Antenna Array

Lecture
9.1
EC 15-1702
Antennas and Propagation
Acknowledgement:
• Prof. C. A Balanis, Antenna Theory, Analysis and design, John
Wiley student edition, 3/e, (2012), ISBN:978-81-265-2422-8
• ieeexplore.ieee.org
• PhD Theses/Journals
• Other Sources…
Students are requested to refrain from using the learning resources outside this domain
October 2023 19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 - Array of 2 Isotropic Sources 1
Lecture
Module II 9.1
Radiation from an infinitesimal dipole

Total power radiated and its radiation resistance.
Radiation from half wave dipole
Radiation fields and its radiation resistance - near field and far field.
Small loop antennas
Antenna arrays:
Point Sources - arrays of 2 Isotropic Sources and N element point sources, , Principle of
Pattern Multiplication, Uniform Linear Arrays - Broadside Arrays, End fire Arrays
Ref: Balanis, Chapter 6 “Arrays: Linear, Planar, and Circular”
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/117/101/117101056/
Module 7 Antennas/Section 10 Antenna Arrays
19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 - Array of 2

October 2023 2
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.1
Course Outcomes
On successful completion of teaching-learning and valuation activities, a

student would be able :
1. To understand basic terminology, parameters and concepts of

Antennas
2. To analyze the electric and magnetic field of various basic antennas
3. To study the performance of Antenna Arrays
4. To acquire knowledge on antenna types as well as their application
5. To understand the propagation of the waves at different frequencies
through different layers of atmosphere

October 2023 3
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
Antenna Arrays 9.1
Usually the radiation pattern of a single element is relatively wide, and each element
provides low values of directivity (gain).
In many applications it is necessary to design antennas with very directive

characteristics (very high gains) to meet the demands of long distance
communication.
This can only be accomplished by increasing the electrical size of the antenna.
Enlarging the dimensions of single elements often leads to more directive
characteristics.
Another way to enlarge the dimensions of the antenna, without necessarily

increasing the size of the individual elements, is to form an assembly of radiating
elements in an electrical and geometrical configuration. This new antenna, formed by
multielements, is referred to as an array
October 2023 4
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
Array Pattern 9.1
The total field of the array is

determined by the vector addition
of the fields radiated by the
individual elements.
To provide very directive patterns,

it is necessary that the fields from
the elements of the array interfere
constructively (add) in the desired
directions and interfere
destructively (cancel each other) in
the remaining space.

October 2023 5
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
Factors controlling the Array Pattern 9.1
In an array of identical elements, there are at least five controls that can be
used to shape the overall pattern of the antenna.
These are:
1. the geometrical configuration of the overall array (linear, circular,

rectangular, spherical, etc.)
2. the relative displacement between the elements
3. the excitation amplitude of the individual elements
4. the excitation phase of the individual elements
5. the relative pattern of the individual elements

October 2023 6
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.1
Dipole Array for Base Station Antenna
It is a triangular array consisting of twelve

dipoles, with four dipoles on each side of the
triangle.
Each four-element array, on each side of the

triangle, is basically used to cover an angular
sector of 120◦ forming what is usually referred
to as a sectoral array.

October 2023 7
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.1
Yagi – Uda Dipole TV Array

October 2023 8
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.1
Log Periodic Dipole Array

October 2023 9
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.1
An electronically steered
phased MSA array

October 2023 10
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
Array of Point Sources – 2 Element Array 9.1
Case 1.
2 Element Isotropic Array of Same Amplitude and Phase; d=λ/2
Case 2.
2 Element Isotropic Array of Same Amplitude and Opposite Phase; d=λ/2
Case 3.
2 Element Isotropic Array of Same Amplitude and Phase Quadrature ; d=λ/2
Case 4.
2 Element Isotropic Array of Same Amplitude and Phase Quadrature; d=λ/4
Case 5.
2 Element Isotropic Array of Same Amplitude and any Phase Difference
Case 6.
2 Element Array of Non-Isotropic but similar point sources

October 2023 11
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.1

October 2023 12
Isotropic Sources
Case 1. Lecture
9.1
2 Element Isotropic Array of Same Amplitude and Phase; d=λ/2
Note: E = Cos (π/2 . Cos θ)

Maximum lies along the
Broadside direction θ E
Broadside Array
0,180 0
60,120 0.707
90, 270 1

