly.

Code 591 Set B Lab MELS 1015 - Inorganic and Organic Chemistry
WEEK 7
Purification Techniques
Once an organic compound is extracted from a natural source or synthesized in the laboratory, it is essential to purify it. Various methods used for the
purification of organic compounds are based on the nature of the compound and the impurity present in it.
The common techniques used for the purification are as follows:
FILTRATION
The process of filtration is used to separate insoluble solid component of a mixture from the soluble components in a given solvent. It is used to separate a
mixture of naphthalene and urea using water as solvent. Urea dissolves in water while naphthalene remains insoluble. Upon filtration, naphthalene remains on
the filter paper while urea is recovered from the filtrate by evaporating water.
For example:
A mixture of anthracene and benzoic acid is separated by dissolving the mixture in hot water and filtering the hot solution. Benzoic acid dissolves in hot
water but anthracene does not. Upon filtration, anthracene remains as a residue on the filter paper while benzoic acid crystallizes from the filtrate on
cooling. The filtration is very slow and takes a long time. In such cases, filtration is carried out under reduced pressure using a Buchner funnel and water
suction pump.
CRYSTALLIZATION OR RECRYSTALLIZATION
Crystals are the purest form of a substance having definite geometrical shapes. The process by which an impure compound is converted into its crystals
is known as crystallization. It is based on the difference in the solubilities of the compound and the impurities in a suitable solvent. The impure compound
is dissolved in a suitable solvent in which it is sparingly soluble at room temperature but appreciably soluble at higher temperature. The solution is
concentrated to get nearly a saturated solution. When this saturated solution is cooled, crystals of pure substance will separate out which are removed by
filtration. The filtrate, i.e., mother liquor contains the impurities along with small quantity of the compound. If the compound is highly soluble in one solvent
and too little soluble in another solvent, then crystallization can be carried out in a mixture of these solvents taken in a suitable ratio.
The main steps of this process are explained below:
(1) Choice of the solvent
(a) It should not react chemically with the impure substance.

(b) It should dissolve more of the substance upon heating than at room temperature so that the excess of the substance is thrown out upon cooling.
(c) Either the impurities should not dissolve at all in the solvent, or if they dissolve, they should be soluble to such an extent that they remain in the
solution, i.e., in the mother liquor upon crystallization.
The various solvents which are commonly employed for crystallization are water, alcohol, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, benzene, acetone, ethyl
acetate, petroleum ether etc.
(2) Preparation of the solution.
The impure substance is finely powdered and then heated in a conical flask with a small quantity of the solvent which is just sufficient to dissolve whole of
the substance on boiling.
(3) Filtration of the solution.
The hot solution obtained above is then filtered immediate either through fluted filter paper or through hot water funnel to avoid crystallization during
filtration.
(4) Crystallization and separation of crystals.
The dish containing the solution is then allowed to cool undisturbed when after some time crystals begin to separate out. If the crystals do not appear
even after a long time, then it may be necessary to scratch the sides of the dish with a glass rod. This process of inducing crystallization by adding a
crystal of the pure substance into its saturated solution is called seeding.
Drying of crystals. The crystals are finally dried either in air or by placing them in a steam oven or an air oven.
Removal of colour. Sometimes, the crystals obtained are slightly coloured due to the presence of certain coloured impurities. In such cases, crystals are
redissolved in the same solvent and a small amount of activated charcoal is added to it. The mixture is boiled for 15- 20 minutes. During this treatment,
charcoal absorbs all the coloured impurities. The charcoal is then filtered out and the filtrate is allowed to cool when colourless crystals of the pure
substance are obtained.
Crystallisation of sugar. Suppose we have a sample of sugar containing an impurity of common salt (sodium chloride). This can be purified by shaking the
impure solid with hot ethanol at 348 K. The sugar will dissolve whereas the common salt remains insoluble. The hot solution is filtered, concentrated and then
allowed to cool when crystals of sugar will separate out.
Crystallisation of benzoic acid. Suppose we have a mixture of benzoic acid and naphthalene mixture. This mixture can be purified by treating the impure solid
with hot water. Benzoic acid will dissolve while naphthalene remains insoluble. The hot solution is filtered and then allowed to cool when crystals of benzoic
acid separate out. The crystals are separated by filtration and dried.
Fractional Crystallization
This method is used to separate and purify two or more compounds which have different solubilities in the same solvent. The mixture is dissolved in a suitable
solvent in which the two components of the mixture have different solubilities. When a hot saturated solution of this mixture is allowed to cool, the less soluble
substance crystallises out first while the more soluble substance remains in the solution. The crystals are then separated from the mother liquor and is
again concentrated and the hot solution again allowed to cool when the crystals of the second (i.e., more soluble) compound are obtained.
The process of separation of different components of a mixture by repeated crystallisations is known as fractional crystallisation.
SUBLIMATION
It involves the direct conversion of a solid into the gaseous state on heating without passing through the intervening liquid state and vice versa on cooling.
Only those substances whose vapour pressures become equal to the atmospheric pressure much before their respective melting points are capable of
undergoing sublimation. Such substances are called sublimable. The process of sublimation is very useful in the purification of such solids which sublime
on heating and are associated with non-volatile impurities. The impure substance is taken in a china dish covered with a perforated filter paper over which
an inverted funnel is placed. The stem of the funnel is plugged with a little cotton. On heating the dish on a sand bath, vapours of the volatile solid rise up,
pass through the holes in the filter paper and condense on the cooler walls of the funnel leaving behind the non- volatile impurities in the dish. Camphor,
naphthalene, anthracene, benzoic acid, iodine, etc are purified by this process.
SIMPLE DISTILLATION
Distillation involves conversion of a liquid into vapours by heating followed by condensation of the vapours thus produced by cooling. The method is
commonly used for those liquids which are sufficiently stable at their boiling points and which contain non-volatile impurities.
For example: simple organic liquids such as benzene, ethanol, acetone, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, toluene, xylenes, etc. can be purified by simple
distillation.
Procedure
(1) When the flask is heated, the temperature rises gradually and the liquid starts boiling when its vapour pressure becomes equal to the atmospheric
pressure. These vapours as they pass through the condenser are condensed. Only the liquid which distils at a constant temperature is collected in a
receiver. This gives us the pure liquid.
Purification of a mixture of liquids.
It can also be used for separation and purification of a mixture of two or more miscible organic liquids provided their boiling points differ by 30-50 K. The
separation is based upon the fact that at the b.p of the more volatile liquid (low boiling) of the mixture , the vapours almost exclusively consist of the more
volatile liquids. At the boiling point of less volatile liquid , vapours almost entirely consist of the less volatile liquid since the more volatile liquid has already
distilled over. The separation of the liquid mixture into individual components can be achieved at their respective boiling point, the more volatile
component distils over first while the less volatile component distils over afterwards.
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
If the b.p.'s of the two liquids of the mixture are very close to one another i.e. differ by 10 K or so, the separation cannot be achieved by the simple distillation
method as described above. This is due reason that at the b.p. of the more volatile liquid of the mixture there will be sufficient vapours of the less volatile liquid
as well. As a result, both the liquids of a mixture will distil together and the separation is denied. The separation of such a liquid mixture into individual
components can, be achieved by fractional distillation, which involves repeated distillations and condensations. Fractional distillation is carried out using a
fractionating column. It usually consists of a long glass tube with a wide bore either packed with glass beads, small stones, porcelain rings or coke, or blown
into a number of spherical or pear shaped bulbs. The actual purpose of the fractionating column is to increase the cooling surface area and to provide hurdles
or obstructions to the ascending vapours and descending liquid.
Principle:
Suppose we have a mixture of two fluids A and B of which A' is more volatile than B. When such a liquid mixture is heated, the temperature rises slowly
and mixture starts boiling. The vapours formed mainly consist of the more volatile liquid A' with little of the less volatile liquid B.As these vapours travel up
the fractionating column, the vapours of the less volatile liquid B condense more readily than those of the more volatile liquid 'A' Therefore, the vapours
rising up become richer in A and the liquid flowing down becomes richer in B. This process of distillations and condensations is repeated at every point in
the fractionating column. As a result of series of successive distillations, by the time the vapours reach the top of the column and escape into the
condenser, they consist mainly of the more volatile component A. Similarly, after a series of successive distillations, the remaining liquid in the distillation
flask gets enriched in higher boiling component. Each successive condensation and vaporization is called theoretical plate. Commercially, columns with
hundreds of theoretical plates are available.
Applications :
It is to separate crude oil in petroleum industry into various useful fractions such as gasoline, kerosene oil, diesel oil, lubricating oil, etc.
(b) Fractional distillation has also been used to separate acetone (b.p. 329) and methyl alcohol (b.p 338 K)
Distillation under reduced pressure or Vacuum Distillation
This method is used for the purification of high boiling liquids and liquid which decomposes at or below their boiling points.
Principle:
A liquid boils when its vapour pressure becomes equal to the external pressure. The same liquid would boil at a lower temperature if the pressure acting
on it is reduced. Since the liquid now boils at a lower temperature, its decomposition does not occur. With vacuum pumps, pressure of the order of 0.1
mm Hg can be easily obtained.
For Example:
Glycerol which decomposes at its boiling point (563 K) can be distilled without decomposition at 453 K under 12 mm Hg pressure. Concentration of
sugarcane in sugar industry.
STEAM DISTILLATION
This is a convenient method for the separation and purification of organic compounds from non-volatile organic or inorganic impurities. This method is
applicable to only about those compounds which are volatile in steam, insoluble in water, possess a vapour pressure of about 10-15 mm at 373 K and contain
non-volatile impurities. Steam distillation is particularly valuable when the substance to be purified boils above 373 K at 760 mm and decomposes at or below
its boiling point. Steam distillation makes the high boiling substances to distil at low temperature and hence avoids their decomposition.
Principle:
In this method, a mixture of two immiscible liquids, i.e., water and an organic liquid is heated. Each would exert its own vapour pressure independently of the
other and the mixture will begin to boil at a temperature when the sum of the vapour pressures of the organic liquid (P1) and that of water (P2) becomes equal
to the atmospheric pressure (p).
p= P1 +P2
Unless the vapour pressure of water or that of the organic liquid is zero, the temperature at which the mixture boils must be lower than the normal boiling point
of both the organic liquid and the water. In other words, the organic liquid boils at a temperature lower than its normal b.p and hence the decomposition is
avoided. The partial pressures of different gases in a gaseous mixture are in the ratio of their relative number of moles. Therefore, the ratio of the number of
moles of the organic liquid and water in the distillate must be in the ratio of their partial vapour pressures (in the boiling mixture), ie.
n1/n2 = P1/P2
DIFFERENTIAL EXTRACTION
This method is used to recover organic compounds (solids or liquids) from their aqueous solutions. The process essentially involves the shaking of the
organic compound in a separating funnel with a suitable solvent which is immiscible with water but in which the organic compound is highly soluble. Ether,
benzene, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride are some of the solvents which are generally employed for extraction.
Procedure
The aqueous solution is mixed with a small quantity of the organic solvent in a separating funnel. The funnel is stoppered and the contents are shaken
thoroughly for sometimes when the organic solvent dissolves the organic compound present in the aqueous solution. The separating funnel is now
allowed to stand for some time when the organic solvent and water form two separate layer. The lower aqueous layer is run out by opening the tap of the
funnel and the organic layer separated. The aqueous solution is again poured into the funnel, mixed again with a small quantity of the organic solvent and
the process is repeated several times till the entire amount of the organic compound is extracted. The organic layers from all the steps are taken in a
distillation flask. The organic solvent is
distilled off leaving the organic compound in the distillation flask. The efficiency of the process of extraction depends upon the number of times the
extraction is repeated. With a given amount of the solvent, larger the number of extractions, greater is the amount of the material extracted. This method
is normally applicable to non-volatile compounds. For example, benzoic acid can be extracted from its water solution using benzene.
CHROMATOGRAPHY
This method is widely used for separation, purification, identification and characterisation of the components of a mixture, whether coloured or colourless.
The technique of separating the components of a mixture in which separation is achieved by the differential movement of individual components through a
stationary phase under the influence of a mobile phase.
Types of chromatography
The stationary phase can be either a solid-or tightly bound liquid on a solid support while the mobile phase can be either liquid or a gas. Depending upon
the nature of the stationary and mobile phases, the different types of chromatographic techniques commonly used are:
Depending upon the principle involved, chromatography can be divided into the following
two categories:
(a) Adsorption chromatography

