Dongseo International College

Open Thinking and Expression

Fall 2023
 What is ‘Open Thinking’?

Definition:

• A willingness to consider different perspectives, examine

new ideas, and engage in critical thinking without being
limited by prior beliefs or biases.

• It involves being receptive to alternative viewpoints,

exploring unconventional solutions, and maintaining a
curious and adaptable mindset.
 What is ‘an Open Thinker’?

Definition:

• Open thinkers are open-minded, curious, and able to

challenge their own assumptions and beliefs

• This enables them to improve creativity, collaboration,

and continuous learning
 Open Thinking

Core Elements:

A. Curiosity

B. Open-mindedness

C. Critical Thinking
 What Stops People From Open Thinking?

1. Lack of or incorrect information

2. Heuristics mental short cuts—

approximations—assumptions

3. Cognitive Biases systematic errors in thinking that

can lead to incorrect judgments,
decisions, and conclusions

4. Logical Fallacies errors in logic and reasoning that

result in incorrect conclusions
Most Common Cognitive Biases and Heuristics that
Prevent Open Thinking

1.Confirmation Bias 6. Groupthink

2.Availability Heuristic 7. In-Group Bias

3.Anchoring Bias 8. Status Quo Bias

4.Hindsight Bias 9. Authority Bias

5.Dunning-Kruger Effect 10.Sunk Cost Fallacy

 1. Confirmation Bias

Confirmation bias is when people often seek, interpret, and

remember information in a way that confirms preexisting beliefs
while ignoring or discounting information that contradicts them.

https://www.scribbr.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/confirmation-bias.webp
 1. Confirmation Bias

• people often look for evidence that supports what they already
think or want to believe, and they tend to avoid or downplay
information that challenges their opinions

• This bias can reinforce existing beliefs and limit open-mindedness

and critical thinking.
 1. Confirmation Bias
Examples:

• someone who strongly identifies with a particular political

party might get news and information only from sources that
support their party, while dismissing or discrediting
information from opposing sources. This reinforces their
existing political beliefs and makes it difficult for them to
consider alternative perspectives.

• someone who believes in alternative medicine may actively

seek out stories and anecdotes that support the effectiveness
of alternative treatments, ignoring scientific studies that
demonstrate their ineffectiveness or potential risks.
 1. Confirmation Bias
Examples:

• if someone believes their friend is always supportive, they may

remember instances when their friend was helpful but forget
about times when their friend was unsupportive or critical.

• Online Echo Chambers: Social media algorithms can create

echo chambers, where users are exposed mostly to content
and opinions that support with their beleifs. This can reinforce
confirmation bias by limiting exposure to diverse perspectives.
 1. Confirmation Bias
Examples:

• Scientific Research: Even scientists are affected by

confirmation bias. They may focus on data that supports their
hypotheses and downplay or ignore data that contradicts
them, potentially leading to flawed research conclusions.
 1. Confirmation Bias

How can we prevent confirmation bias?

• seek out diverse viewpoints

• be open to criticism and alternative perspectives,

• use critical thinking skills to evaluate information objectively

• question your own beliefs and actively challenge your

assumptions
 2. The Availability Heuristic

The availability heuristic is a cognitive bias where we rely on

information comes easily to mind when making decisions or
judgments rather than on objective data and statistics.

https://i0.wp.com/statisticsbyjim.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/availability_heuristic2.png?w=458&ssl=1
 2. The Availability Heuristic

• people often judge the frequency, likelihood, or importance of

events based on their personal experiences or recent exposure
to information

• If something is more memorable or easily remembered, it

tends to be perceived as more common or significant

• This bias can lead to errors in judgment because the ease of

recall does not equal the frequency, likelihood or importance
of events
 2. The Availability Heuristic
Examples:

• Suppose a person watches a lot of YouTube videos about plane

crashes. They may start to overestimate the likelihood of being
involved in a plane crash, even though such accidents are
statistically rare. The shocking and horrifying videos of plane
crashes makes them more available in the person's memory.

• Suppose a person reads an article about a rare disease. They

may become worried that they have that disease, despite the
fact that it's highly unlikely. The availability of information
about the disease makes it seem more common
 2. The Availability Heuristic
Examples:

• Students preparing for an exam might spend more time

studying topics that have been emphasized in recent class
discussions or readings. They may assume that these topics
are more likely to appear on the exam, even if the instructor
has emphasized the importance of all covered material.
 2. The Availability Heuristic
How can we counteract the availability heuristic?

