7

Basic Theory

ELECTRON ORBITS
n=6
n=5
n=6 n=4
n5 E
Energy, n=3
n=4 n=2

n=1

NUCLEUS GROUND STATE (n= 1)

Fig. 1.3. Electron orbits and the corresponding energy levels of the hydrogen atom
1.6 POPULATION
The atoms of each chemical element have their own characteristic sys
tem of energy levels. The energy difference between the successive energy
levels of an atom is of the order of 1eV to 5 eV. The energy levels are
common to all the atoms in a system which is composed of identical atoms.
We can therefore say that a certain number of atoms occupy a certain energy
state. The number of atoms per unit volume that occupy a given energy state
is called the population of that energy state. The population N of an energy
levelE depends on the temperature T. Thus,
N=e-EIkT Boltzmann's equation .(1.10)
where k is known as the Boltzmann constant.
In a material,atoms are distributed differently in different energy states.
level which
The atoms normally tend to be at their lowest possible energy
always
need not be the ground state. Attemperatures above 0 K, the atoms
the avail
have some thermalenergy and therefore, they are distributed among
able energy levels according to their energy.
1.7 THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM
en
Atthermal equilibrium, the number of atoms (population) at each 1.4.
shown in Fig.
ergy level decreases with the increase of energy level, as
E, and E, as in Fig. 1.5,
If we,in particular, consider two energy levelsBoltzmann equation (1.10).
their populations can be computed with the help of
Thus,
..(1.11)
and
N, =eEKT .(1.12)
N,/ N,, is called the
The ratio of the populations in these two states,
relative population. It is given by
 An Introduction to Lasers - Theory and

N, -E/kT Applicationg
N, =

N, .(113,
I follows from the above that
-AEIkT
N, = Ne
.(1.14)
where AE = (E, - E)

Energy ‘
2 Population N,
Energy E
ENERGY

Population N,
POPULATION
Energy E;

Fig. 1.4.Relative populations of Fig. 1.5. Two energy level system.

energy levels as a function of energy
above the ground state at thermal
The plot of the equation (1.14) is known as Boltzmann distribution.
Eq. (1.13)suggests that the relative population N,/N, is dependent on
two factors: (i) the energy difference (E, - E) and (ii) the temperature 1: For
the sake of estimation, let us assume hydrogen gas to be a monoatomic gas
and find out the atomic population at room temperature at the first excited
level. Here E, = - 13.6 eV, E, =-3.39 eV and T=300K. Thus,
+ AE=+(E, - E)) = +[(-3.39) - (-13.6)] eV =+ 10.21 eV
kT = (8.6x 10 eV/K) (300 K) = 0.025 eV
N, -10.2leV
0.025eV -408,4
=e =e
N,
Itmeans that at room temperature all atoms are in the
ground state. II
temperature is raised, say to 6000K
-10.21
N, 0.516
=e ,-19.79 =2.5 x 1o-9
N,
We thus find that in amaterial at thermal equilibrium, more atoms are 1n
the lower energy state than in the higher
energy state. We call such a distribu
 Basic Theory
tion of atoms as normal distribution. Thermal collisions, on one hand,
make
some atoms jump into higher energy state but, on the other hand, bring some
atoms down to lowverenergy state. On the whole, the Boltzmann
will be maintained. distribution
There is an important implication of Eq. (L13) that we should under
stand. The fraction of excited atoms would be large, if the energy
close orthe temperature is very high. In the limiting case E, - E, =0,levels are
we find
that

N,
N, = N,
Similarly, when T’ ,
N, =e=1
N,
N, = N
Therefore,as long as the material is in thermal
tion of thc higher state cannot exceed the population equilibrium, the popula
of the lower state. This
is a
very important conclusion to be borne in mind.
Example 1.4. Find the relative population of the two states ir a ruby
laser tha produces alight beam of wavelength 6943 Aat 300 Kand 500 K.
Solution: The population ratio is given by
N -(E,- )/KT
N,
E, - E, =hv = hc_ 12400 eV
12400
:. E, - E,= eV=179 eV

(a) N, = exp
-1.79 eV
=e
-69.3
(8.61x 10eV /K) x 300 K
= 8x 10-31
-1.79 eV -69.3
(b) = exp =e
(8.61x 10eV/ K)x 300 K
-41.58
=e
= 8.7 x 10-19
Example 1.5. Find the ratio ofpopulation ofthe two states in a He-Ne
laser that produces light of wavelength 6.328 Åat 27 C.
N =e