(b) Partition chromatography
Adsorption chromatography
Principle.
This method is based upon the differential adsorption of the various components of mixture on a suitable adsorbent such as silica gel or alumina. Since
some compounds are more strongly absorbed than the other, they will travel through the column at different rates and thus get separated.
Principle.
This method is based upon the differential adsorption of the various components of mixture on a suitable adsorbent such as silica gel or alumina. Since
some compounds are more strongly absorbed than the other, they will travel through the column at different rates and thus get separated.
Types of adsorption chromatography
(1) Column chromatography

(2) Thin layer chromatography
1.1.Column chromatography
The whole process is carried out in a long glass column provided with a stop-cock at the bottom. The various steps involved in this process are
(1) Preparation of the Column: A plug of cotton or glass wool is placed at the bottom of a clean and dry glass column. Above this, a thin layer of acid-
washed sand is placed to support the adsorbent. A suitable adsorbent such as alumina (Al2O3), silica gel, magnesium oxide, starch, charcoal, etc is
made into slurry with a suitable solvent (preferably non-polar) such as hexane or petroleum ether. The slurry is then carefully packed in the column by
gentle tapping so that no air bubble is entrapped in the column. This constitutes the stationary phase.
(2) Adsorption: The mixture to be separated is dissolved in a minimum volume of a suitable highly polar solvent and applied on the top of the column of
the adsorbent with the help of a dropper or a microsyringe. As the solution travels down, the mixture is adsorbed in a narrow band. A thin layer of acid
washed sand is again placed at the top of the column followed by a loose plug of cotton. The sand layer prevents the column from being disturbed during
the addition of solvent from time to time. After the application of the sample, a little amount of the solvent is placed over the sand layer and the column is
allowed to stand for about 15-20 minutes. During this period the various components of the mixture (say A, B and C) are adsorbed to different extents
depending upon their polarity within a narrow band. Thus, within the narrow band, component A is strongly adsorbed component B is moderately
adsorbed while component C is weakly adsorbed.
(3) Elution. It is the process of extraction of the adsorbed components from the adsorbent with the help of solvents of increasing polarity. The solvents
usually employed in the increasing order of polarity are petroleum ether, carbon tetrachloride, benzene, chloroform, diethyl ether, ethyl acetate, acetone,
alcohol, etc.
A solvent or a mixture of solvents which is used to extract the column constitutes the mobile phase and is usually called an eluent. As the eluent passes
down the column, it dissolves the different compounds. The least strongly adsorbed component of the mixture, i.e., component C is eluted first by the
least polar solvent followed by moderately strongly adsorbed component B by solvent of intermediate polarity while the most strongly adsorbed
component A is eluted last of all by the solvents of higher polarity.
For example:
a mixture of naphthalene (hydrocarbon) and benzophenone can be separated over à column of alumina and by using petroleum ether containing benzene
as eluent. Naphthalene being less polar is weakly adsorbed while benzophenone being more polar is strongly absorbed over the column. Elution of the
column will first elute naphthalene and then benzophenone.
2.2.Thin layer chromatography (TLC)
It is another type of adsorption chromatography in which separation of the components of a mixture is achieved over a thin layer of an adsorbent. A thin
layer of an adsorbent such as silica gel or alumina is spread over a plastic or glass plate of suitable size.
(1) A suitable TLC plate is taken and two pencil lines are drawn across the width of the plate about 1 cm rom each end. The lower pencil line is called the
base line while the upper line is called the finish line or solvent front.
(2) A solution of the mixture to be separated is applied as a small spot with the help of a capillary on the starting line. The plate is then placed in a closed
jar containing a suitable solvent.
(3) As the solvent moves up, the components of the mixture also move up along the plate to different distances depending upon their degree or extent of
adsorption. When the solvent front reaches the finish line, the plate is removed and then dried in air.
(4) The spots of coloured components are visible on TLC plate due to their original colour. The spots of the colourless components which are invisible to
the eye can be observed using the following visualisation methods such as:
(i) Ultraviolet light: Organic compounds which fluoresce can be detected by placing the plate under UV lamp having light of 254 nm. Since all organic
compounds do not produce fluorescence under UV light, this method is not of general applicability.
(ii) Iodine vapours. This is the most commonly used detection reagent. The developed TLC plate is placed in a covered jar containing a few crystals of
iodine. Spots of compounds which adsorb iodine will show up as brown spots.
(iii) Chemical methods. Sometimes a suitable chemical reagent may be sprayed on the plate. For example, amino acids can be detected by spraying the
plate with ninhydrin solution. Similarly, aldehydes / ketones can be detected by spraying the plate with the solution of 2, 4- dinitrophehylhydrazine.
The various components on the developed TLC plate are identified through their retention
factor, i.e., Rf values. It is defined as
Since the solvent front always moves faster on the TLC plate than the compounds, compounds, Rf, values are usually expressed as a decimal fraction.
Partition (or Paper) chromatography
Column chromatography or TLC is a liquid solid chromatography i.e., the mobile phase is a liquid while the stationary phase is a solid. In contrast,
partition chromatography is a liquid/liquid chromatography in which both the mobile phase and the stationary phase are liquids In paper chromatography,
a special quality paper called chromatographic paper is used. Although paper consists mainly of cellulose, the stationary phase in paper chromatography
is not the cellulose but the water which is adsorbed or chemically bound to it. The mobile phase is another liquid which is usually a mixture of two or three
solvents and water as one of the components.
Principle:
Paper chromatography works on the principle of partition, i.e., it is based upon differential partitioning (or distribution) of the various components of the
mixture between the stationary and the mobile phases.
Process:
1) A suitable chromatographic paper is selected and a starting line is drawn across the width of paper at about 1 or 2 cm from the bottom.
(2) A spot of the mixture component to be separated is applied on the starting line with the help of a fine capillary or syringe. The chromatographic paper
is then suspended in a suitable solvent mixture.
(3)The solvent rises up the paper by capillary action and flows over the spot. The different components of the mixture travel through different distances
depending upon their solubility in or partitioning between the stationary and the mobile phases.
(4) When the solvent reaches the top end of the paper, the paper is taken out and allowed to dry. The paper strip so developed is called the
chromatogram. The spots of the separated coloured compounds are visible at different heights from the starting line and are identified by their Rf values.
(5) The spots of the colourless compounds may, however, be observed either under ultraviolet light or by the use of an appropriate spray reagent. In
descending paper chromatography, the solvent is kept in a trough at the top of the
chamber, spotted end of the paper is dipped in it and the solvent is allowed to flow down by capillary action and gravity. In this type, solvent flow is rapid
and hence the process is less time consuming than the ascending method
Uses. Paper chromatography is especially used for separation of sugars and amino acids.
END OF LESSON 7
What Are the Physical Properties of Alkanes and Cycloalkanes?
The most important property of alkanes and cycloalkanes is their almost complete lack of polarity.
Alkanes are nonpolar compounds, and there are only weak interactions between their molecules.
A. Boiling Points
The boiling points of alkanes are lower than those of almost any other type of compound with the
same molecular weight. In general, both boiling and melting points of alkanes increase with
increasing molecular weight. Alkanes containing 1 to 4 carbons are gases at room temperature,
and those containing 5 to 17 carbons are colorless liquids. High‐molecular‐weight alkanes (those
with 18 or more carbons) are white, waxy solids.
B. Dispersion Forces and Interactions between Alkane Molecules
Methane is a gas at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. It can be converted to a liquid
if cooled to −164 °C and to a solid if further cooled to −182 °C. The fact that methane (or any
other compound, for that matter) can exist as a liquid or a solid depends on the existence of forces
of attraction between particles of the pure compound. Although the forces of attraction between
particles are all electrostatic in nature, they vary widely in their relative strengths. The strongest
attractive forces are between ions—for example, between Na+ and Cl− in NaCl (787 kJ/mol, 188
kcal/mol). Hydrogen bonding is a weaker attractive force (8−42 kJ/mol, 2−10 kcal/mol). We will
have more to say about hydrogen bonding in Chapter 8 when we discuss the physical properties
of alcohols—compounds containing polar O H groups. Dispersion forces (0.08−8 kJ/mol, 0.02−2
kcal/mol) are the weakest intermolecular attractive forces. It is the existence of dispersion forces
that accounts for the fact that low molecular‐weight, nonpolar substances such as methane can
be liquefied. When we convert methane from a liquid to a gas at −164°C, for example, the process
of separating its molecules requires only enough energy to overcome the very weak dispersion
forces.
Dispersion forces are weak electrostatic attractive forces that occur between temporary partial
positive and partial negative charges in adjacent atoms or molecules. Because interactions
between alkane molecules consist only of these very weak dispersion forces, the boiling points of
alkanes are lower than those of almost any other type of compound with the same molecular
weight. As the number of atoms and the molecular weight of an alkane increase, the strength of
the dispersion forces among alkane molecules increases, and consequently, boiling points
increase.
C. Melting Point and Density
The melting points of alkanes increase with increasing molecular weight. The increase, however,
is not as regular as that observed for boiling points, because the ability of molecules to pack into
ordered patterns of solids changes as the molecular size and shape change. All liquid and solid
alkanes are less dense than water (1.0 g/mL); therefore, they float on water.
D. Constitutional Isomers Have Different Physical Properties

