OXY-GAS WELDING

CONTENTS

Welding - General
1. Oxy-fuel processes
2. Oxygen
2.1 Manufacture of oxygen
2.2 Properties
2.3 Storage of oxygen
2.4 Pressure and temperature
2.5 Content of oxygen
2.6 Oxygen consumption
2.7 Unloading volume of oxygen
3. Fuel Gases
3.1 General
3.2 Requirements on a fuel gas
3.3 Acetylene
3.3.1 Manufacture
3.3.3 Explosion limits
3.3.4 Storage of acetylene
3.3.5 Content of an acetylene cylinder 3.3.6 Cylinder pressure - Temperature 3.3.7
Permissible gas consumption rate
3.4 Propane gas
3 5 Summary - Fuel gases
4. Gas cylinders
4.1 Color-code and cylinder connections 4.2 Transportation of gas cylinders 4.3 Storage
of gas cylinders
5. Cylinder valves
6. Cylinder pressure regulators

6.1 Function

6.2 Operating instructions for cylinder pressure regulators

6.3 Leak test of a pressure connection

6.4 Gauges

7. Safety Equipments
7.1 Check valves
7.2 Flashback arrestors
7.2.1 Torch-mounted flashback arrestor

1.2 Page 1 of 88
 7.2.2 Regulator-mounted flashback arrestors
7.2.3 Automatic flashback arrestor
8. Welding hoses
8.1 Design of hoses
8.2 Distinguishing signs
8.2.1 Color code
8.2.2 Inner diameter
8.2.3 Working pressure
8.3 Length of hoses
8.4 Attachment of hoses
8.5 Handle with hoses and their connections
8.6 Gaskets
9. Welding torch

9.1 Design of torch

9.1.1 Injector torch
9.1.2 Principle of injector effect
9.2 Equal pressure torch
9.3 Correct blowpipe attachment
9.4 Injector blowpipe
9.5 Special attachments
9.6 Maintenance and service
10. The oxy-acetylene flame

10.1 Oxy-acetylene flame

10.2 Combustion of the oxy-acetylene flame
10.3 Welding flame - flame types
10.3.1 Normal or neutral flame
10.3.2 Carburizing flame
10.3.3 Oxidizing flame (mildly reducing welding flame)
10.4 Flame intensity
10.5 Flame distance
10.6 Backfire
10.7 Reverse flow (backflow)
10.8 Flashback
10.9 Remedies
11. Initiation of the gas welding plant
11.1 Igniting and regulating the welding flame
112 Extinguishing the flame

1.2 Page 2 of 88
12. Gas welding techniques
12.1 Leftward welding
12.2 Rightward welding
12.3 Two-operator technique
12.4 Summary - Gas consumption
13. Gas supply systems
13.1 Station gas supply
13.2 Central supply system by piping system
14. Joint preparation
14.1 Welding positions
14.2 Rotation
14.3 Types of joint
14.3.1 Examples of butt welds ONORM M 7800
14.3.2 Fillet welds
14.3.3 Corner (V) joint
14.3.4 Flanged edge-joint
15. Weld defects
15.1 Imperfect shape
15.1.1 Undercuts
15.1.2 Overlap
15.1.3 Excessive reinforcement (excess weld metal)
(overfilled groove) (reinforced joint)
15.1.4 Excessive penetration (excessive root convexity)
15.1.5 Slag inclusions of the root
15.1.6 Root concavity - lack of penetration
15.1.7 Poor restart
15.1.8 Irregular surface -surface defects
15 19 Linear misalignment (linear offset angle misalignment)
15.1.10 Lack of fusion and penetration
15.1.11 Surface defect
15.2 Weld defects - filler welds
15.3 Weld assessment (visual inspection)
16. Welding filler (welding roots) for gas welding
16.1 Classification - General
16.2 Classification according to chemical composition
16.3 Diameters and lengths of gas welding rods
16.4 Suitability of welding rods

1.2 Page 3 of 88
Welding General
In welding suitable materials are joined using heat. They are either in their plastic state, under
pressure or in their molten state with or without filler material.