• consider broader data and statistics

• don’t rely only on the information that you easily remember

• recognize that the media, personal experiences, and anecdotal

evidence can distort our perception of reality

• objective assessments are needed to make well-informed

decisions.
 3. Anchoring Bias
Anchoring bias is a cognitive bias that influences people to
rely too heavily on the first piece of information encountered
when making decisions or judgments.

https://www.scribbr.com/wp-
content/uploads/2023/06/anchoring-bias.png
 3. Anchoring Bias
• This initial information, or "anchor," can significantly influence
subsequent thinking, even if it is irrelevant or arbitrary

• People tend to make adjustments or estimates based on this initial

anchor, often leading to biased decisions.

• The anchor serves as a mental reference point against which people

evaluate subsequent information.

• They may adjust their judgments or decisions, but they often don't
adjust enough to fully account for new, more relevant information

• The initial anchor can have a lasting impact on the final decision.
 3. Anchoring Bias

Examples:

• Stores often use "original" prices as anchors to make discounts

seem more appealing. For example, they might advertise a
product as "50% off the original price," but that original price
may have been inflated initially to create a more enticing
anchor.

• Anchoring bias can affect university students in the context of

grade expectations. If a professor announces that the class
average for an exam was lower than expected, this information
can serve as an anchor for students, potentially causing them
to lower their own grade expectations even if their
performance was strong relative to the class.
 3. Anchoring Bias

Examples:

• When university students choose their courses, the order in

which they encounter course options can anchor their choices.
If a student sees a challenging course with a heavy workload
first, they may anchor their expectations for the rest of the
courses to be similarly demanding.
 3. Anchoring Bias
How can we counteract the anchoring bias?

• consciously consider information objectively

• seek multiple sources of information

• critically evaluate initial anchors

• make decisions based on relevant data rather than relying

solely on the first piece of information encountered.
 4. Hindsight Bias

Hindsight bias a cognitive bias that involves people's

tendency to perceive past events as having been more
predictable or obvious than they were at the time they
occurred.

• It leads people to believe falsely that they knew

the outcome or the correct answer all along, even
when they had no such knowledge or foresight.
 4. Hindsight Bias

• Hindsight bias arises from the tendency to reconstruct past events

with the benefit of hindsight, selectively remembering information
that confirms the actual outcome while forgetting or downplaying
information that was less relevant or available at the time.

• It often results in an overestimation of one's own knowledge or

predictive abilities.
 4. Hindsight Bias

Examples:

• After receiving their exam results, a university student might

say, "I knew I was going to do well on that test; it was so easy."
This statement overlooks the anxiety and uncertainty they felt
while taking the exam.

• Historical Events: Students studying history may perceive

historical events as having been more predictable than they
actually were. For example, they might say, "It was obvious
that World War I was going to happen given the tensions in
Europe," neglecting the complexities and uncertainties of the
time..
 4. Hindsight Bias

Why is it a problem?
• Overconfidence: Students may believe they are better at
predicting outcomes or understanding concepts than they
actually are.

• Reduced Learning: When students believe they already knew

the correct answers or outcomes, they may be less inclined to
engage in critical reflection and deep learning. This can hinder
their academic growth and intellectual development.

• Impact on Study Habits: Students may be less inclined to

review material thoroughly if they convince themselves they
already knew the answers.
 4. Hindsight Bias
How can we counteract the hindsight bias?

• think back on past predictions or beliefs about various

outcomes. This reflection can help recognize times where
hindsight bias may have influenced their perception.

• appreciate the uncertainty and complexity of events and

decisions at the time they occurred.

• strive for a more accurate understanding of past beliefs and

knowledge
 5. Dunning-Kruger Effect

The Dunning-Kruger Effect is a cognitive bias that refers to a

person's inability to recognize their own incompetence or
lack of skill or knowledge in a particular area.

• Individuals with low ability in a given area tend to

overestimate their competence, believing they
are more capable than they actually are.

• Experts tend to underestimate themselves

 5. Dunning-Kruger Effect

Examples:

• A student who consistently performs poorly in math

may believe they are exceptional at it because they
cannot accurately gauge their competence.

• They might dismiss the achievements of others who

excel in the subject, assuming that everyone should
find it as easy as they do.
 5. Dunning-Kruger Effect

Examples:

• A person who has never received formal training in

public speaking may confidently believe they are a
fantastic speaker, despite evidence of poor
communication skills.

• Someone who can speak a few words or phrases in

a foreign language may think they are fluent, often
discovering their limitations when attempting to
engage in a complex conversation.
 5. Dunning-Kruger Effect

Why is it a problem?