Alkanes that are constitutional isomers are different compounds and have different physical
properties. The boiling point of each of its branched‐chain isomers is lower than that of hexane
itself, and the more branching there is, the lower is the boiling point. These differences in boiling
points are related to molecular shape in the following way: The only forces of attraction between
alkane molecules are dispersion forces. As branching increases, the shape of an alkane molecule
becomes more compact, and its surface area decreases. As the surface area decreases, the
strength of the dispersion forces decreases, and boiling points decrease. Thus, for any group of
alkane constitutional isomers, it is usually observed that the least‐branched isomer has the
highest boiling point and the most‐branched isomer has the lowest boiling point. The trend in
melting points is less obvious, but as previously mentioned, it correlates with a molecule’s ability
to pack into ordered patterns of solids.
What Are the Characteristic Reactions of Alkanes?
The most important chemical property of alkanes and cycloalkanes is their inertness. They are
quite unreactive toward most reagents, a behavior consistent with the fact that they are nonpolar
compounds containing only strong sigma bonds. Under certain conditions, however, alkanes and
cycloalkanes do react with oxygen, O2. By far their most important reaction with oxygen is
oxidation (combustion) to form carbon dioxide and water. The oxidation of saturated hydrocarbons
is the basis for their use as energy sources for heat [natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG),
and fuel oil] and power (gasoline, diesel fuel, and aviation fuel). Following are balanced equations
for the complete combustion of methane, the major component of natural gas, and for propane,
the major component of LPG:
What Are the Sources of Alkanes?
A. Natural Gas
B. Petroleum
C. Coal
What Are the Physical Properties of Alkenes and Alkynes?
Alkenes and alkynes are nonpolar compounds, and the only attractive forces between their
molecules are dispersion forces. Therefore, their physical properties are similar to those of
alkanes with the same carbon skeletons. Alkenes and alkynes that are liquid at room temperature
have densities less than 1.0 g/mL. Thus, they are less dense than water. Like alkanes, alkenes
and alkynes are nonpolar and are soluble in each other. Because of their contrasting polarity with
water, they do not dissolve in water. Instead, they form two layers when mixed with water or
another polar organic liquid such as ethanol.
Tetramethylethylene and dimethylacetylene. Both a carbon–carbon double bond and a carbon–

carbon triple bond are sites of high electron density and, therefore, sites of chemical reactivity.
EXAMPLE:
Why Are 1‐Alkynes (Terminal Alkynes) Weak Acids?
One of the major differences between the chemistry of alkynes and that of alkenes and alkanes
is that a hydrogen bonded to a carbon atom of a terminal alkyne is sufficiently acidic ( p K a 25
) that it can be removed by a strong base, such as sodium amide, NaN2, to give an acetylide
anion.
In this equilibrium, acetylene is the stronger acid and sodium amide is the stronger base, and the
position of equilibrium lies considerably toward the right and favors formation of the acetylide
anion and ammonia.
Because water (pKa 15.7) is a stronger acid than acetylene (pKa 25), the hydroxide ion is not a
strong enough base to convert a terminal alkyne to an alkyne anion. The position of equilibrium
for this acid–base reaction lies toward the left.
The pKa values for alkene hydrogens (pKa approximately 44) and alkane hydrogens (pKa
approximately 51) are so large (they are so weakly acidic) that neither the commonly used alkali
metal hydroxides nor sodium amide are strong enough bases to remove a proton from an alkene
or an alkane. Why is the acidity of a hydrogen bonded to a triple‐bonded carbon so much more
acidic than one bonded to a double‐bonded carbon of an alkene or to an alkane? We explain
these relative acidities in the following way. The lone pair of electrons on a carbon anion lies in a
hybrid orbital: an sp3 hybrid orbital for an alkane, an sp2 hybrid orbital for an alkene, and an sp
hybrid orbital for an alkyne. An sp hybrid orbital has 50% s character, an sp2 hybrid orbital has
33% s character, and an sp3 hybrid orbital has 25% s character. Recall from your course in
general chemistry and from Chapter 1 of this text that a 2s orbital is lower in energy than a 2p
orbital. Consequently, electrons in a 2s orbital are held more tightly to the nucleus than those in
a 2p orbital. The more s character in a hybrid orbital of carbon, the more electronegative the
carbon atom will be, resulting in a greater stability of the anion and thus a more acidic hydrogen.
Of the three types of organic compounds in the series alkyne, alkene, and alkane, the carbon in
an alkyne (sp hybridized with 50% s character) is the most electronegative. Therefore, an alkyne
anion is the most stable of the series, and an alkyne is the strongest acid of the series. By similar
reasoning, the alkane carbon (sp3 hybridized and 25% s character) is the least electronegative,
and an alkane is the weakest acid of the series. An alkene, with 33% s character, is intermediate.
Finally, it is only the hydrogen of a 1‐alkyne that shows this type of acidity. No other hydogens of
an alkyne have comparable acidity, and no other hydrogens are removed by NaNH2.

Lesson 9: Reactions of Alkenes
1. Explain the reaction mechanism.
2. Discuss the characteristic reactions of Alkenes.
3. Familiarize the Markovnikov’s Rule.
4. Enumerate the steps in the chemical reaction.
LEARNING CONTENT
Introduction:
Reaction mechanisms are step‐by‐step descriptions of how reactions proceed and are
one of the unifying concepts in organic chemistry. We will use the reactions of alkenes and
alkynes as a vehicle to introduce this important concept. In this topic we will focus on the general
principles and patterns of reactivity that tie organic chemistry together. There are no shortcuts,
you have to know the reactions to understand organic chemistry.
LESSON PROPER
Reaction Mechanism
A reaction mechanism describes in detail how a chemical reaction occurs. It describes which bonds break
and which new ones form, the order and relative rates of the various bond‐breaking and bond‐forming
steps, the role of the solvent if the reaction takes place in solution, and the role of any catalysts. In addition
to reaction mechanisms, chemists often use other tools to describe the various features of a chemical
reaction. One such tool is the reaction energy diagram.
Characteristic Reactions of Alkenes

The most characteristic reaction of alkenes is addition to the carbon–carbon double bond in such a way
that the pi bond is broken and, in its place, sigma bonds are formed to two new atoms or groups of atoms.
From the perspective of the chemical industry, the single most important reaction of ethylene and other low‐
molecular‐weight alkenes is the production of chain‐growth polymers (Greek: poly, many, and meros, part).
In the presence of certain catalysts called initiators, many alkenes form polymers by the addition of
monomers to a growing polymer chain, as illustrated by the formation of polyethylene from ethylene:
What Are the Mechanisms of Electrophilic Additions to Alkenes?

We begin our introduction to the chemistry of alkenes with an examination of three types of addition
reactions: the addition of hydrogen halides ( HCl , HBr , and HI ), water ( H 2 O ), and halogens ( Cl 2, Br
2). As we will show for the addition reactions of alkenes and for the reactions of many other classes of
organic compounds, high‐electron‐density regions of molecules or ions react with low‐electron‐density
regions of other molecules or ions, often resulting in the formation of a new covalent bond. We call an
electron‐rich species a nucleophile (nucleus loving), meaning that it seeks a region of low electron
density. We call a low‐electron‐density species an electrophile (electron loving), meaning that it seeks a
region of high electron density. Note that nucleophiles are Lewis bases and electrophiles are Lewis acids.
A. Addition of Hydrogen Halides
The hydrogen halides HCl , HBr , and HI add to alkenes to give haloalkanes (alkyl halides). These
additions may be carried out either with the pure reagents or in the presence of a polar solvent
such as acetic acid. The addition of HCl to ethylene gives chloroethane (ethyl chloride):
The addition of HCl to propene gives 2‐chloropropane (isopropyl chloride); hydrogen adds to
carbon 1 of propene and chlorine adds to carbon 2. If the orientation of addition were reversed, 1‐
chloropropane (propyl chloride) would be formed. The observed result is that 2‐chloropropane is
formed to the virtual exclusion of 1‐chloropropane:
We say that the addition of HCl to propene is highly regioselective and that 2‐chloropropane is the
major product of the reaction. A regioselective reaction is a reaction in which one direction of bond
forming or breaking occurs in preference to all other directions.
Vladimir Markovnikov observed this regioselectivity and made the generalization, known as
Markovnikov ’ s rule, that, in the addition of HX to an alkene, hydrogen adds to the doubly bonded
carbon that has the greater number of hydrogens already bonded to it. Although Markovnikov ’ s
rule provides a way to predict the product of many alkene addition reactions, it does not explain
why one product predominates over other possible products.
Example: Chemists account for the addition of HX to an alkene by a two‐step mechanism, which
we illustrate in the following reaction of 2‐butene with hydrogen chloride to give 2‐chlorobutane.
B. Addition of Water: Acid‐Catalyzed Hydration
In the presence of an acid catalyst—most commonly, concentrated sulfuric acid—water adds to the
carbon–carbon double bond of an alkene to give an alcohol. The addition of water is called
hydration. In the case of simple alkenes, H adds to the carbon of the double bond with the greater
number of hydrogens and OH adds to the carbon with the lesser number of hydrogens. Thus, H
OH adds to alkenes in accordance with Markovnikov’s rule:
The mechanism for the acid‐catalyzed hydration of alkenes is quite similar to what we have already
proposed for the addition of HCl, HBr, and HI to alkenes and is illustrated by the hydration of
propene to 2‐propanol. This mechanism is consistent with the fact that acid is a catalyst. An H3O+
is consumed in Step 1, but another is generated in Step 3.
C. Addition of Bromine and Chlorine

Chlorine (Cl2) and bromine (Br2) react with alkenes at room temperature by the addition of
halogen atoms to the two carbon atoms of the double bond, forming two new carbon–halogen
bonds:
Fluorine, F2, also adds to alkenes, but because its reactions are very fast and difficult to control,
addition of fluorine is not a useful laboratory reaction. Iodine, I2, also adds, but the reaction is not
preparatively useful. The addition of bromine and chlorine to a cycloalkene gives a trans
dihalocycloalkane. For example, the addition of bromine to cyclohexene gives trans‐1,2‐
dibromocyclohexane; the cis isomer is not formed. Thus, the addition of a halogen to a cycloalkene
is stereoselective. A stereoselective reaction is a reaction in which one stereoisomer is formed or
destroyed in preference to all others that might be formed or destroyed. We say that addition of
bromine to an alkene occurs with anti stereoselectivity.
What Is Hydroboration–Oxidation of an Alkene?
The result of hydroboration and subsequent oxidation of an alkene is hydration of the carbon–carbon double
bond, here illustrated by the hydroboration–oxidation of 1‐hexene to give 1‐hexanol.
Because hydrogen is added to the more substituted carbon of the double bond and OH to the less
substituted carbon, we refer to the regiochemistry of hydroboration and subsequent oxidation as anti‐
Markovnikov hydration . Note by way of comparison that acid‐catalyzed hydration of 1‐hexene follows
Markovnikov ’ s rule and gives 2‐hexanol.
The special value of hydration of an alkene by the combination of hydroboration– oxidation is that its
regioselectivity is opposite that of acid‐catalyzed hydration. Hydroboration is the addition of borane, BH 3,
to an alkene to form a trialkylborane. Borane cannot be prepared as a pure compound because it reacts
with itself (2BH 3 → B 2 H 6 )to form diborane B 2 H 6, a toxic gas that ignites spontaneously in air. However,
BH 3 forms a stable Lewis acid–base complex with ethers and is most commonly used as a commercially
available solution of BH 3 in tetrahydrofuran ( THF ).
The overall reaction of BH 3 with a C=C double bond occurs in three steps. Borane reacts first with one
molecule of the alkene to form an alkylborane, then with a second molecule of alkene to form a
dialkylborane, and finally with a third molecule of alkene to form a trialkylborane. Although borane reacts
with three equivalents of alkene to form the trialkylborane, we will focus on just the reaction of the first
equivalent of C=C to explain the selectivities of the reaction.
Boron, atomic number 5, has three electrons in its valence shell. To bond with three other atoms, boron
uses sp2 hybrid orbitals. Study the orbital model of BH3 and take note of its types of orbitals and their
geometrical arrangement. Because of the vacant 2p orbital in the valence shell of boron, BH3, BF3, and
other tricovalent compounds of boron are electrophiles and closely resemble carbocations, except that
they are electrically neutral.
Addition of borane to alkenes is regioselective and stereoselective in the following ways:
● Regioselective: In the addition of borane to an unsymmetrical alkene, boron becomes bonded