12400
eV- 1.96 eV
6328
 An Introduction to Lasers -Theory and
10

N = Cxp
-1.96 eV Appicatict
N, (8.61x 10 eV/ K) x300K
10-"
= 1.1x
EMISSION OF LIGHT
1.8 ABSORPTION AND
In an atom, an electroninthe ground state is stable and moves Continy,
ously in that orbit without radiating energy. Whenthe electron receives
energy equal to the difference of energy of the ground state and.
amount of jumps to
it absorbs energy and
of the excited states (i.e. outer orbits),ways in which the energy may he o
excited state. There are a variety of
electron. One way is to illuminate the material with ioht
plied to the photons of energy hv =(E,-E
appropriate frequency v = (E, - E,)/h. The
transitions from the energy level E, to the level E,, as sho
induce electron
in Fig.1.6.
emitted
electron
photon
Energy Ez
Excitation Radiation
hy= E-£
E
excited atom de-excitation
(b)
(a)
outer orbit.
Absorbing energy, electron jumps from an inner orbit to anenergy in the
Fig. 1.6. (a) inner orbit, it emits the same
When the electron returns to the excitation and de
a photon. (b) energy level representation of
form of
excitation of the atom
the outer orbit (excited state)
tor
electron cannot stay in
However, the the positive nucleus pulls
Coulomb attraction due to
longer time. The orbit and the electron returns to
the groU
electron back to the initial inner
excited electron has excess energy equal to (E, -E,) and it has
the lower energy level. The ou
state. The
energy in order to come to
get rid of this electron can lose its excess energy is trou
mechanism through which the
photon. Therefore, the excited electron emits a photo0'
the emission of a visual1za
(E, -E) and returns to the ground state. This is the
energy hv= quantum theory.
of emission of light according to Bohr's actually 'see" electrons ju!
from any source, we
When we see light This type of emission of light w
states. fort
ing from excited states to lower and is responsible
spontaneous emission
occurs on its own is known as fire, stars, sun etc. convento
bulbs,
light coming from candles, electric
sources of light.
 Basic Theory 11
1,9 EINSTEIN'S PREDICTION
Einstein predicted in 1917 that there must be a second emission process
to establish thermodynamic equilibrium. For example, if we illuminate a ma
terial with light of suitable frequency, the atoms in it absorb light and go to
higher energy state.
The excited atoms tend to return randomly to the lower energy state. As
the ground state popalation is very large, more and more atoms are excited
under the action of incident light and it is likely that a stage may be reached
where all atoms are excited. This violates thermal equilibrium condition.
Therefore, Einstein suggested that there could be an additionalemission mecha
nism, by which the excited atoms can make downward transitions. He
pre
dicted that the photons in the light field induce the excited atoms to fall to
lower energy state and give up their excess energy in the form of photons. He
called this second type of emission as stimulated emission.
1.10 THE THREE PROCESSES
Let us consider amedium consisting of identical atoms
capable of being
excited from the energy level l to the energy level 2 by absorption
Let the levels be denoted by E, and E, and their of photons.
respectively. Let the atoms be in thermal equilibrium. populations be N and N,
In the
condition, the number of atomic transitions upward must be equal equilibrium
to the num
ber of downward transitions. Thusno net photons are
ever, when the atoms are subjected to an
generated or lost. How
external light of frequency v, the
following three processes occur in the medium.
(a) Absorption
An atom residing in the lower energy level E, may absorb the incident
photon and jump to the excited state E, as depicted in Fig.1.7. This transition
is known as induced or stimulated absorption or simply as
absorption. Cor
responding to each absorption transition, one photon disappears from the in
cident light field and one atom adds to the population at the excited energy
level E,. This process may be represented as
A + hv ’A ...(1.15)
where A denotes an atom in the lower state and A an excited atom.
E, E
hv =
Energy E, -E

Incident
Photon

E, E,
Before After
(a) (b)
Fig 1.7. Absorption process (a) Induced absorption (b) Material absorbs photons.
 12
An Introduction to Lasers Theory and Appicalt
unit volume that makes
The number of atoms per secondis called upward
fromthe lower level to the upper
level per
tion transition. It is represented by
transaibtso,n,
the rate of
-dN
dt
The rate stands
level E,. (dN,/dr)
where for the transitiondecrease
of absorption
rate of of popultion
can also be representedat bythethelo%ra
increase of population at the upper levelE,. Thus,
of the
Rabs dN2
dt ti