October 2023 13
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.1

October 2023 14
Isotropic Sources
Case 2. Lecture
9.1

October 2023 15
Isotropic Sources
Case 2. Lecture
9.1
Note:
Maximum lies along the
Axis direction
End Fire Array
E = Sin (π/2 . Cos θ)

θ E
0,180 1
60,120 0.707
90, 270 0

October 2023 16
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.1

October 2023 17
Isotropic Sources
Case 3. Lecture
9.1
E = Cos (π/4 + π/2. Cos θ)
θ 0 60 90 120 180
E 0.707 0 0.707 1 0.707

October 2023 18
Isotropic Sources
Case 4. Lecture
9.1

October 2023 19
Isotropic Sources
Case 4. Lecture
9.1
E = Cos (π/4 + π/4. Cos θ)

October 2023 20
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
Case 5. 9.1
General Case:
2 Element Isotropic Array of Same Amplitude and any Phase Difference
E = Cos (ψ/2)
Ψ = k d Cos θ + β

October 2023 21
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
Case 6. 9.1
Array of Non-Isotropic but similar point sources

October 2023 22
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
Case 6. 9.1
Horizontal Dipoles
E = Sin θ * Cos (ψ/2) d = λ/2;

Element Array E = Sin θ * Cos (π/2 . Cos θ)
Factor Factor
October 2023 23
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
Case 6. 9.1
Vertical Dipoles
E = Cos θ * Cos (ψ/2) d = λ/2;

Element Array E = Cos θ * Cos (π/2 . Cos θ)
Factor Factor
October 2023 24
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.2
EC 15-1702
Acknowledgement:
October 2023 19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 - Array of 2 Isotropic Sources 1
Lecture
Module II 9.2

Small loop antennas
Antenna arrays:
Point Sources - arrays of 2 Isotropic Sources and N element point sources, Principle of

October 2023 2
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.2
Course Outcomes


Antennas

October 2023 3
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.2
Pattern Multiplication

October 2023 4
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.2
Array of 2 Horizontal Dipoles

E = Sin θ * Cos (ψ/2)
Array of 2 Vertical Dipoles
E = Cos θ * Cos (ψ/2)

The far-zone field of a uniform two-element array of identical elements is equal to the product
of the field of a single element, at a selected reference point (usually the origin), and the array
factor of that array.
The array factor is a function of the geometry of the array and the excitation phase.
By varying the separation d and/or the phase β between the elements, the characteristics of
the array factor and of the total field of the array can be controlled.

October 2023 5
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.2
The total Field Pattern of an array of Non Isotropic but similar Point Sources is
the product of the pattern of the individual sources and the pattern of an array
of Isotropic Point Sources having the same locations, relative amplitude and
phase as the Non Isotropic point Source (the Array Factor)
The total Phase Pattern is the addition of the phase pattern of the individual
sources and that of the array of isotropic point sources
In order to synthesize the total pattern of an array, the designer is not only
required to select the proper radiating elements but the geometry (positioning)
and excitation of the individual elements.

October 2023 6
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.2
Given the array in the Figures, find the nulls of the total field when d = λ/4
and
(a). β = 0 (b). β = + π /2 (c). β = −π/ 2
E = Cos θ * Cos (ψ/2)

Ψ = k d Cos θ + β

October 2023 7
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
E = Cos θ * Cos (ψ/2); Ψ = k d Cos θ + β 9.2
(a). β = 0, d = λ/4
Ψ = π/2 . Cos θ
E = Cos θ * Cos (π/4.Cos θ)
Cos θ Cos (π/4.Cos θ)
The nulls are obtained by setting the total
field equal to zero
ie, At θ = θn
En = Cos θn * Cos (π/4.Cos θn) =0
Cos θn = 0 ; θn =π/2
The only null occurs at θ = 90◦ and is due to the pattern of
and the individual elements.
Cos (π/4.Cos θn) =0; Since the array factor is nearly isotropic (within 3 dB), the
π/4.Cos θn = π/2 ; θn does not exist element pattern and the total pattern are almost identical in
shape.
October 2023 8
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
(b). β = + π /2, d = λ/4