predominantly to the less substituted carbon of the double bond.
● Stereoselective: Hydrogen and boron add from the same face of the double bond; that is, the reaction is
syn (from the same side) stereoselective. Both the regioselectivity and syn stereoselectivity are illustrated
by hydroboration of 1-methylcyclopentene
How Can an Alkene Be Reduced to an Alkane?
Most alkenes react quantitatively with molecular hydrogen, H 2, in the presence of a transition metal catalyst
to give alkanes. Commonly used transition metal catalysts include platinum, palladium, ruthenium, and
nickel. Yields are usually quantitative or nearly so. Because the conversion of an alkene to an alkane
involves reduction by hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst, the process is called catalytic reduction or,
alternatively, catalytic hydrogenation.
The metal catalyst is used as a finely powdered solid, which may be supported on some inert material such
as powdered charcoal or alumina. The reaction is carried out by dissolving the alkene in ethanol or another
nonreacting organic solvent, adding the solid catalyst, and exposing the mixture to hydrogen gas at
pressures from 1 to 100 atm. Alternatively, the metal may be chelated with certain organic molecules and
used in the form of a soluble complex. Catalytic reduction is stereoselective, the most common pattern
being the syn addition of hydrogens to the carbon–carbon double bond. The catalytic reduction of 1,2‐
dimethylcyclohexene, for example, yields cis‐1,2‐dimethylcyclohexane along with lesser amounts of trans‐
1,2‐dimethylcyclohexane.
Addition of Radicals to Alkenes: Polymers
A polymer is a large molecule built by repetitive bonding together of many smaller molecules, called
monomers. Nature makes wide use of biological polymers. Cellulose, for example is a polymer built of
repeating sugar monomers, proteins are polymers built of repeating amino acid monomers; and nucleic
acids are monomers built of repeating nucleotide monomers.
The simplest synthetic polymers are those that ressult when an alkene is treated with a small amount of
a suitable polymerization catalyst.
The term aromatic was originally used to classify benzene and its derivatives because many of
them have distinctive odors. It became clear, however, that a sounder classification for these
compounds would be one based on structure and chemical reactivity, not aroma. As it is now
used, the term aromatic refers instead to the fact that benzene and its derivatives are highly
unsaturated compounds that are unexpectedly stable toward reagents that react with alkenes.
Lesson Proper:
OXIDATION AND REDUCTION OF AROMATIC COMPOUNDS
Despite its unsaturation, a benzene ring does not usually react with strong oxidizing
agents such as KMnO4. Alkyl groups attached to the aromatic ring are readily attacked by
oxidizing agents, however, and are converted into carboxyl groups(-CO2H). For example,
butylbenzene is oxidized by KMnO4 to give benzoic acid. The mechanism of this reaction is
complex and involves attack on the side-chain C-H bonds at the position next to the aromatic ring
( the benzylic position) to give radical intermediates.
Analogous oxidations occur in various biological pathways. The neurotransmitter

norepinephrine, for instance, is biosynthesized from dopamine by a benzylic hydroxylation
reaction. The process is catalyzed by the copper- containing enzyme dopamine β-
monooxygenase and occurs by a radical mechanism.
Just as aromatic rings are usually inert to oxidation, they are also inert to reduction under
typical alkene hydrogenation conditions. Only if high temperatures and pressures are used does
reduction of an aromatic ring occur. For example, o-dimethylbenzene (o-xylene) gives cis-1,2-
dimethylcyclohexane if reduced at high pressure.
OTHER AROMATIC COMPOUNDS
The concept of aromaticity-the unusual chemical stability present in cyclic conjugated

molecules like benzene-can be extended beyond simple monocyclic hydrocarbons. Naphthalene,
for instance, a substance familiar for its use in mothballs, has two benzene-like rings fused
together and is thus a polycyclic aromatic compound.
Perhaps the most notorious polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon is benzo[α]pyrene, which has
five benzene-like rings and is a major carcinogenic (cancer-causing) substance found in chimney
soot, cigarette smoke, and well-done barbecued meat. Once in a body, benzo[α]pyrene is
metabolically converted into a diol epoxide that binds to DNA, where it induces mutations.
In addition to monocyclic and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, some aromatic compounds are
heterocycles- cyclic compounds that contain atoms of two or more elements in their rings.
Nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen atoms are all found along with carbon in various aromatic
compounds. For instance, that the nitrogen-containing heterocycles pyridine, pyrimidine, pyrrole
and imidazole are aromatic, even though they aren’t hydrocarbons and even though two of them
have five-membered rather than six-membered rings. They are aromatic because they are all like
benzene, contain a cyclic conjugated array of six π electrons. Pyridine and pyrimidine have one
π electron on each of their six ring atoms. Pyrrole and imidazole have one π electron on each of
four rig atoms and an additional two π electrons(the lone pair) on their N-H nitrogen.
MELS 1015 –Inorganic and Organic Chemistry (Laboratory) |1
Alcohols, in particular, are very important in both laboratory and biochemical transformations of
organic compounds. They can be converted into other types of compounds, such as alkenes,
haloalkanes, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and esters. Not only can alcohols be
converted to these compounds, but they also can be prepared from them. Alcohols play a central
role in the interconversion of organic functional groups and thus in our ability to synthesize life‐
saving and life‐enhancing compounds.
LESSON PROPER
REACTIONS OF ALCOHOL
1. DEHYDRATION- When an alcohol is treated with a strong acid such as H2SO4, the
elements of water are lost and an alkene is formed as product. Loss of H2O from a starting
material is called dehydration. Dehydration takes place by breaking bonds on two adjacent
atoms—the C OH bond and an adjacent C-H bond.
Dehydration is an example of a general type of organic reaction called an elimination reaction.

Elimination is a reaction in which elements of the starting material are “lost” and a new multiple
bond is formed.
The major product is the alkene with more alkyl groups bonded to the carbons of the double
bond. The Zaitsev rule: The major product in elimination is the alkene that has more alkyl
groups bonded to it.
2. OXIDATION
• Oxidation results in an increase in the number of C—O bonds or a decrease in
the number of C—H bonds.
• Oxidation occurs by replacing the C-H bonds on the carbon bearing the OH
group by C-O bonds. All oxidation products from alcohol starting materials
contain a C=O, a carbonyl group.
• A common reagent for alcohol oxidation is potassium dichromate, K2Cr2O7, a
red-orange solid. During oxidation the reagent is converted a green Cr3+ product.
Thus, these oxidations are accompanied by a characteristic color change.
• Note that the essential feature of the oxidation of an alcohol is the presence of at
least one hydrogen on the carbon bearing the OH group. Tertiary alcohols lack
such a hydrogen; therefore, they are not oxidized.
• Primary (1°) alcohols are first oxidized to aldehydes (RCHO), which are further
oxidized to carboxylic acids (RCOOH) by replacing one and then two C—H
bonds by C—O bonds.
Secondary (2°) alcohols are oxidized to ketones (R2CO), by replacing one C—H
bond by one C—O bond.
Tertiary 3° alcohols have no H atoms on the carbon with the OH group, so they
are not oxidized.
REACTION WITH ACTIVE METALS
Like water, alcohols react with Li, Na, K, Mg, and other active metals to liberate hydrogen and to
form metal alkoxides. In the following oxidation–reduction reaction, Na is oxidized to Na+ and
H+ is reduced to H2:
CONVERSION TO HALOALKANES
The conversion of an alcohol to an alkyl halide involves substituting halogen for OH at a

saturated carbon. The most common reagents for this conversion are the halogen acids and
SOCl2.
Reaction with HCl, HBr, and HI
Water‐soluble tertiary alcohols react very rapidly with HCl, HBr, and HI. Mixing a tertiary alcohol
with concentrated hydrochloric acid for a few minutes at room temperature converts the alcohol
to a water‐insoluble chloroalkane that separates from the aqueous layer.
Low‐molecular‐weight, water‐soluble primary and secondary alcohols do not react under these
conditions.
Water‐insoluble tertiary alcohols are converted to tertiary halides by bubbling gaseous HX
through a solution of the alcohol dissolved in diethyl ether or tetrahydrofuran (THF):
Water‐insoluble primary and secondary alcohols react only slowly under these conditions.
Primary and secondary alcohols are converted to bromoalkanes and iodoalkanes by treatment
with concentrated hydrobromic and hydroiodic acids. For example, heating 1‐butanol with
concentrated HBr gives 1‐bromobutane:
On the basis of observations of the relative ease of reaction of alcohols with HX (3° > 2° > 1°), it
has been proposed that the conversion of tertiary and secondary alcohols to haloalkanes by
concentrated HX occurs by an SN1 mechanism and involves the formation of a carbocation
intermediate.
REACTIONS OF PHENOLS
ACID-BASE REACTIONS OF PHENOLS: Phenols are weak acids and react with strong bases,
such as NaOH, to form water‐soluble salts:
Most phenols do not react with weaker bases, such as sodium bicarbonate, and do not dissolve
in aqueous sodium bicarbonate. Carbonic acid is a stronger acid than most phenols, and,
consequently, the equilibrium for their reaction with bicarbonate ion lies far to the left:
REACTIONS OF THIOLS
Thiols undergo one important reaction: thiols are oxidized to disulfides, compounds that contain
a sulfur–sulfur bond. This is an oxidation reaction because two hydrogen atoms are removed in
forming the disulfide.
Disulfides can also be converted back to thiols with a reducing agent. The symbol for a general
reducing agent is [H], since hydrogen atoms are often added to a molecule during reduction.
REACTIONS OF ETHER
Ethers, R -O -R, resemble hydrocarbons in their resistance to chemical reaction. They do not
react with oxidizing agents, such as potassium dichromate or potassium permanganate. They
are not affected by most acids or bases at moderate temperatures. Because of their good
solvent properties and general inertness to chemical reaction, ethers are excellent solvents in
which to carry out many organic reactions.
What Are Epoxides?

An epoxide is a cyclic ether in which oxygen is one atom of a three‐membered ring:
Common names for epoxides are derived by giving the common name of the alkene from which
the epoxide might have been derived, followed by the word oxide; an example is ethylene
oxide.
Synthesis from Alkenes
Ethylene oxide, one of the few epoxides manufactured on an industrial scale, is prepared by
passing a mixture of ethylene and air (or oxygen) over a silver catalyst:
RING-OPENING REACTIONS
Ethers are not normally susceptible to reaction with aqueous acid. Epoxides, however, are
especially reactive because of the angle strain in the three‐membered ring.
In the presence of an acid catalyst—most commonly, perchloric acid—epoxides are hydrolyzed
to glycols. As an example, the acid‐catalyzed hydrolysis of ethylene oxide gives 1,2‐ethanediol:
The acid‐catalyzed ring opening of epoxides shows a stereoselectivity typical of SN2 reactions:
The nucleophile attacks anti to the leaving hydroxyl group, and the OH groups in the glycol thus
formed are anti. As a result, the acid‐catalyzed hydrolysis of an epoxycycloalkane yields a trans‐
1,2‐cycloalkanediol:
Lesson 13: CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ALDEHYDES AND KETONES
Introduction:
Carbonyl compounds are everywhere. In addition to their uses as reagents and solvents, they
are constituents of fabrics, flavorings, plastics, and drugs. Naturally occurring carbonyl compounds
include proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids that make up all plants and animals. The simplest
carbonyl compounds are ketones and aldehydes. In this lesson, we will learn the chemical reactions of
aldehydes and ketones
Lesson Proper:
Oxidation of Aldehydes and Ketones
Aldehydes are easily oxidized to yield carboxylic acids, but ketones are generally inert toward oxidation.
The difference is a consequence of structure: aldehydes have a -CHO proton that can be abstracted
during oxidation, but ketones do not.
Many oxidizing agents, including KMnO4 and hot HNO3, convert aldehydes into carboxylic acids, but
CrO3 in aqueous acid is a more common choice. The oxidation occurs rapidly at room temperature and
generally results in good yields.