-dN _ dN,
Rgbs = dt dt
The number of absorption transitions occurring in the material at am iSW
..(L6
proportional to the population in the lower level and the nut pt
instant will be in the incident beam. The rate of absorpig ec
per unit volume
ber of photons er
be expressed conveniently as
may
..1.1
Rabs = Bp P(V) M
constant of proportionality, and p() is the energy densityd
where B,, is a Einstein coefficient forinduced absorptia
incident light. B,, is known as the level 1’ 2.
indicates the probability of an induced transition from It
and it lower energy state is tz
population in the le
At thernmal equilibrium, the light propagat
energy state. Therefore, as
larger than that in the higher
absorbed. tra
through the medium, it gets TH
(b) Spontaneous Emission
level for an average lifetime, Th
excited atom can stay at the excited
An
stimulated by any other agent during its short lifetime, the excita
If itis not lower energy level onits own. During u
atom undergoes a transition to the showni
as itselIm
excess energy in theform of a photon,
transition, it gives up the emits a photon all by
atom
Fig. 1.8. This prOcess in which an excited spontaneous emissiOn.
known as
and without any external impetus is
E, E2

Energy hy
= Eg-E

Emitted
Photon

E, E,
Before After
(u) (b) photons
emits
Fig. 1.8. Spontaneous emission process (a) emission (b) Material
haphazardly.
Basic Theory 13
The process is represented as,
A’ A+ hv ...(1.18)
The rate of spontaneous transitions, Rp, isgiven by.
-dN, N, ..(119)
d

The number of photons generated will be proportional to the popula

tion of the excited level only and may be expressed as follows:
Rop = A,,N, ...(1.20)
where A, is known as the Einstein coefficient for spontaneous emission and
s afunction of frequency and properties of the material. It
indicates the
robability of aspontaneoustransition from level 2’1. It is to be noted from
.(1.20) that the process of spontaneous emission is independent of the light
energy.
A comparison of equations (1.19)and (1.20) establishes that
A = 1/Tsp ...(1.21)
Thus, the reciprocal of the coefficient A,, is the time for the
Dus transition T, and represents the lifetime of the spontane
tis the average time for which the excited atom wouldspontaneous emission also.
remain in the upper
evel before undergoing spontaneous transition.
It follows from quantum mechanical
considerations that spontaneous
ransitions take place from a given state onlyto states lying lower in energy.
herefore, spontaneous transitions cannot occur from level E, to level E,.
he rate of spontaneous transitions from E, to E, is zero.
Aj 0 ...(1.22)
mportant Features :
1. The process of spontaneous emission is not amenable for control from
outside.
2. It is essentially probabilistic in nature.
3. The instant of transition, direction of propagation, the initial phase
and
the plane of polarization of each photon are all random. They are differ
ent for different photons emitted by various atoms. Thus, an atom can
radiate into any of the 4 steridians with any sense of polarization.
4. The light is not monochromatic because of various line broadening pro
Cesses.
J. Because of lack of directionality, the light spreads in all directions around
the source. The light intensity goes on decreasing rapidly with distance
from the source.
 Basic Theory 15
higher energy level where as the probability of an absorption transition is
determined by two factors, namely, (i) the population at the lower energy
level and (i) the density of light energy. If absorption and spontaneous emis
sion were the only processes operative, obviously the number of atoms ab
sorbing radiation per second would be more than the number of atoms emit
ting light per second. Eventually, we may end up with a non-equilibrium
condition where almost all the atoms are excited. But this is not observed in
practice. It means that equilibrium is maintained. In order to account for the
existence of the state of equilibrium between light and matter, Einstein con
cluded that ifa photon can stimulate an atom to move from a lower energy
state E, to higher energy state E, by means of absorption, then a photon
should alsobe able to stimulate an atom from the same upper state E, to the
lower state E,. This alternative mechanism of photon emission depends on the
photon density present and is called stimulated emission.
(c) Stimulated Emission
An atom in the excited state need not "wait" for spontaneous emission
tooccur. Ifaphoton with appropriate energy(hv = E,- E) interacts with the
excited atom, it can trigger the atom to undergo transition to the lower level
and to emit another photon, as shown in Fig.1.10.
E
Energy hv = Ez- E, hy