• overconfidence

• resistance to feedback

• underestimation of others

• missed learning opportunities

 5. Dunning-Kruger Effect

How can we counteract the Dunning-Kruger Effect?

• cultivate self-awareness

• actively seek feedback and opportunities for

improvement.

• recognize your limitations

• recognize the complexities of various

 6. Groupthink
Groupthink is a phenomenon that occurs within a group of
people when the desire for consensus and harmony within
the group outweighs the pursuit of making sound and
rational decisions

• group members prioritize harmony and

conformity over critical thinking.

• groupthink can lead to poor decision-making and

the suppression of different opinions.
https://kilmanndiagnostics.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Groupthink-Behavior.jpg
 6. Groupthink
Effects of Groupthink
• Poor Decision-Making: Can lead to poor
decisions that overlook risks and alternative
solutions.

• Suppression of Creativity: Diverse perspectives

are suppressed, which can hinder creative
problem-solving.

• Ethical Lapses: Groupthink can lead to morally

questionable actions when members believe they
are acting in the group's best interest.

• Missed Opportunities: Critical feedback and

 6. Groupthink

How can we counteract groupthink?

Groups and organizations should:

• encourage open discussion

• consider diverse viewpoints

• creating an environment where constructive

criticism is valued
 7. In-Group Bias
In-group bias is a cognitive bias where individuals tend to
favor and show preferential treatment to members of their
own social group or "in-group" over those who belong to
other groups or "out-groups."

https://leightonwinkler.files.wordpress.com/2012/07/yellow_smiley_in_group_of_blue_smiley
1.jpg?w=1024&h=295&crop=1
 7. In-Group Bias
Examples of in-group bias

• Sports Fandom: Fans of a particular sports team often

exhibit in-group bias by favoring their own team and its
players while showing hostility or negative bias towards rival
teams and their supporters.

• Nationalism and Patriotism: People may have strong

attachments to their own nation, viewing it favorably while
holding biases or prejudices against people from other
countries.

• Political Affiliation: People exhibit in-group bias by

supporting their party's policies and candidates while viewing
members of opposing parties as adversaries.
 7. In-Group Bias
Effects of In-group Bias

• Intergroup Conflict: It can contribute to intergroup conflict,

discrimination, and prejudice as out-group members are
perceived as threats or competitors.

• Social Division: It can lead to social division, making it

difficult for diverse groups to cooperate or work together
effectively.

• Inequality: It can perpetuate social and economic inequality.

• Reduced Empathy: It can reduce empathy and

understanding between different groups.
 7. In-Group Bias
How can we counteract in-group bias?
• Recognize Your Biases

• Challenge Stereotypes

• Seek Diverse Perspectives

• Practice Empathy: Try to understand the experiences and

feelings of individuals from different groups

• Challenge Your Assumptions: Regularly question your own

judgments and decisions.

• Educate Yourself: Educate yourself about the history,

experiences, and challenges faced by different groups.
 8. Status Quo Bias
Status quo bias is a cognitive bias that refers to the
tendency of individuals to prefer the current or existing
situation over making changes, even when the potential
benefits of change outweigh the benefits of maintaining the
status quo.

https://images.prismic.io/thedecisionlab/0c5c554
6-cea6-4621-982e-80562a800f4e_Status-Quo-
Bias.jpeg?auto=compress,format
 8. Status Quo Bias
• people tend to resist change and are more comfortable
with familiar situations

https://i0.wp.com/pmcc-corporation.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/Status-Quo-
Bias.jpeg?resize=1080%2C599&ssl=1
 8. Status Quo Bias
Effects of Status Quo Bias:

• Resistance to Change: It can hinder progress and innovation

• Inefficiency: Maintaining the status quo can result in

inefficiency, wasted resources, and missed opportunities for
improvement.

• Stagnation: Failing to adapt to changing conditions

• Limited Decision-Making: It can limit a person's choices and

result in missed opportunities for personal growth or
improvement.
 8. Status Quo Bias
How can we counteract Status Quo Bias?

• Critical Evaluation: Regularly assess your choices and

routines to determine if they are still the best options.

• Data-Driven Decisions: Use data and evidence in decision-

making, rather than relying solely on tradition or familiarity.

• Risk Assessment: Weigh the potential risks and benefits of

maintaining the status quo versus making changes. Be open
to calculated risks that have the potential for positive
outcomes.