Aldehyde oxidations occur through intermediate 1,1-diols, or hydrates, which are formed by a reversible
nucleophilic addition of water to the carbonyl group. Even though formed to only a small extent at
equilibrium, the hydrate reacts like any typical primary or secondary alcohol and is oxidized to a
carbonyl compound
Ketones are inert to most oxidizing agents but undergo a slow cleavage reaction of the C-C bond next
to the carbonyl group when treated with hot alkaline KMnO4. The reaction is not often used.
Nucleophilic addition of aldehydes and ketones
Their most common reaction is nucleophilic addition, addition of a nucleophile and a proton across C=O
the double bond. The reactivity of the carbonyl group arises from the electronegativity of the oxygen
atom and the resulting polarization of the carbon–oxygen double bond. Aldehydes are generally more
reactive than ketones in nucleophilic addition

As a nucleophile attacks the carbonyl group, the carbon atom changes hybridization from sp2 to sp3.
The electrons of the pi bond are forced out to the oxygen atom to form an alkoxide anion, which
protonates to give the product of nucleophilic addition. Protonation of the alkoxide by addition of acid
then gives an alcohol
Grignard reagent attacks the electrophilic carbonyl carbon atom to give an alkoxide intermediate.
Subsequent protonation gives an alcohol.
Nucleophilic Addition of H2O: Hydration
Aldehydes and ketones react with water to yield 1,1-diols, or geminal (gem) diols. The hydration
reaction is reversible, and a gem diol can eliminate water to regenerate an aldehyde or ketone.
The nucleophilic addition of water to an aldehyde or ketone is slow under neutral conditions but is
catalyzed by both base and acid.
Under basic conditions the nucleophile is negatively charged (OH-) and uses a pair of its electrons to
form a bond to the electrophilic carbon atom of the C=O group. At the same time, the C=O carbon
atom rehybridizes from sp2 to sp3 and two electrons from the C=O pi bond are pushed onto the oxygen
atom, giving an alkoxide ion. Protonation of the alkoxide ion by water then yields a neutral addition
product plus regenerated OH-
Under acidic conditions the carbonyl oxygen atom is first protonated by H3O + to make the carbonyl
group more strongly electrophilic. A neutral nucleophile, H2O, then uses a pair of electrons to bond to
the carbon atom of the C=O group, and two electrons from the C=O pi bond move onto the oxygen
atom. The positive charge on oxygen is thereby neutralized, while the nucleophile gains a positive
charge. Finally, deprotonation by water gives the neutral addition product and regenerates the H3O+
catalyst.
Nucleophilic Addition of Hydride and Grignard Reagents: Alcohol Formation

Addition of Hydride Reagents: Reduction
Aldehydes are reduced with sodium borohydride (NaBH4) to give primary alcohols, and ketones are
reduced similarly to give secondary alcohols.
Carbonyl reduction occurs by a typical nucleophilic addition mechanism under basic conditions.
Although the details of carbonyl-group reductions are complex, LiAlH4 and NaBH4 act as if they were
donors of hydride ion nucleophile, :H2, and the initially formed alkoxide ion intermediate is then
protonated by addition of aqueous acid.
The reaction is effectively irreversible because the reverse process would require expulsion of a very
poor leaving group.

Addition of Grignard Reagents, RMgX
Just as aldehydes and ketones undergo nucleophilic addition with hydride ion to give alcohols, they
undergo a similar addition with Grignard reagent nucleophiles, R:− +MgX. Aldehydes give secondary
alcohols on reaction with Grignard reagents in ether solution, and ketones give tertiary alcohols.
Grignard reaction begins with an acid–base complexation of Mg2+ to the carbonyl oxygen atom of the
aldehyde or ketone, thereby making the carbonyl group a better electrophile. Nucleophilic addition of
R:− then produces a tetrahedral magnesium alkoxide intermediate, and protonation by addition of water
or dilute aqueous acid in a separate step yields the neutral alcohol. Like reduction, Grignard additions
are effectively irreversible because a carbanion is too poor a leaving group to be expelled in a reversal
step.
Nucleophilic Addition of Amines: Imine and Enamine Formation

Primary amines, RNH2, add to aldehydes and ketones to yield imines, R2C= NR.
Secondary amines, R2NH, add similarly to yield enamines, R 2N-CR= CR2 (ene +amine =unsaturated
amine).

Imines are formed in a reversible, acid-catalyzed process that begins with nucleophilic addition of the
primary amine to the carbonyl group, followed by transfer of a proton from nitrogen to oxygen to yield a
neutral amino alcohol, or carbinolamine. Protonation of the carbinolamine oxygen by an acid catalyst
then converts the -OH into a better leaving group (-OH2+), and E1-like loss of water produces an
iminium ion. Loss of a proton from nitrogen gives the final product and regenerates the acid catalyst.

Reaction of an aldehyde or ketone with a secondary amine, R2NH, rather than a primary amine yields
an enamine. The process is identical to imine formation up to the iminium ion stage, but at this point
there is no proton on nitrogen that can be lost to form a neutral imine product. Instead, a proton is lost
from the neighboring carbon (the a carbon), yielding an enamine.

References:
Hart H., Hadad C., Craine L., & Hart D., (2016). Aldehydes and Ketones. In Hart H., Hadad C., Craine
L., & Hart D., Organic Chemistry (13th ed., pp. 254-259). Cengage Learning.

MELS 1015 - INORGANIC AND ORGANIC CHEMISTRY (LABORATORY) Page |1
REACTIONS OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

Carboxylic acids are similar in some respects to both alcohols and ketones. Like alcohols, carboxylic acids
can be deprotonated to give anions, which are good nucleophiles in SN2 reactions. Like ketones, carboxylic
acids undergo addition of nucleophiles to the carbonyl group. In addition, carboxylic acids undergo other
reactions characteristic of neither alcohols nor ketones.
ACID IONIZATION CONSTANTS

Carboxylic acids are weak acids. Values of Ka for most unsubstituted aliphatic and aromatic carboxylic
acids fall within the range from 10 −4 to 10 −5. The value of Ka for acetic acid, for example, is 1.74 × 10−5,
and the pKa of acetic acid is 4.76:
Carboxylic acids (pKa 4–5) are stronger acids than alcohols (pKa 16–18) because resonance stabilizes the
carboxylate anion by delocalizing its negative charge. No comparable resonance stabilization exists in
alkoxide ions.
Substitution at the α‐carbon of an atom or a group of atoms with higher electronegativity than carbon
increases the acidity of carboxylic acids, often by several orders of magnitude.
Compare, for example, the acidities of acetic acid (pKa 4.76) and chloroacetic acid (pKa 2.86). A single
chlorine substituent on the α‐carbon increases acid strength by nearly 100. Both dichloroacetic acid and
trichloroacetic acid are stronger acids than phosphoric acid (pKa 2.1):
The acid‐strengthening effect of halogen substitution falls off rather rapidly with increasing distance from
the carboxyl group. Although the acid ionization constant for 2‐chlorobutanoic acid (pKa 2.83) is 100 times
that for butanoic acid, the acid ionization constant for 4‐chlorobutanoic acid (pKa 4.52) is only about twice
that for butanoic acid:
REACTION WITH BASES

All carboxylic acids, whether soluble or insoluble in water, react with NaOH, KOH, and other strong bases
to form water‐soluble salts:
Sodium benzoate, a fungal growth inhibitor, is often added to packaged foods “to retard spoilage.”
Calcium propanoate is used for the same purpose. Carboxylic acids also form water‐soluble salts with
ammonia and amines:
Salts of carboxylic acids are named in the same manner as are salts of inorganic acids:
Name the cation first and then the anion. Derive the name of the anion from the name of the carboxylic
acid by dropping the suffix ‐ic acid and adding the suffix ‐ate. For example, the name of CH3CH2COO −
Na+ is sodium propanoate, and that of CH3(CH2)14COO− Na+ is sodium hexadecanoate (sodium
palmitate).
REDUCTION OF A CARBOXYL GROUP

The carboxyl group is one of the organic functional groups that is most resistant to reduction. It is not
affected by catalytic reduction (H 2/M) under conditions that easily reduce aldehydes and ketones to
alcohols and that reduce alkenes to alkanes. The most common reagent for the reduction of a carboxyl
group to a primary alcohol is the very powerful reducing agent lithium aluminum hydride.
Lithium aluminum hydride, LiAlH4, reduces a carboxyl group to a primary alcohol in excellent yield.
Reduction is most commonly carried out in diethyl ether or tetrahydrofuran (THF). The initial product is
an aluminum alkoxide, which is then treated with water to give the primary alcohol and lithium and
aluminum hydroxides:
These hydroxides are insoluble in diethyl ether or THF and are removed by filtration. Evaporation of the
solvent yields the primary alcohol.
Alkenes are generally not affected by metal hydride‐reducing reagents. These reagents function as
hydride ion donors; that is, they function as nucleophiles, and alkenes are not normally attacked by
nucleophiles.
SELECTIVE REDUCTION OF OTHER FUNCTIONAL GROUPS

Catalytic hydrogenation (at least under the same conditions used to reduce ketones and aldehydes) does
not reduce carboxyl groups, but does reduce alkenes to alkanes. Therefore, we can use H2/M to reduce
this functional group selectively in the presence of a carboxyl group:
Aldehydes and ketones are reduced to alcohols by both LiAlH4 and NaBH4. Only LiAlH4, however, reduces
carboxyl groups. Thus, it is possible to reduce an aldehyde or a ketone carbonyl group selectively in the
presence of a carboxyl group by using the less reactive NaBH4 as the reducing agent:
REACTIONS OF CARBOXYLIC ACID DERIVATIVES
HYDROLYSIS OF CARBOXYLIX ACID DERIVATIVES

Hydrolysis (Greek: hydro, water; lyein, separate) is a chemical process whereby a bond (or bonds) in a
molecule is broken by its reaction with water. Hydrolysis of a carboxylic acid derivative results in a
carboxylic acid.
A. ACID CHLORIDES
Low‐molecular‐weight acid chlorides react very rapidly with water to form carboxylic acids and HCl:
Higher‐molecular‐weight acid chlorides are less soluble and consequently react less rapidly with water.
B. ACID ANHYDRIDES
Acid anhydrides are generally less reactive than acid chlorides. The lower‐molecular‐weight anhydrides,
however, react readily with water to form two carboxylic acids:
C. ESTERS
Esters are hydrolyzed only very slowly, even in boiling water. Hydrolysis becomes considerably more rapid,
however, when esters are refluxed in aqueous acid or base. Esterification is an equilibrium reaction.
Hydrolysis of esters in aqueous acid is also an equilibrium reaction and proceeds by the same mechanism
as esterification, except in reverse. The role of the acid catalyst is to protonate the carbonyl oxygen (Step
1: Add a proton), thereby increasing the electrophilic character of the carbonyl carbon toward attack by
water (Step 2: Reaction of a nucleophile and an electrophile to form a new covalent bond) to form a
tetrahedral carbonyl addition intermediate. An internal proton transfer to the alkoxy group (Step 3:
Internal proton transfer) makes that group a good leaving group and allows the collapse of this
intermediate (Step 4: Collapse of the tetrahedral carbonyl addition intermediate to eject a leaving group
and regenerate the carbonyl group) to give a carboxylic acid and an alcohol. In this reaction, acid is a
catalyst; it is consumed in the first step, but another is generated at the end of the reaction:
Hydrolysis of esters may also be carried out with hot aqueous base, such as aqueous NaOH. Hydrolysis of
esters in aqueous base is often called saponification, a reference to the use of this reaction in the
manufacture of soaps. Each mole of ester hydrolyzed requires one mole of base, as shown in the following
balanced equation:
There are two major differences between the hydrolysis of esters in aqueous acid and that in aqueous
base:
1. For hydrolysis in aqueous acid, acid is required in only catalytic amounts. For hydrolysis in aqueous
base, base is required in equimolar amounts, because it is a reactant, not just a catalyst.
2. Hydrolysis of an ester in aqueous acid is reversible. Hydrolysis in aqueous base is irreversible because
a carboxylic acid anion is not attacked by ROH.
D. AMIDES
Amides require considerably more vigorous conditions for hydrolysis in both acid and base than do esters.
Amides undergo hydrolysis in hot aqueous acid to give a carboxylic acid and ammonia. Hydrolysis is driven
to completion by the acid–base reaction between ammonia or the amine and acid to form an ammonium
salt. One mole of acid is required per mole of amide:
In aqueous base, the products of amide hydrolysis are a carboxylate ion and ammonia or an amine. Base‐
catalyzed hydrolysis is driven to completion by the acid–base reaction between the carboxylic acid and
base to form a salt. One mole of base is required per mole of amide:
Remember that, although all four functional groups react with water, there are large differences in the
rates and experimental conditions under which they undergo hydrolysis.
REACTION WITH ALCOHOLS