Emitted
Incident
Photon
photon

E, -E,
Before After
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.10. Stimulated emission process (a) emission.
(b) Material emits photons in acoordinated manner.
The process of emission of photons by an excited atom through a forced
transition occurring under the influence of an external agent is called induced
or stimulated emission. The process may be represented as
A + hv ’A +2hv ...(1.24)
The rate of stimulated emission of photons is given by
R, = B, P(v) N, ...(1.25)
Where B,, is the Einstein coefficient for stimulated emission.
Important Features :
1. The process of stimulated emission is controllable from outside.
2. The photon emitted in this process propagates in the same direction as
that of the stimulating photon.
18 An Introduction to Lasers ---Theory and

(6000 × 1010m Applicaton

B = 8×X6.626 x10 34 Js x10,
216 x 1021 m'
166.6 x1040
.= 13 x 10" m/kg.

1.11 EINSTEIN RELATIONS

Under thermalequilibrium, the mean population Nand N, in the lowe
and upper energy levels respectively must remain constant. This condition
must be equal to the
requires that the number of transitions from E, to E,
number of transitions from E, to E, Thus,
The number of atoms emitting
The number of atoms absorbing photons per second per unit
volume
photons per second per unit volume

The number of atoms absorbing

volume = B2 P(V) N,
photons per second per unit
The number of atoms emitting =A, N, +B, P(V) N,
photons per second per unit volume
of transitions from E, to E, must
In equilibrium condition, the number
from E, to E,. Thus,
be equal to the number of transitions ...(1.27)
Bi2 P(V) N, =A,N, +B, P(V) N,
p(V) (B,, N - BzN) =A,jNa
p(v)= Az NB,, N, - B Ng hand side
denominator on the right
On dividing both the numerator and
of the above equation with B Ng, we get
...(1.28)
p(v) =
N,IN,- B,/B2
It follows from eq. (1.13) that
M/N, =G-4)eT
As (E, - E,) = hv
N,/N, =ehwihT
...(1.29)
p(v) =
- B, / B2
Tomaintain thermal equilibrium, the system must release energy in U
form of electromagnetic radiation. It is required that the radiation be idenï
cal with black body radiation and be consistent with Planck's radiation la
for any value of T. According to Planck's law
...(1.30)
p(v) =(8r hv'lc) -1
Basic Theory 19

where is the refractive index of the medium and c is the velocity of light in
free space.
Energy density p(v)given by Eq. (1.29) willbe consistent with Planck's
law (Eq. 1.30) only if
B, = B2 ...(1.31a)
and Az,/B2 = (8n hv' c ) ...(1.31b)

Therefore, B22= B1 ...(1.32)

8t hv'u Ag1
Equations (1.3la) and (1.31b) are known as the Einstein relations. Equa
tion (1.32) gives the relationship between the Aand B coefficients.
The first relation (1.3 1a) shows that the coefficients for both absorption
and stimulated emission are numerically equal. The equality implies the fol
lowing. When an atom with twoenergy levels is placed in the radiation field,
the probability for an upward (absorption) transition is equal to the probabil
ity for a downward (stimulated emission) transition.
The second relation (1.31b) shows that the ratio of coefficients of spon
taneous versus stimulated emission is proportional to the third power of fre
quency of the radiation. This is why it is difficult to achieve laser action in
higher frequency ranges such as X-rays.
1.12 CONDITIONS FOR LARGE STIMULATED EMISSIONS:
The key to laser action is the existence of stimulated emission. In prac
tice, the absorption and spontaneous emissions always occur together with
stimulated emission. Let us now study the conditions under which the num
ber of stimulated emissions can be made larger than those of the other two
processes.
(a). From equations (1.20) and (1.25), we can write for the ratio of the
stimulated transitionsto spontaneous transitions as
Stimulated transitions
R= Spontaneous transitions

= B P(v) NJA,, N,
= (B,lA,) p(v) ...(1.33)
Using eq.(1.30) for p(v), we get
1
.(1.34)

From eg.(1.31)and (1.32), we can write

B2 ...(1.35)
A1 8rhv'u
 Theory and
20 An Introduction to Lasers
Using the eq.(1.35) into eq(1.34), we obtain
Applications

or R, = (ev -1)
2000K,the value of hy
Hz(vellowlight )and T=
If we assume v=Sx10"
IkTis 11.99. =6x10-6
1
R = TL99 -1
spontaneous emi.
shows that in the optical region
The above result stimulated emissions.
sions dominate over the the light field density p(v) preset
suggests that want large number of
The equation (1.33)
required to be enhanced if we
within the material is
stimulated emissions.
transitions to absorption transitions is given by
stimulated
(b)The ratio of Stimulated transitions
K2 Absorption transitions
B, () N, ..(1.3)