• Encourage Innovation
 9. Authority Bias
Authority bias is a cognitive bias where individuals tend to
place excessive trust, respect, or importance on the
opinions, decisions, or actions of authority figures or
institutions, even when these figures or institutions may
not possess expertise or have a sound basis for their
authority.
 9. Authority Bias
Authority bias is a cognitive bias where individuals tend to
place excessive trust, respect, or importance on the
opinions, decisions, or actions of authority figures or
institutions, even when these figures or institutions may
not possess expertise or have a sound basis for their
authority.
 9. Authority Bias

Examples of Authority Bias:

• Medical Professionals: Patients may unquestionably accept medical

advice or treatment recommendations from doctors or specialists
without seeking second opinions, even if the advice is controversial
or the diagnosis is uncertain.

• Government Officials: Citizens may follow government policies or

directives without question, assuming that authorities have access to
relevant information and are acting in the public's best interest.

• Teachers and Professors: Students may accept the information

provided by teachers or professors as unquestionably accurate,
rarely challenging their perspectives or seeking additional sources of
information.
 9. Authority Bias

Effects of Authority Bias:

• Limited Critical Thinking: People may suppress their own critical

thinking in the presence of authority figures, leading to unexamined
beliefs or decisions.

• Misplaced Trust: Blind trust in authority can lead to compliance with

harmful or unethical actions or policies when authorities are not
acting in the best interests of individuals or society.

• Resistance to Change: Authority bias can make it difficult for

individuals or organizations to adapt to new information or change
course, even when it is necessary for improvement.
 9. Authority Bias

How can we counteract Authority Bias?

• Critical Thinking: Encourage critical thinking, even when dealing with

authority figures. Evaluate the evidence and reasoning behind their
claims.

• Seek Diverse Perspectives: Consider multiple viewpoints and seek

input from a variety of sources to balance the influence of a single
authority.

• Question Authority: Be willing to respectfully question authority

when necessary. Ask for explanations and evidence when decisions
or directives are unclear.
 9. Authority Bias

How can we counteract Authority Bias?

• Consult Experts: When necessary, seek the advice of experts in

relevant fields to inform decisions rather than relying solely on those
in positions of authority.

• Consider Intent and Motivation: Evaluate the motivations and

potential biases of authority figures, recognizing that they may have
personal or institutional interests that can influence their decisions
or opinions.
 10. The Sunk Cost Fallacy
The sunk cost fallacy is a cognitive bias that occurs when
people continue to invest time, money, or resources into a
decision or project, even when it is clear that the current
investment will not lead to a better outcome.

• people fall into the trap of thinking that because they

have already invested so much, they should continue
investing, even if it's not a rational decision.
 10. The Sunk Cost Fallacy

Examples:
• Investments: An individual might continue to invest
money into a failing business because they've already
invested a large amount. They think, "I've put so much
money into it; I can't just walk away now," even though
it's clear the business is unlikely to succeed.

• Education: A student who has spent years pursuing a

particular degree might persist in the program even if they
realize it's not aligned with their career goals. They
reason, "I've invested so much time and effort; I can't
switch now."
 10. The Sunk Cost Fallacy

Examples:
• Relationships: People sometimes stay in unhealthy or
unhappy relationships because they've already invested
many years or even decades. They believe they should
continue despite the emotional toll.

• Consumer Goods: Someone might continue using a faulty

or outdated product, such as a car that frequently breaks
down, just because they paid a lot for it initially. They may
rationalize, "I can't replace it; I've already spent so much
on this car."
 10. The Sunk Cost Fallacy

Effects of the sunk cost fallacy:

• Wasted Resources: Continuing to invest in a failing project
or decision can lead to the further waste of time, money,
and resources.

• Missed Opportunities: People may miss out on better

opportunities because they are preoccupied with
justifying their past investments.

• Increased Stress: Persisting in a failing endeavor can lead

to increased stress and frustration, as individuals struggle
to make sense of their ongoing losses.
 10. The Sunk Cost Fallacy

Effects of the sunk cost fallacy:

• Objective Assessment: Evaluate decisions and projects
based on their current and future potential, rather than
focusing solely on past investments.

• Cut Your Losses: Be willing to abandon projects or

decisions that no longer make sense, even if you've
invested a lot in them. Focus on the future rather than the
past.

• Learn from Mistakes: Use past experiences to learn and

improve decision-making processes in the future..
 Group Discussion

1. Do you think you are an open thinker?

2. What cognitive biases have you noticed most in other

people?

3. Which cognitive bias is the most harmful?

4. Which cognitive biases are you most susceptible to?