Carboxylic acid derivatives (except for amides) react with alcohols to give esters.
A. ACID CHLORIDES
Acid chlorides react with alcohols to give an ester and HCl:
Because acid chlorides are so reactive toward even weak nucleophiles such as alcohols, no catalyst is
necessary for these reactions. Phenol and substituted phenols also react with acid chlorides to give esters.
B. ACID ANHYDRIDES
Acid anhydrides react with alcohols to give one mole of ester and one mole of a carboxylic acid.
Thus, the reaction of an alcohol with an anhydride is a useful method for synthesizing esters. Aspirin is
synthesized on an industrial scale by reacting acetic anhydride with salicylic acid:
C. ESTERS
When treated with an alcohol in the presence of an acid catalyst, esters undergo an exchange reaction
called transesterification. In this reaction, the original OR group of the ester is exchanged for a new OR
group. In the following example, the transesterification can be driven to completion by heating the
reaction at a temperature above the boiling point of methanol (65 °C) so that methanol distills from the
reaction mixture:
D. AMIDES
Amides do not react with alcohols under any experimental conditions. Alcohols are not strong enough
nucleophiles to attack the carbonyl group of an amide.
As with reactions of these same functional groups with water, there are large differences in the rates and
experimental conditions under which they undergo reactions with alcohols. At one extreme are acid
chlorides and anhydrides, which react rapidly; at the other extreme are amides, which do not react at all.
REACTION WITH AMMONIA AND AMINES

Carboxylic acid derivatives (except for amides) react with ammonia and amines to give amides.
A. ACID CHLORIDES
Acid chlorides react readily with ammonia and with 1° and 2° amines to form amides. Complete conversion
of an acid chloride to an amide requires two moles of ammonia or amine: one to form the amide and one
to neutralize the hydrogen chloride formed:
B. ACID ANHYDRIDES
Acid anhydrides react with ammonia and with 1° and 2° amines to form amides. As with acid chlorides,
two moles of ammonia or amine are required—one to form the amide and one to neutralize the carboxylic
acid by‐product. To help you see what happens, this reaction is broken into two steps, which, when added
together, give the net reaction for the reaction of an anhydride with ammonia:
C. ESTERS
Esters react with ammonia and with 1° and 2° amines to form amides:
Because an alkoxide anion is a poor leaving group compared with a halide or carboxylate ion, esters are
less reactive toward ammonia, 1° amines, and 2° amines than are acid chlorides or acid anhydrides.
D. AMIDES
Amides do not react with ammonia or amines.
REDUCTION OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS DERIVATIVES

A. ESTERS
An ester is reduced by lithium aluminum hydride to two alcohols. The alcohol derived from the acyl group
is primary:
Sodium borohydride is not normally used to reduce esters because the reaction is very slow. Because of
this lower reactivity of sodium borohydride toward esters, it is possible to reduce the carbonyl group of
an aldehyde or a ketone to a hydroxyl group with this reagent without reducing an ester or a carboxyl
group in the same molecule:
B. AMIDES
Reduction of amides by lithium aluminum hydride can be used to prepare 1°, 2°, or 3° amines, depending
on the degree of substitution of the amide:
REACTION OF ESTERS WITH GRIGNARD REAGENTS

Treating a formic ester with two moles of a Grignard reagent, followed by hydrolysis of the magnesium
alkoxide salt in aqueous acid, gives a 2° alcohol, whereas treating an ester other than a formate with a
Grignard reagent gives a 3° alcohol in which two of the groups bonded to the carbon bearing the -OH
group are the same:
MELS 1015 - INORGANIC AND ORGANIC CHEMISTRY (LABORATORY) P a g e | 10
Reaction of an ester with a Grignard reagent involves the formation of two successive tetrahedral carbonyl
addition compounds. The first collapses to give a new carbonyl compound—an aldehyde from a formic
ester, a ketone from all other esters. The second intermediate is stable and, when protonated, gives the
final alcohol. It is important to realize that it is not possible to use RMgX and an ester to prepare an
aldehyde or a ketone: The intermediate aldehyde or ketone is more reactive than the ester and reacts
immediately with the Grignard reagent to give a tertiary alcohol.
MELS 1015 – INORGANIC AND ORGANIC CHEMISTRY (LABORATORY) 1|Page
SYNTHESIS OF AMINES
REDUCTION OF NITRILES
Reduction of a nitrile with LiAlH4 gives a primary amine, RNH2. The reaction occurs by
nucleophilic addition of hydride ion to the polar C=N bond, yielding an imine anion, which still
contains a CPN bond and therefore undergoes a second nucleophilic addition of hydride to give
a dianion. Both monoanion and dianion intermediates are undoubtedly stabilized by Lewis acid–
base complexation to an aluminum species, facilitating the second addition that would otherwise
be difficult. Protonation of the dianion by addition of water in a subsequent step gives the amine.
The two-step sequence of SN2 displacement with CN- followed by reduction thus converts an alkyl
halide into a primary alkylamine having one more carbon atom.
REDUCTION OF AMIDES
Amide reduction converts carboxylic acids and their derivatives into amines with the same number
of carbon atoms.
REDUCTION OF NITROBENZENES
Arylamines are usually prepared by nitration of an aromatic starting material, followed by
reduction of the nitro group. The reduction step can be carried out in many different ways,
depending on the circumstances. Catalytic hydrogenation over platinum works well but is often
incompatible with the presence elsewhere in the molecule of other reducible groups, such as C=C
bonds or carbonyl groups. Iron, zinc, tin, and tin (II) chloride (SnCl2) are also effective when used
in acidic aqueous solution. Tin (II) chloride is particularly mild and is often used when other
reducible functional groups are present.
SN2 ALKYLATION OF ALKYL HALIDES

Ammonia and other amines are good nucleophiles in S N2 reactions. As a result, the simplest
method of alkylamine synthesis is by SN2 alkylation of ammonia or an alkylamine with an alkyl
halide. If ammonia is used, a primary amine results; if a primary amine is used, a secondary amine
results; and so on. Even tertiary amines react rapidly with alkyl halides to yield quaternary
ammonium salts, R4N+ X-.
Unfortunately, these reactions don’t stop cleanly after a single alkylation has occurred. Because
ammonia and primary amines have similar reactivity, the initially formed monoalkylated substance
often undergoes further reaction to yield a mixture of products. Even secondary and tertiary
amines undergo further alkylation, although to a lesser extent.
For example, treatment of 1-bromooctane with a twofold excess of ammonia leads to a mixture
containing only 45% of octylamine. A nearly equal amount of dioctylamine is produced by double
alkylation, along with smaller amounts of trioctylamine and tetraoctylammonium bromide.
A better method for preparing primary amines is to use azide ion, N3-, as the nucleophile rather
than ammonia for SN2 reaction with a primary or secondary alkyl halide. The product is an alkyl
azide, which is not nucleophilic, so overalkylation can’t occur. Subsequent reduction of the alkyl
azide with LiAlH then leads to the desired primary amine. Although the method works well, low-
molecular-weight alkyl azides are explosive and must be handled carefully.
GABRIEL AMINE SYNTHESIS

Another alternative for preparing a primary amine from an alkyl halide is the Gabriel amine
synthesis, which uses a phthalimide alkylation. An imide (-CONHCO-) is similar to a b-keto ester
in that the acidic N]H hydrogen is flanked by two carbonyl groups. Thus, imides are deprotonated
by such bases as KOH, and the resultant anions are readily alkylated in a reaction similar to the
acetoacetic ester synthesis. Basic hydrolysis of the N-alkylated imide then yields a primary amine
product. The imide hydrolysis step is analogous to the hydrolysis of an amide.
REDUCTIVE AMINATION OF ALDEHYDES AND KETONES

Amines can be synthesized in a single step by treatment of an aldehyde or ketone with ammonia
or an amine in the presence of a reducing agent, a process called reductive amination. For
example, amphetamine, a central nervous system stimulant, is prepared commercially by
reductive amination of phenyl-2-propanone with ammonia using hydrogen gas over a nickel
catalyst as the reducing agent. In the laboratory, either NaBH4 or the related NaBH(OAc)3 is
commonly used (OAc = acetate).
Reductive amination takes place by the pathway shown in Figure 24.4. An imine intermediate is
first formed by a nucleophilic addition reaction, and the C=N bond of the imine is then reduced to
the amine, much as the C=O bond of a ketone can be reduced to an alcohol.
Ammonia, primary amines, and secondary amines can all be used in the reductive amination
reaction, yielding primary, secondary, and tertiary amines, respectively.
Reductive aminations also occur in various biological pathways. In the biosynthesis of the amino
acid proline, for instance, glutamate 5-semialdehyde undergoes internal imine formation to give
1-pyrrolinium 5-carboxylate, which is then reduced by nucleophilic addition of hydride ion to the
C=N bond. Reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, NADH, acts as the biological reducing
agent.
HOFMANN AND CURTIUS REARRANGEMENTS
HOFMANN REARRANGEMENT OF AMIDES

Carboxylic acid derivatives can be converted into primary amines with loss of one carbon atom
by both the Hofmann rearrangement and the Curtius rearrangement. Although the Hofmann
rearrangement involves a primary amide and the Curtius rearrangement involves an acyl azide,
both proceed through similar mechanisms.
Hofmann rearrangement occurs when a primary amide, RCONH2, is treated with Br2 and base.
The overall mechanism is lengthy, but most of the individual steps have been encountered before.
The bromination of an amide in steps 1 and 2 is analogous to the base-promoted bromination of

a ketone enolate ion, and the rearrangement of the bromoamide anion in step 4 is analogous to
a carbocation rearrangement. Nucleophilic addition of water to the isocyanate carbonyl group in
step 5 is a typical carbonyl-group process, as is the final decarboxylation step 6.
Despite its mechanistic complexity, the Hofmann rearrangement often gives high yields of both
arylamines and alkylamines. For example, the appetite-suppressant drug phentermine is
prepared commercially by Hofmann rearrangement of a primary amide. Commonly known by the
name Fen-Phen, the combination of phentermine with another appetite-suppressant,

fenfluramine, is suspected of causing heart damage.
CURTIUS REARRANGEMENT OF ACYL AZIDES