B, = B2
As ..(1.38)
R, = N,/N, |
At thermodynamic equilibrium,
NIN, <<I overwhelm stimulated
absorption transitions
Therefore at equilibrium, may hit an excited atom
leading to
transitions. A photon of the light field
emission, or be absorbed on hitting an atom in the ground state. As
stimulated
thermodynamic equilibrium, a photon has amuch higher probabil
N,«N, at stimulating an excited atom. As a result, the
ity of being absorbed than of
process dominates stimulated emission and the medium will absorb
absorption atoms are in the excited state, Le
light. If, on the other hand, more
the incident stimulated emission than absorption
are more likely to cause
N, >N. photons emissions, the population N,O
Therefore, in order to achieve more stimulated population N, of the lowe
the excited state should be made larger than the
energy state.
to make stimulated trat
To sum up, three conditions are to be satisfied
excited leve
sitions overwhelm the other transitions: (1) the population at
should be greater than that at the lower energy level, (ü) the ratio BA1
should be large and (ii) a very high density of radiation should be present
the medium. A medium amplifies lightonly when these three conditions ar
fulfilled.
 Basic Theory 21

Example 1.7. (a) At what temperature are the rates of spontaneous and
stimulated emission equal ? Assume = 5000 A.
(b) At what wavelength are they equal at 300 K?
Solution: Ifthe rates of spontaneous and stimulated emission are equal,
then

3 x 10° m/s
2 = 5000 Å, v=
5000 x 10"m
= 6x 10' Hz
hy (6.626 x10J.s) (6 x 10"s)
kT
(1.38x 10J/K)T
28.81 x 10
-K
T

(a) 28.81 x 10
exp| T
K| =2

Or
28.81 x 10
-K = In2 =0.693
T

T =
28.81 x 10
K =41,573 K
0.693
(b) hv (6.626 x 10*J.s) v
kT (1.38 x 10J/K) (300 K)
= (1.6x 10-13 s)v
exp [(1.6x10-13 s)v] = 2
Or (1.6x 10 s)v] = 0.693
0.693
l.6 x 10-13 Hz = 43 x 10" Hz

V 4.3 x 102s = 69.8 um

1.13 CONDITIONFORLIGHT AMPLIFICATION

Let us consider a beam of light propagating through a material medium. If
the photons strike lower state (unexcited) atoms, they may be absorbed and
removed from the stream ofphotons which therefore loses energy. However, if
he photons strike excited atoms, more photons can be produced which are
added to the light beam and increase its energy. Since the probabilities of
absorption and stimulated emission are the same, both attenuation and
amplification of the light beam occur simultaneously. We will now show that
amplification can predominate only if there are more atoms in the higher level
where v, is the central frequency.
1.15 POPULATION INVERSION
When an atomic system is in thermal equilibrium, photon
absorption
andemission processes take place side by side, but because N, > N,
absorp
Basic Theory 25

tion dominates. However, laser operation requires obtaining stimulatedemis

sion exclusively. To achieve a high percentage of stimulated emission, a ma
jorityof atoms should be at the higher energy level than at the lower level.
The non-equilibrium state in which the population N, of the upper energy
level exceeds to a large extent the population N, of the lower energy level is
knownas the state of population inversion.
Extending the Boltzmann distribution, Eq, (1.13), to this non-equilib
rium state of population inversion,it is seen that N, can exceed N, only if the
temperature were negative. In view of this, the state of population inversion
is sometinmes referred toas a negative temperature state. It does not mean that
we can attain temperatures below absolute zero. The terminology underlines
the fact that the state of population inversion is a non-equilibrium state. It
should be borne in mind that the population inversion state is attained at nor
mal temperatures.
Let us consider for the moment asystem that has three energystates E,.
E, and E,. With the system in equilibrium, the uppermost level E, is popu
lated least and the lowest level E, is populated most, as shown in Fig.1.16(a).
The dotted curve shown in Fig. 1.16(a)represents a normal Boltzmann distri
bution. Since the population in the three states is such that N, < N, <N,, the
system absorbs photons rather than emit photons. However, if thesystem is
supplied with externalenergy such that N, exceeds N,,we say that the system
reached population inversion, the population inversion having taken place
between the levels E, and E,, as shown in Fig. 1.16(b).
E