Ψ = π/2 . Cos θ + π/2
E = Cos θ * Cos (π/4.Cos θ + π/4 )
E = Cos θ * Cos [π/4(Cos θ + 1)]
The nulls are obtained by setting the Cos θ Cos (π/4.Cos θ+π/4)
total field equal to zero
ie, At θ = θn
Cos θn=0, θn =π/2 The nulls of the array occur at

θ = 90◦ and 0◦
and
Cos [π/4(Cos θn + 1)] = 0

[π/4(Cos θn + 1)] = π/2; θn =0 Because the array factor is of cardioid form, its corresponding
element and total patterns are considerably different.
and
π/4(Cos θn + 1) = - π/2; θn does not
In the total pattern, the null at θ = 90◦ is due to the element pattern
exist
while that toward θ = 0◦ is due to the array factor.
October 2023 9
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
(b). β = - π /2, d = λ/4

Ψ = π/2 . Cos θ - π/2
E = Cos θ * Cos (π/4.Cos θ - π/4 )
E = Cos θ * Cos [π/4(Cos θ - 1)]
The nulls are obtained by setting the Cos θ Cos (π/4.Cos θ-π/4)
total field equal to zero
ie, At θ = θn
Cos θn=0, θn =π/2

The nulls occur at 90◦ and 180◦ .
and
Cos [π/4(Cos θn - 1)] = 0

[π/4(Cos θn - 1)] = π/2; θn does not exist
Because the array factor is of cardioid form, its corresponding
and element and total patterns are considerably different.
π/4(Cos θn - 1) = - π/2; θn = 1800 In the total pattern, the null at θ = 90◦ is due to the element
pattern while that toward θ = 180◦ is due to the array factor.
October 2023 10
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.2
Pattern Multiplication - Examples
Case 1
2 Element Isotropic array, d= λ/2
Case 2
2 Element Isotropic array, d= λ
Case 3
Case 4

October 2023 11
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
Pattern Multiplication 9.2
Case 1
E = Cos (ψ/2); ψ = kdCos θ

E = Cos (π/2 . Cos θ)

October 2023 12
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.2
Case 2
2 Element Isotropic array, d= λ
E = Cos (ψ/2); ψ = kdCos θ

E = Cos (π. Cos θ)

October 2023 13
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
Case 3
Unit Pattern
https://buzztech.in/principle-of-pattern-multiplication/
(Case 1)
E = Cos (π/2 . Cos θ)
October 2023 14
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.2
Group Pattern
(Case 2)
E = Cos (π. Cos θ)
E = Cos (π/2 . Cos θ) * Cos (π. Cos θ)

October 2023 15
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
Case 4
Unit Pattern: (Case 3)

E = Cos (π/2 . Cos θ) * Cos (π. Cos θ)
Group Pattern:
E = Cos (2π. Cos θ)

October 2023 16
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.2
N-ELEMENT LINEAR ARRAY: UNIFORM AMPLITUDE AND SPACING

October 2023 17
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.2

October 2023 18
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.2

October 2023 19
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.2

October 2023 20
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.2

October 2023 21
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.2

October 2023 22
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.2

October 2023 23
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.2

October 2023 24
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.2
Locating the positions of Maxima/ Null /

Half Power Points for an array; given N/d/β

October 2023 25
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.2
For n = N , 2N , 3N,...,
AF attains its maximum values because it
reduces to a sin(0)/0 form.
The values of n determine the order of the nulls

(first, second, etc.).
n = 1, 2, 3,... For a zero to exist, the argument of the

n ≠ N , 2N , 3N,... arccosine cannot exceed unity.
Thus the number of nulls that can exist will be a

function of the element separation d and the
π phase excitation difference β.

October 2023 26
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.2
maximum value occurs when AF is in sin(0)/0 form.
Θm is the observation angle that makes ψ = 0.

October 2023 27
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.2

October 2023 28
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.2
The half-power beam

width can be found
once the angles of the
first maximum (θm) and
the half-power point
(θh) are determined.