The Curtius rearrangement, like the Hofmann rearrangement, involves migration of an -R group
from the C=O carbon atom to the neighboring nitrogen with simultaneous loss of a leaving group.
The reaction takes place on heating an acyl azide that is itself prepared by nucleophilic acyl
substitution of an acid chloride.
Also like the Hofmann rearrangement, the Curtius rearrangement is often used commercially. The
antidepressant drug tranylcypromine, for instance, is made by Curtius rearrangement of 2-
phenylcyclopropanecarbonyl chloride.
REACTIONS OF AMINES
ALKYLATION AND ACYLATION
Primary, secondary, and tertiary amines can be alkylated by reaction with a primary alkyl halide.
Alkylations of primary and secondary amines are difficult to control and often give mixtures of
products, but tertiary amines are cleanly alkylated to give quaternary ammonium salts. Primary
and secondary (but not tertiary) amines can also be acylated by nucleophilic acyl substitution
reaction with an acid chloride or an acid anhydride to yield an amide.
Note that overacylation of the nitrogen does not occur because the amide product is much less
nucleophilic and less reactive than the starting amine.
HOFMANN ELIMINATION
Like alcohols, amines can be converted into alkenes by an elimination reaction. But because an
amide ion, NH2-, is such a poor leaving group, it must first be converted into a better leaving
group. In the Hofmann elimination reaction, an amine is completely methylated by reaction with
an excess amount of iodomethane to produce the corresponding quaternary ammonium salt. This
salt then undergoes elimination to give an alkene on heating with a base, typically silver oxide,
Ag2O. For example, 1-methylpentylamine is converted into 1-hexene.
Silver oxide acts by exchanging iodide ion for hydroxide ion in the quaternary salt, thus providing
the base necessary for elimination. The actual elimination step is an E2 reaction in which
hydroxide ion removes a proton at the same time that the positively charged nitrogen atom leaves.
Unlike what happens in other E2 reactions, the major product of the Hofmann elimination is the
less highly substituted alkene rather than the more highly substituted one, as shown by the
reaction of (1-methylbutyl) trimethylammonium hydroxide to give 1-pentene rather than the
alternative 2-pentene. The reason for this non-Zaitsev result is probably steric. Because of the
large size of the trialkylamine leaving group, the base must abstract a hydrogen from the more
accessible, least hindered position.
The Hofmann elimination reaction is not often used today in the laboratory, but analogous
biological eliminations occur frequently, although usually with protonated ammonium ions rather
than quaternary ammonium salts.
DIAZONIUM COUPLING REACTIONS

Arenediazonium salts undergo a coupling reaction with activated aromatic rings such as phenols
and arylamines to yield brightly colored azo compounds, Ar-N=N-Ar’.
Diazonium coupling reactions are typical electrophilic aromatic substitutions in which the
positively charged diazonium ion is the electrophile that reacts with the electron-rich ring of a
phenol or arylamine. Reaction usually occurs at the para position.
Azo-coupled products are widely used as dyes for textiles because their extended conjugated p
electron system causes them to absorb in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
p-(Dimethylamino)-azobenzene, is a bright yellow compound that was at one time used as a
coloring agent in margarine.
** END OF LESSON 16 **
CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF BIOMOLECULES
CARBOHYDRATES
Anomeric Carbons; Mutarotation
In the acyclic, aldehyde form of glucose, C-1 is achiral, but in the cyclic structures, this carbon becomes
chiral. Consequently, two hemiacetal structures are possible, depending on the configuration at the new
chiral center. The hemiacetal carbon, the carbon that forms the new stereogenic center, is called the
anomeric carbon. Two monosaccharides that differ only in configuration at the anomeric center are
anomers (a special kind of epimers). Anomers are called a or b, depending on the position of the hydroxyl
group. For monosaccharides in the d-series, the hydroxyl group is “down” in the a anomer and “up” in the
b anomer, when the structure is written in the usual way.
The a and b forms of d-glucose have identical configurations at every stereogenic center except at C-1,
the anomeric carbon. The a and b forms of d-glucose are diastereomers - they have different physical
properties; they have different melting points and different specific optical rotations.
The a and b forms of d-glucose interconvert in aqueous solution. For example, if crystalline a-d-glucose is
dissolved in water, the specific rotation drops gradually from an initial value of 1112° to an equilibrium
value of 152°. Starting with the pure crystalline b form results in a gradual rise in specific rotation from an
initial 119° to the same equilibrium value of 152°. These changes in optical rotation are called
mutarotation. Starting with either pure hemiacetal form, the ring can open to the acyclic aldehyde, which
can then recyclize to give either the a or the b form. Eventually, an equilibrium mixture is obtained.
At equilibrium, an aqueous solution of d-glucose contains 35.5% of the a form and 64.5% of the b form.
Esterification and Etherification from Monosaccharides

Monosaccharides contain hydroxyl groups. It is not surprising, then, that they undergo reactions typical
of alcohols. For example, they can be converted to esters by reaction with acid halides or anhydrides. The
conversion of b-D-glucose to its pentaacetate by reaction with excess acetic anhydride is typical; all five
hydroxyl groups, including the hydroxyl at the anomeric C-1, are esterified.
The hydroxyl groups can also be converted to ethers by treatment with an alkyl halide and a base (the
Williamson synthesis). Because sugars are sensitive to strong bases, the mild base silver oxide is preferred.
Whereas sugars tend to be soluble in water and insoluble in organic solvents, the reverse is true for their
esters and ethers. This often facilitates their purification and manipulation with organic reagents.
Reduction of Monosaccharides
The carbonyl group of aldoses and ketoses can be reduced by various reagents. The products are polyols,
called alditols. For example, catalytic hydrogenation or reduction with sodium borohydride (NaBH4)
converts D-glucose to D-glucitol (also called sorbitol).
Reaction occurs by reduction of the small amount of aldehyde in equilibrium with the cyclic hemiacetal.
As that aldehyde is reduced, the equilibrium shifts to the right, so that eventually all of the sugar is
converted. Sorbitol is used commercially as a sweetener and sugar substitute.
Oxidation of Monosaccharides
Although aldoses exist primarily in cyclic hemiacetal forms, these structures are in equilibrium with a small
but finite amount of the open-chain aldehyde. These aldehyde groups can be easily oxidized to acids. The
products are called aldonic acids. For example, D-glucose is easily oxidized to d-gluconic acid.
The oxidation of aldoses is so easy that they react with such mild oxidizing agents as Tollens’ reagent (Ag
in aqueous ammonia), Fehling’s reagent (Cu complexed with tartrate ion), or Benedict’s reagent (Cu
complexed with citrate ion). With Tollens’ reagent, they give a silver mirror test, and with the copper
reagents, the blue solution gives a red precipitate of cuprous oxide, Cu2O. A carbohydrate that reacts with
Ag1 or Cu21 is called a reducing sugar because reduction of the metal accompanies oxidation of the
aldehyde group.
Stronger oxidizing agents, such as aqueous nitric acid, oxidize the aldehyde group and the primary alcohol
group, producing dicarboxylic acids called aldaric acids. For example, d-glucose gives d-glucaric acid.
Preparation of Glycosides from Monosaccharides
Because monosaccharides exist as cyclic hemiacetals, they can react with one equivalent of an alcohol to
form acetals. An example is the reaction of b-D-glucose with methanol.
Note: only the -OH on the anomeric carbon is replaced by an -OR group. Such acetals are called
glycosides, and the bond from the anomeric carbon to the OR group is called the glycosidic bond.
Glycosides are named from the corresponding monosaccharide by changing the -e ending to -ide.
The acid catalyst can protonate any of the six oxygen atoms, since each has unshared electron pairs and
is basic. However, only protonation of the hydroxyl oxygen at C-1 leads, after water loss, to a resonance-
stabilized carbocation. In the final step, methanol can attack from either “face” of the six-membered ring,
to give either the b-glycoside as shown or the a-glycoside.
Naturally occurring alcohols or phenols often occur in cells combined as a glycoside with some sugar—
most commonly, glucose. In this way, the many hydroxyl groups of the sugar portion of the glycoside
solubilize compounds that would otherwise be insoluble in cellular protoplasm. An example is the bitter-
tasting glucoside salicin, which occurs in willow bark and whose fever-reducing power was known to the
ancients.
The glycosidic bond is the key to understanding the structure of oligosaccharides and polysaccharides.
Hydrolysis of Polysaccharides
Carbohydrates are usually classified according to their structure as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or
polysaccharides. The term saccharide comes from Latin (saccharum, sugar) and refers to the sweet taste
of some simple carbohydrates. The three classes of carbohydrates are related to each other through
hydrolysis.
For example, hydrolysis of starch, a polysaccharide, gives first maltose and then glucose.
Monosaccharides (or simple sugars, as they are sometimes called) are carbohydrates that cannot be
hydrolyzed to simpler compounds. Polysaccharides contain many monosaccharide units—sometimes
hundreds or even thousands. Usually, but not always, the units are identical. Two of the most important
polysaccharides, starch and cellulose, contain linked units of the same monosaccharide, glucose.
Oligosaccharides (from the Greek oligos, few) contain at least two and generally no more than a few
linked monosaccharide units. They may be called disaccharides, trisaccharides, and so on, depending on
the number of units, which may be the same or different. Maltose, for example, is a disaccharide made of
two glucose units, but sucrose, another disaccharide, is made of two different monosaccharide units:
glucose and fructose.
AMINO ACIDS
The Acid–Base Properties of Amino Acids
The carboxylic acid and amine functional groups are simultaneously present in amino acids. Amino acids
with one amino group and one carboxyl group are better represented by a dipolar ion structure.
The amino group is protonated and present as an ammonium ion, whereas the carboxyl group has lost its
proton and is present as a carboxylate anion. This dipolar structure is consistent with the salt-like
properties of amino acids, which have rather high melting points (even the simplest, glycine, melts at
233°C) and relatively low solubilities in organic solvents.
Amino acids are amphoteric. They can behave as acids and donate a proton to a strong base, or they can
behave as bases and accept a proton from a strong acid. These behaviors are expressed in the following
equilibria for an amino acid with one amino and one carboxyl group:
Figure below shows a titration curve for alanine, a typical amino acid of this kind. At low pH (acidic
solution), the amino acid is in the form of a substituted ammonium ion. At high pH (basic solution), it is
present as a substituted carboxylate ion. At some intermediate pH (for alanine, pH 6.02), the amino acid
is present as the dipolar ion with an ammonium (-NH3) and a carboxylate (-CO2) unit. A simple rule to
remember for any acidic site is that if the pH of the solution is less than the pKa, the proton is on; if the
pH of the solution is greater than the pKa, the proton is off.
Note that the charge on an amino acid changes as the pH changes. At low pH, for example, the charge on
alanine is positive; at high pH, it is negative; and near neutrality, the ion is dipolar. If placed in an electric
field, the amino acid will therefore migrate toward the cathode (negative electrode) at low pH and toward
the anode (positive electrode) at high pH. At some intermediate pH, called the isoelectric point (pI), the
amino acid will be dipolar and have a net charge of zero. It will be unable to move toward either electrode.
In general, amino acids with one amino group and one carboxyl group, and no other acidic or basic groups
in their structure, have two pKa values: one around 2 to 3 for proton loss from the carboxyl group and the
other around 9 to 10 for proton loss from the ammonium ion. The isoelectric point is about halfway
between the two pKa values, near pH 6.
The situation is more complex with amino acids containing two acidic or two basic groups.
The Acid–Base Properties of Amino Acids with More Than One Acidic or Basic Group
Aspartic and glutamic acids have two carboxyl groups and one amino group. In strong acid (low pH), all
three of these groups are in their acidic form (protonated). As the pH is raised and the solution becomes
more basic, each group in succession gives up a proton. The equilibria are shown for aspartic acid, with
the three pKa values over the equilibrium arrows:
The isoelectric point for aspartic acid, the pH at which it is mainly in the neutral dipolar form, is 2.87 (in
general, the pI is close to the average of the two pKa’s on either side of the neutral, dipolar species). The
situation differs for amino acids with two basic groups and only one carboxyl group. With lysine, for
example, the equilibria are
The pI for lysine comes in the basic region, at 9.74. The second basic groups in arginine and histidine are
not simple amino groups. They are a guanidine group and an imidazole ring, respectively, shown in color.
The most protonated forms of these two amino acids are
Esterification
In addition to their acidic and basic behavior, amino acids undergo other reactions typical of carboxylic
acids or amines. For example, the carboxyl group can be esterified:
Amide Formation
The amino group can be acylated to an amide:
These types of reactions are useful in temporarily modifying or protecting either of the two functional
groups, especially during the controlled linking of amino acids to form peptides or proteins.
The Ninhydrin Reaction