E,
Ng

E N,
Ne

N E, NT
(a) Population in equilibrium. (b) Population inversion of E, with
respect to E:
Fig. 1.16. Three level system.
Under the population inversion condition, the stimulated emission can
produce acascade of light. The first few randomly emitted spontaneous pho
lons trigger stimulated emission of more photons aad those stimulated pho
Lons induce stillmore stimulated emissions and so on. As long as the excited
state population is more than the lower levelpopulation, stimulated emissions
are more likely than absorption ; and consequently, light gets amplified as
shown in Fig. 1.17. As soon as the population at lower level becomes equal to
or larger than that at the excited state, population inversion ends, stimulated
 LaserS

emissions diminish and amplification of light ceases. Applicalion

Ampliftying medium (N, >N,) Output wave
Input wave

FIg 1.17. Amplification of alight wave in a medium with population inversion

1.16 PUMPING
Inonder to realize and maintain the state of population inversion, it is
necessary that atoms must be continuouslypromoted from the lower level o
the excited level. Energy is to be supplied somehow to the laser medium lo
raise atoms from the lower level totheexcited leveland for maintaining pop.
lation at the excited level at a value greater than that of the lower energy. The
process by which atoms are raised from the lower level to the upper level i
called pumping.
The usual method of exciting atoms to higher energy levels is to heat the
material. From Eq. (1.13) it is scen that as long as E, > E,N<N. Heating
the materialonly increases the average energy of atoms but does not make N,
greater than N,. Therefore. population inversion cannot be achieved by heat
ing the material.
1.17 PUMPING METHODS
In order to create the state of population inversion, we have to selec
tively excite the atoms in the material to particular energy levels. There are a
variety of methods employed for this purpose. The most common methods
of pumping make use of light and electrons. We confine our study here only
to these techniques.
(a) Optical Pumping :
Optical pumping is the use of photonsto excite the atoms. A lightsource
such as a flash discharge tube is used to illuminate the laser medium and the
photons of appropriate frequency excite the atoms to an uppermost level. From
there, they drop to the metastable upper laser level to create the state of popu
lation invcrsion. Optical pump sources are flash discharge tubes, continu
ously operating lamps, spark gaps or an auxiliary laser is sometimes used as
the pump source.
The pumpP photon must have higher
This is because the atoms are to be raised frequency than the emitted photon.
above the upper laser level from
lower level which is below or at the lower laser level.
This is one of the
factors which reduces the laser efficiency.
The pumping level of the atom must not be a
sufficiently wide, spanning a range of energies. If narrow level. It should bE
it is narrow, one can use
Basic Theory 27
pump photon of only a specific frequency. Such a ituation severely restricts
the choice of sources and a large portion of the source
power would go
Fortunately, in a majority of cases the upper levels are wide bands andwasted.
atoms
can be excited to many of the upper levels. Therefore, light
a broad range of wavelengths like a flash lamp can be sources emitting
used to excite atoms.
Optical pumping is suitable for any laser medium which is
to pump light. Optical pumping is used for solid state transparent
liquid tunable dye lasers.
crystalline lasers and
(b) ElectricalPumping :
Electrical pumpingcan be used only in case of laser materials that can
conductelectricity without destroying lasing activity. This method is limited
to gases. In case of a gas laser, a high voltage pulse initially
that it conducts electricity. An electric current ionizes the gas so
flowing through the gas ex
cites atoms to the excited level from where they drop to the metastable upper
laser level leading to population inversion.
(c) Direct Conversion :
In semiconductor lasers also electrical pumping is
not the atoms that are excited. It is the current used, but here it is
carriers namely electrons and
holes which are excited and a population inversion is
achieved in the junction
region. The electrons recombine with holes in the junction regions
ing laser light. Thus, in semiconductor lasers, a direct conversion of produc
electrical
energy into lightenergy takes place.
1.18 ACTIVE MEDIUM
Atoms in general are characterized by a large number of
levels. However, alltypes of atoms are not suitable for laser operation.energy
Even
in a medium consisting of different species of atoms, only a small fraction of
atoms of a particular species are suitable for stimulated emission and laser
action. Those atoms which cause light amplification are called active centers,
The rest of the medium acts as host and supports active centers. The medium
hosting the active centers is called an active medium. An active medium is
thus amedium which, when excited, reaches the state of population inversion,
and eventually causes light amplification. The active medium may be a solid,
a liquid or a gas.
1.19 METASTABLE STATES
Anatom can be excited to a higher level by supplying energy to it. Nor
Inally, excited states have short lifetimes and release their excess energy in a
matler of nanoseconds (10 sec) by spontaneous emission. Atoms do not
Slay at such excited states long enough to be stimulated to emit their energy.
Ihough, the pumping agent continuously raises the atoms to the excited level,
many of them rapidly undergo spontaneous transitions to the lower energy
vel. Population inversion cannot be therefore established. For establishing
 Ba