October 2023 29
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.2

October 2023 30
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.2
Thus the maximum of the first minor lobe of the array factor is 13.46
dB down from the maximum at the major lobe
October 2023 31
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.2
Next Class

October 2023 32
Isotropic Sources
Lecture
9.3
EC 15-1702
Acknowledgement:
October 2023 19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 1

Lecture
Module II 9.3

Small loop antennas
Antenna arrays:
Point Sources - arrays of 2 Isotropic Sources and N element point sources, , Principle of

Lecture
9.3
Course Outcomes


Antennas

Lecture
9.3

Lecture
9.3
Broadside Array
The maximum radiation is directed normal to the axis of the array [θ0 = 90◦]
To optimize the design, the maxima of the single element and of the array
factor should both be directed toward θ0 = 90◦ .
The requirements of the single elements can be accomplished by the
judicious choice of the radiators
and
those of the array factor by the proper separation and excitation of the
individual radiators.
Lecture
9.3
Requirements for a Broadside Array Pattern
We know
The first maximum of the array factor
occurs when ψ=0
&
Here, the Maximum should occur along

Broadside i.e; θ =90
Therefore;
Find β which satisfies the above
requirement

Lecture
9.3
Requirements for a Broadside Array Pattern
To have the maximum of the array factor of a uniform linear

array directed broadside to the axis of the array, it is
necessary that all the elements have the same phase
excitation (β=0); in addition to the same amplitude
excitation.
The separation between the elements (d) can be of any

value; but d≠nλ

Lecture
9.3
Why d≠nλ
This value of ψ makes the array factor attain its maximum value.
Thus for a uniform array with β = 0 and d = nλ, in addition to having the maxima of
the array factor directed broadside (θ0 = 90◦ ) to the axis of the array, there are
additional maxima directed along the axis (θ0 = 0◦ , 180◦ ) of the array (endfire
radiation).
Lecture
9.3
Grating Lobes (Principal maxima in other directions)
One of the objectives in many designs is to avoid multiple maxima, in addition to the
main maximum, which are referred to as grating lobes.
Often it may be required to select the largest spacing between the elements but with no
grating lobes.
To avoid any grating lobe, the largest spacing between the elements should be less than
one wavelength (dmax < λ).

Lecture
9.3
The only maximum occurs at broadside (θ0 = 90◦) In addition to the maximum at θ0 = 90◦ , there are
additional maxima directed toward θ0 = 0◦ , 180◦ .

Lecture
Grating Lobes - 2 D Pattern 9.3

Lecture
9.3
Broadside Array

Lecture
9.3

Lecture
9.3
Grating Lobes in an Endfire Array Pattern

If the element separation is d = λ/2, end-fire radiation exists
simultaneously in both directions (θ0 = 0◦ and θ0 = 180◦ ).
If the element spacing is a multiple of a wavelength (d = nλ, n = 1, 2,

3,...), then, in addition to having end-fire radiation in both directions,
there also exist maxima in the broadside directions.
Thus for d = nλ, n = 1, 2, 3,... there exist four maxima; two in the
broadside directions and two along the axis of the array.
To have only one end-fire maximum and to avoid any grating lobes,
the maximum spacing between the elements should be less than
dmax
October 2023 < λ/2. 19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 14
Lecture
9.3
Grating Lobes in an Endfire Array Pattern

Lecture
9.3

Lecture
9.3

Lecture
End Fire Array

9.3

Lecture
9.3
Beam Forming Smart

Antennas
Lecture
9.3
Scanning Array
By controlling the progressive phase difference between the elements,

the maximum radiation can be squinted in any desired direction to form
a scanning array. This is the basic principle of electronic scanning phased
array operation.
Since in phased array technology the scanning must be continuous, the

system should be capable of continuously varying the progressive phase
between the elements.
In practice, this is accomplished electronically by the use of ferrite or

diode phase shifters.
Radiation pattern of a 10-element array, with a separation of Lecture
9.3
λ/4 between the elements and with the maximum squinted in

the θ0 = 60◦ direction

Lecture
9.3
For Enhanced Directivity of an End Fire Array

Lecture
9.3
(HPBW = 74◦ ) (HPBW = 37◦ )

However, the side lobe of the ordinary end-fire is lower (about −13.5 dB) compared to that of the Hansen-
Woodyard, which is about −8.9 dB.
The lower side lobe by the ordinary end-fire is not sufficient to offset the benefit from the narrower beamwidth of
the Hansen-Woodyard that leads to the higher directivity.
Lecture
9.3

Lecture
9.3

Lecture
9.3
Umax = 1 at θ=90
U0 = Prad/4π

Lecture
9.3

Lecture
9.3
For an end-fire array, with the maximum radiation in the θ0 = 0◦
direction, the array factor is given by