Ninhydrin is a useful reagent for detecting amino acids and determining the concentrations of their
solutions. It is the hydrate of a cyclic triketone, and when it reacts with an amino acid, a violet dye is
produced. The overall reaction, whose mechanism is complex and need not concern us in detail here, is
as follows:
Only the nitrogen atom of the violet dye comes from the amino acid; the rest of the amino acid is
converted to an aldehyde and carbon dioxide. Therefore, the same violet dye is produced from all a-
amino acids with a primary amino group, and the intensity of its color is directly proportional to the
concentration of the amino acid present. Only proline, which has a secondary amino group, reacts
differently to give a yellow dye, but this, too, can be used for analysis.
PROTEINS AND PEPTIDES

Amino Acid Analysis
Since peptides and proteins consist of amino acids held together by amide bonds, they can be hydrolyzed
to their amino acid components. This hydrolysis is typically accomplished by heating the peptide or protein
with 6 M HCl at 110°C for 24 hours.
An instrument called an amino acid analyzer performs these tasks automatically in the following way. The
amino acid mixture from the complete hydrolysis of a few milligrams of the peptide or protein is placed
at the top of a column packed with mate rial that selectively absorbs amino acids. The packing is an
insoluble resin that contains strongly acidic groups. These groups protonate the amino acids. Next, a
buffer solution of known pH is pumped through the column. The amino acids pass through the column at
different rates, depending on their structure and basicity, and are thus separated.
The column effluent is met by a stream of ninhydrin reagent. Therefore, the effluent is alternately violet
or colorless, depending on whether or not an amino acid is being eluted from the column. The intensity
of the color is automatically recorded as a function of the volume of effluent. Calibration with known
amino acid mixtures allows each amino acid to be identified by the appearance time of its peak.
Furthermore, the intensity of each peak gives a quantitative measure of the amount of each amino acid
that is present. Figure below shows a typical plot obtained from an automatic amino acid analyzer.
Sanger’s Reagent
Frederick Sanger devised a method for sequencing peptides based on the observation that the N-terminal
amino acid differs from all others in the chain by having a free amino group. If that amino group were to
react with some reagent prior to hydrolysis, then after hydrolysis, that amino acid would be labeled and
could be identified. Sanger’s reagent is 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene, which reacts with the NH2 group of
amino acids and peptides to give yellow 2,4-dinitrophenyl (DNP) derivatives.
Hydrolysis of a peptide treated this way would give the DNP derivative of the N-terminal amino acid; other
amino acids in the chain would be unlabeled. In this way, the N-terminal amino acid could be identified.
Sanger used his method with great ingenuity to deduce the complete sequence of insulin, a protein
hormone with 51 amino acid units. But the method suffers in that it identifies only the N-terminal amino
acid. An ideal method for sequencing a peptide or protein would have a reagent that clips off just one
amino acid at a time from the end of the chain, and identifies it. Such a method was devised by Pehr
Edman (professor at the University of Lund in Sweden), and it is now widely used.
Edman’s reagent is phenyl isothiocyanate, C6H5N=C=S. The steps in selectively labeling and releasing the
N-terminal amino acid. In the first step, the N-terminal amino acid acts as a nucleophile toward the CPS
bond of the reagent to form a thiourea derivative. In the second step, the N-terminal amino acid is
removed in the form of a heterocyclic compound, a phenylthiohydantoin. The specific
phenylthiohydantoin that is formed can be identified by comparison with reference compounds
separately prepared from the known amino acids. Then the two steps are repeated to identify the next
amino acid, and so on. The method has been automated, so currently amino acid “sequenators” can easily
determine, in a day, the sequence of the first 50 or so amino acids in a peptide, starting at the N-terminal
end. But the Edman method cannot be used indefinitely, due to the gradual buildup of impurities.
Edman degradation
If a protein contains several hundred amino acid units, it is best to first partially hydrolyze the chain to
smaller fragments that can be separated and subsequently sequenced by the Edman method. Certain
chemicals or enzymes are used to cleave proteins at particular peptide bonds. For example, the enzyme
trypsin (an intestinal digestive enzyme) specifically hydrolyzes polypeptides only at the carboxy end of
arginine and lysine.
LIPIDS
Saponification of a Triglyceride
Fats and oils are familiar parts of daily life. Although fats are solids and oils are liquids, they have the same
basic organic structure. Fats and oils are triesters of glycerol and are called triglycerides. When we boil a
fat or oil with alkali and acidify the resulting solution, we obtain glycerol and a mixture of fatty acids. The
reaction is called saponification.
There are two types of triglycerides: simple triglycerides, in which all three fatty acids are identical, and
mixed triglycerides.
In general, a particular fat or oil consists not of a single triglyceride but of a complex mixture of
triglycerides. For this reason, the composition of a fat or oil is usually expressed in terms of the
percentages of the various acids obtained from it by saponification.
What is it that makes some triglycerides solids (fats) and others liquids (oils)?
- Oils contain a much higher percentage of unsaturated fatty acids than do fats. For example, most
vegetable oils (such as corn oil or soybean oil) give about 80% unsaturated acids on hydrolysis. For
fats (such as beef tallow), the figure is much lower, just a little over 50%.
- The melting points of unsaturated fatty acids are appreciably lower than those of saturated acids.
Compare, for example, the melting points of stearic and oleic acids, which differ structurally by only
one double bond. The same difference applies to triglycerides: The more double bonds in the fatty
acid portion of the triester, the lower its melting point.
The reason for the effect of saturation or unsaturation on the melting point becomes apparent when we
examine space-filling models. Figure 15.1 shows a model of a fully saturated triglyceride. The long,
saturated chains are able to adopt fully extended, staggered conformations. Therefore, they can pack
together fairly regularly, as in a crystal. Consequently, saturated triglycerides are usually solids at room
temperature.
The result of introducing just one cis double bond in one of the chains is shown in Figure 15.2. Clearly, the
chains in this kind of molecule (and the molecules themselves, when many are close to one another)
cannot align nicely in a crystalline array. Thus, the substance remains a liquid. The more double bonds in
the fatty acid chain, the more disordered the structure and the lower the melting point.
Saponification of Fats and Oils; Soap

When a fat or oil is heated with alkali (e.g., NaOH), the ester is converted to glycerol and the salts of fatty
acids. The reaction is illustrated here with the saponification of glyceryl tripalmitate.
The salts (usually sodium) of long-chain fatty acids are soaps. Soaps are made by either a batch process
or a continuous process. In the batch process, the fat or oil is heated with a slight excess of alkali (e.g.,
NaOH) in an open kettle. When saponification is complete, salt is added to precipitate the soap as thick
curds. The water layer, which contains salt, glycerol, and excess alkali, is drawn off, and the glycerol is
recovered by distillation. The crude soap curds, which contain some salt, alkali, and glycerol as impurities,
are purified by boiling with water and reprecipitating with salt several times. Finally, the curds are boiled
with enough water to form a smooth mixture that, on standing, gives a homogeneous upper layer of soap.
This soap may be sold without further processing, as a cheap industrial soap. Various fillers, such as sand
or pumice, may be added, to make scouring soaps. Other treatments transform the crude soap to toilet
soaps, powdered or flaked soaps, medicated or perfumed soaps, laundry soaps, liquid soaps, or (by
blowing air in) floating soaps.
In the continuous process, which is more common today, the fat or oil is hydrolyzed by water at high
temperatures and pressures in the presence of a catalyst, usually a zinc soap. The fat or oil and the water
are introduced continuously into opposite ends of a larger reactor, and the fatty acids and glycerol are
removed as formed, by distillation. The acids are then carefully neutralized with an appropriate amount
of alkali to make soap.
Hydrogenation of Triglyceride (Hardening)
Vegetable oils, which are highly unsaturated, are converted into solid vegetable fats, such as Crisco, by
catalytically hydrogenating some or all of the double bonds. This process, called hardening, is illustrated
by the hydrogenation of glyceryl trioleate to glyceryl tristearate.
Margarine is made by hydrogenating cottonseed, soybean, peanut, or corn oil until the desired butter-
like consistency is obtained. The product may be churned with milk and artificially colored to mimic
butter’s flavor and appearance.
NUCLEIC ACIDS
Hydrolysis of Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are linear, chain-like macromolecules that were first isolated from cell nuclei. Hydrolysis of
nucleic acids gives nucleotides, which are the building blocks of nucleic acids, just as amino acids are the
building blocks of proteins.
Hydrolysis of a nucleotide gives 1 mole each of phosphoric acid and a nucleoside. The nucleoside can be
hydrolyzed further in aqueous acid, to one equivalent each of a sugar and a heterocyclic base.
The overall structure of the nucleic acid itself is a macromolecule with a backbone of sugar molecules
connected by phosphate links and with a base attached to each sugar unit.
** END OF WEEK 17 **

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MELS 1015:Inorganic and Organic Chemistry

Chemistry is a rational and empirical study of matter; its composition, structure,

Relationship between Chemistry and other branches of Science

1. Mixtures-combination of two or more substance not chemically combined. It

2. Pure Substance-matter has definite composition and distinct properties. It can

 Elements-made up of only one kind of matter. It cannot be decomposed

 Compounds-made up of two or more elements. It can be decomposed by

1. Physical Property-use to determine the qualities through the senses. It can be

Kinds of Changes in Matter

*** END of LESSON 1***

DRILLS/ ACTIVITIES/ APPLICATION

Code 591 Lec MELS 1015 - Inorganic and Organic Chemistry

PERIODIC TABLE & ELECTRON CONFIGURATION

Modern Periodic Table

Periods and Groups

Group Special Name

2A or 2 ALKALINE EARTH METALS

Chemistry is a rational and empirical study of matter; its composition, structure,

Relationship between Chemistry and other branches of Science

1. Mixtures-combination of two or more substance not chemically combined. It

2. Pure Substance-matter has definite composition and distinct properties. It can

 Elements-made up of only one kind of matter. It cannot be decomposed

 Compounds-made up of two or more elements. It can be decomposed by

1. Physical Property-use to determine the qualities through the senses. It can be

Kinds of Changes in Matter

then termination of the new ones. There is change in the composition.

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I. Types of Chemical Bonds

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Lewis Structure and the Octet Rule

A. The Octet Rule

Figure 1: Valence electrons

C. Writing Lewis Structures

The basic steps are as follows:

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D. Lewis Structures of Molecular Compounds and Polyatomic Ions

Step 1: List the known quantities and plan the problem.

Molecular formula of sulfate ion: 𝐒𝐎4 2−

1S atom =6 valence electrons

4O atoms =4×6=24valence electrons

add 2 electrons for the 2− charge of the ion

= total of 32 valence electrons

Figure 9.6.29.6.2: The sulfate ion.

III. Molecular Formulas

 A molecular formula consists of the chemical symbols for the constituent

A. Formulas of Ionic Compounds

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IV. Names and Formulas of Chemical Compounds

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𝐇− hydride ion 𝐎𝟐− oxide ion 𝐍𝟑− nitride ion

A few polyatomic anions also have names ending in -ide:

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d. Anions derived by adding H+ to an oxyanion are named by adding as a prefix the

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CaCl2 Calcium chloride

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