28 Theory and Applications SOU

An Introduction to Lasers
wait" at the upper
ofr

population
lasing levelinversion,
till a
the excited atoms are required
accumulate
to
at
"
that level. Thus, what WO

is
needed large number of atoms
is anan excited state lifetime. Such longer-lived upper leve
a longer
levels from where an exocited with
atom does not return to lower level at once,
but
ato

remains excited for an appreciable time, are known as netastable states. emit
Jo
Phosphors are an example of materials having metastable states. They de
ent light caled phosphorescence because of metastable states existent
in them.
po
Atoms stay in metastable states for about 10 to 10 s. This is 10 to
10 times longer than the time of stay of atom at excited levels. Therefore , it
1S
le
S possible for a large number of atoms to accumulate at a metastable leve.
Ine metastable state population can exceed the population of a lower level
and lead to the state of population inversion.
f the metastable states do not exist, there could be no population inver
sion, no stimulated emission and hence no laser operation.
Thus, the foundation to the laser operation is the existence of metast
states.
 =3
1.35 LASER RATE EQUATIONS
We learnt in the previous sections that the
of the lasing medium change under the action ofpopulations of energy levels
can be described convenientlyby means of rate radiation. These changes
equations. Rate equations
help us in determining the steady state population difference and the thresh
old pumping rate required to maintain a steady state population inversion.
Such a study shows that population inversion cannot take place in a two level
System while a minimum pump power is required to obtain inversion in a
 An Introduction to Lasers - Theory and
52

three level system. On the other hand the attainment of population

in a four level system is not dependent on the pump power. We also draw
Appinlivercatisoionns
information regarding the optimum power that could be extracted from the
laser.
1.35.1 Two Level System
Let us consider atwo level system consisting of energy levels E, and E.
are populated by N, and N, atoms per unit volume respectively. T
which lasing action is given by
the
total numbet of atoms which participate in
level E, exceeds that of E,. Th.
.(179)
Lasing begins when the population of the
threshold population inversion density isgiven by ...(L80)
N,, = N,- M,
Combining eqs. (1.79) and (1.80), we get
No Mt
N, = 2 2
That is, N, > NJ2
condition implies that lasing can begin in a 2-level laser
The above
when more than half of the total population is pumped up tothe upper
only
energy level.
examine whether the population inversion state can be
We will now
be the energy density of the light of
reached in a two-levelsystem. Let p(v)number of atoms per unit volume per
frequency v incident on the system. The
level are
unit time which are excited to the upper
Nab = Bi2 P(V)g(v) N, =Wi2 M ...(1.82)
where
Wi2 = B2 P(v)g(v)
time undergoing stimu
The number of atoms per unit volume per unit
lated emissions from E, to E are
N,, = WN,
Since the stimulated emission probability isequal to the absorption prob
ability. ...(1.83)
W;, = W1
While some of the excited atoms at level E, undergo stimulated emis
which
sions, some of the others undergo spontaneous emission transitions,
consist of both radiative and non-radiative types. The number of atoms un
dergoing spontaneous transitions form E, to E, will be
...(1.84)
N = (Azi +S;,) N, =TN
The rate of change of population of E, level is given by
dN,
dt = W,,N, - W,N, - T,N,
As W,, = W
 BasicIheoly
53

dN2
dt W,N, - N) -T,Na
Similarly, the rate of .(1.85)
change population at E, level is
of
dN, given by
dt = -Wi, (N,- N,) +
In the steady state condition, T,N, ...(1.86)