Lecture
9.3
Umax = 1 at θ=0
U0 = Prad/4π

Lecture
9.3

Lecture
9.3

Lecture
9.3

Lecture
9.3

Lecture
9.3
Broadside Array End Fire Array
BWFN 114.6/ (L/λ) 114.6* Sqrt(2/(L/λ))
HPBW 57.3°/(L/λ) 57.3* Sqrt(2/(L/λ))
Directivity 2(L/λ) 4(L/λ)

Lecture
Design Procedure 9.3
In the design of any antenna system, the most important design parameters are usually
the number of elements, spacing between the elements, excitation (amplitude and
phase), half-power beamwidth, directivity, and side lobe level.
In a design procedure some of these parameters are specified and the others are then
determined.
The parameters and the order in which they are specified and those that are
determined vary among designs.
For a uniform array, other than for the Hansen-Woodyard end-fire, the side lobe is
always approximately −13.5 dB.
For the Hansen-Woodyard end-fire array the side lobe level is somewhat compromised
above the −13.5 dB in order to gain about 1.805 (or 2.56 dB) in directivity.
Lecture
9.3
Array Design Procedure

Analysis Procedure:
Equations and graphs can be used to determine the half-
power beamwidth and directivity, once the number of
elements and spacing (or the total length of the array) are
specified.
Design Approach:
Specify the half-power beamwidth or directivity and
determine most of the other parameters using equations
and graphs .
Lecture
Non-Uniform Arrays 9.3
• Compromise between SLL and Beamwidth

• Uniform array yields the smallest HPBW; but largest SLL
• Hence Non-Uniform Arrays (Tapering)
Binomial Array
The excitation coefficients determined from Binomial Series
Expansion
Dolph Tschebyscheff
The excitation coefficients determined from Tschebyscheff
Polynomials

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Lecture

Radiation from an infinitesimal dipole

Ref: Balanis, Chapter 6 “Arrays: Linear, Planar, and Circular”

19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 - Array of 2

On successful completion of teaching-learning and valuation activities, a

1. To understand basic terminology, parameters and concepts of

19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 - Array of 2

In many applications it is necessary to design antennas with very directive

Another way to enlarge the dimensions of the antenna, without necessarily

The total field of the array is

To provide very directive patterns,

19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 - Array of 2

1. the geometrical configuration of the overall array (linear, circular,

19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 - Array of 2

Dipole Array for Base Station Antenna

It is a triangular array consisting of twelve

Each four-element array, on each side of the

19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 - Array of 2

Yagi – Uda Dipole TV Array

19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 - Array of 2

Log Periodic Dipole Array

19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 - Array of 2

19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 - Array of 2

Array of Point Sources – 2 Element Array 9.1

19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 - Array of 2

19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 - Array of 2

2 Element Isotropic Array of Same Amplitude and Phase; d=λ/2

Note: E = Cos (π/2 . Cos θ)

19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 - Array of 2

19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 - Array of 2

19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 - Array of 2

E = Sin (π/2 . Cos θ)

19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 - Array of 2

19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 - Array of 2

E = Cos (π/4 + π/2. Cos θ)

19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 - Array of 2

19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 - Array of 2

E = Cos (π/4 + π/4. Cos θ)

19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 - Array of 2

19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 - Array of 2

Array of Non-Isotropic but similar point sources

19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 - Array of 2

Array of Non-Isotropic but similar point sources

E = Sin θ * Cos (ψ/2) d = λ/2;

Array of Non-Isotropic but similar point sources

E = Cos θ * Cos (ψ/2) d = λ/2;

Radiation from an infinitesimal dipole

Ref: Balanis, Chapter 6 “Arrays: Linear, Planar, and Circular”

19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 - Array of 2

On successful completion of teaching-learning and valuation activities, a

1. To understand basic terminology, parameters and concepts of

19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 - Array of 2

19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 - Array of 2

Array of 2 Horizontal Dipoles

Array of 2 Vertical Dipoles

E = Cos θ * Cos (ψ/2)

19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 - Array of 2

19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 - Array of 2

E = Cos θ * Cos (ψ/2)

19-203-0702 Antennas and Propagation : Module 2 - Array of 2