dN, =)
dt and dN,dt =0
W,(N, - N) T,,N, =0
and - W,(N, - N,) + T,,N, = 0
WiN, -N) = T,N,
N, -N, = Tn N,
Wi2
Wi2 Wi2
0 N, Wi
N, ...(1.87)
N,<N, as W+T,,>
It implies that we can never attain a W2
optical pumping in a two level system.
steady state population inversion by
However, a pn-junction semiconductor laser is a two-level laser
pumping is done by direct electrical pumping. where
1.35.2 Three Level Laser
Let us now considera three level system
; and E, which are populated by N,, N, and consisting
of energy levels E,,
N, atoms per unit volume re
ectively. Let N, be the total number of active atoms per unit volume.
N = N,+ N, +N, ...(1.88)
Ihe rate of change of atomic density N, has the following components
ne pump transition to E, which raises atoms from the ground level E,
given by W,N,- N).
(i) The
non-radiative spontaneous transition tothe level E, given by S,,N,,
and
'i) The Spontaneous transitions to the level E, given by A,N,
Therefore, the rate equation for N, can be written as
dN,
dt W, (N, - N,) - A,,N, - S,N, ...(1.89)
The rate of change of atomic density N, has the following components :
 54 An Introduction to Lasers Theory and Applicationg
(i) The stimulated emissions to E, which producelaser light given by W.
(N,- N,). and
evel E,E, given by A,,N,
(:i) The spontaneous emission to the level
S,,N,
(iii) The spontaneous transition from the level E, given by as
Therefore, the rate equation for N, canbe written
dN, .(1
-W,,(N, - N) +S,,N, - A,,N, ..(1.9)
dt
atomic density N, has the following components:
The rate of change of level E, given by
(i) The pump transition transfers
atoms tothe W,M-
N,).
emission to the level E, given by W,,(Ny- M), and
() The stimulated the level E,given by Az1a
transitions to
(7i) The spontaneous as
be written
The rate equation for N, can
dN W,,N,- +
M) AjN, .(19)
-W,N, - N) +
dt
condition, we must have
Under steady state
dN, =0, dN2 0 and
dt dt
dNi0
dt
that
We write from Eq. (1.89),
W,N, = (W, +As +Sy)N,
...(1.92)
N,
W, + A +S32 level 2 is
spontaneous transition from level 3 to
As the probability of transition from level 3to
probability of spontaneous
much higher than the
level 1.
Ag1 << S32.
W, ..(1.93)
W, + Ss
From Eq. (1.90), we obtain
W,,N,+SgN, = (W2 +AJ,)N, equation, we ger
above
Using the value of N, from Eq. (1.93) into the
W,S N, =(W; +Ayj) N,
W, +Ss2
N, W,(W, +S)+ W,S
(W; +S2XW½1 t Ay)
N, -M W,(S, -A,)-SyAzi .(1.94)
(W, +S,XW,, +Ai)
BasicTheory
55
minimum
The pumping rate required to achieve
givenby
maybe
population inversion
W., =
pr SyA
S2 <<Sy-
Ag1 Ai
.(1.95)
As

Similarly
Wpt ..(1.96)
N, +N 2W,,(W, +Ss2)+ W, Si + W,A, +t SyA,
N, (W, +S2(Wa1 t Agi) ..(1.97)
Dividing Eq. (1.94)with Eq. (1.96), we get
N,-
N, W,(Sy -Ay)-SszAz1
N, +N, 2W,(W, +t Syz)+
(W, +
Relow threshold for laser oscillation, W, Az1S2 +W,A1
is very small and the above
equation may be approximated to
N, - N W, Ss2- SyAy
N, + N, W, Ss2 t Syy Az1 t W, Ag1
(W,- Azi) Ss2
(W, +Az1 + W,Azj / S2) Ss2
As Sqp >A,1 the term WA,/S2 may be neglected.
N, - N, W,- Az1
N, + N, W, +Az1 ...(1.98)
WN =A,1Ng ...(1.99)
The condition necessary for laser oscillation to occur is
must be positive. It requires that W,> Ag1 that (N, - N,)
Let us now estimate the threshold pumping power
required to start laser
oscilEations., The number of atoms pumped per unit volume per unit time
fTequired
rom ¡toperE, is WN,. If the pump frequency is denoted by Yp,then the power
unit volume will be
P= WN,hv, ...(1.100)
Threshold pump power can be written as
As there will be Ph = Az,,hv, ..(1.101)
very few atoms in Ez. N 0and
N, =N + N,
We No >> N, -N,
can therefore assume. N, N, N/2 and write Eq. (1. 101) as

Ph = Nghv, ...(1.102)
2.
2tsp