Gas welding

Fig. 1.2 - 1
The composition of the filler material is equal or superior in quality to the materials to be welded.
The advantages of a welded construction as opposed to forged, cast or riveted constructions are:
- simplicity and speed of production;
- a saving in weight;
- more economical in general.
A welded construction is generally stronger than a riveted construction. This is because any loads are
distributed along the length of the welded joint.
Fusion welding
Almost all metals are fusion weld able by one process or another.
The fusion welding processes are:
- gas welding;
- arc welding;
- special welding procedures.
Gas fusion welding
The oldest method in gas fusion welding is sometimes known by the classical name of autogenous welding.

Procedure in gas fusion welding

The areas to be welded are heated to their melting point.
As a source of heat, an oxy-fuel gas flame is used.

1.2 Page 4 of 88
1. Oxy-fuel processes

Examples of oxy-fuel processes are:

- oxy-fuel gas welding;
- flame brazing (torch brazing);
- flame cuffing;
- flame gouging;
- flame plaining;
- flame straightening;
- flame heating;
- flame cleaning,
- flame spraying;
- flame hardening.
Oxy-acetylene welding and cutting equipment

Fig. 1.2 - lb

1.2 Page 5 of 88
2. Oxygen •
Symbol 02
Density 1.43 kg/m3 (0°C, 101.3 kPa)

2.1 Manufacture of oxygen

Oxygen is gained by decomposition of air (Linde process).
The atmospheric air comprises approximately
21% by volume oxygen (23% by weight);
78% by volume nitrogen;
1% by volume rare gases (inert gases).

2.2 Properties
- Oxygen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless and non-toxic gas.
- It is approximately 1.1 times heavier than air.
- Oxygen purity for flame cutting at least 99%;
for gas welding at least 98%.
Oxygen itself is non-inflammable, but it supports combustion.
It is highly oxidizing, reacts vigorously with combustible materials, and can cause fire or explosion.
It is not allowed that grease or oil come in contact with cylinders, especially compressed oxygen.

Fig. 1.2 – 2

- Oil or grease, even in very small quantities, can cause an explosive fire in presence of oxygen.
- Never lubricate any pans of the equipment

1.2 Page 6 of 88
Fig. 1.2 – 3

- Never use pure oxygen for ventilation or blowing clean as it can lead to explosive ignition.

Fig. 1.2 – 4

- Leaking oxygen can ignite combustible materials like clothing so check that there are no leaking hoses
or connections.

1.2 Page 7 of 88
2.3 Storage of oxygen

Oxygen is stored in steel cylinders. Gas cylinders are available in several sizes for different applications.

Volume pressure gas volume

1 bar m3
10 150 1.5
10 200 2
40 150 6
50 200 10

2.4 Pressure and temperature

The pressure of oxygen depends on the temperature.

+40 ' +30 +20 +15 0 -10 1-20

Temperature of the gas in cylinder °C
pressure in a full cylinder A 164 158 153 150 142 136 128
bar B 218 210 204 200 189 181 171

2.5 Content of oxygen

The gas content can be worked out by multiplying the cylinder volume in liters by the pressure in bar.

Cylinder volume x gas pressure = gas volume x pressure of atmosphere

Example: 401 x 150 bar = 60001 x 1 bar

Or:
Gas volume :

V=

2.6 Oxygen consumption

∆V = oxygen consumption in liters

V = cylinder volume in liters
p1 = gas pressure before starting to weld in bars
p2 = gas pressure after weld in bars
Patm = pressure of atmosphere

1.2 Page 8 of 88
 The gas content can be worked out by multiplying the cylinder volume in liters by the residual
pressure in bars as indicated on the gauge on the cylinder regulator.

Example:
Cylinder with 40 1 volume. The gauge shows at the start of welding 100 bar, after welding 50 bar. The
remaining gas volume will then be

In the case of a cylinder bundle the number of m3 (in this case 2.0) is multiplied by the number of
cylinders.

gouge

Fig. 1.2-5

2.7 Unloading volume of oxygen

Safety fittings are available up to an oxygen low rate of 1200 to 1500 liters per hour. For higher
withdrawal rates, multiple cylinders can be connected in parallel.

1.2 Page 9 of 88
3. Fuel Gases
3.1 General
Fuel gases usually consist of a hydrocarbon or a mixture of hydrocarbons that bums in air or oxygen. The
following fuel gases are used for flame welding, brazing or cutting and other different processes:
Methane (natural gas) CH4
Acetylene C2H2
Ethylene C2H4
Methylacetylene C3H4
Propylene C3H6
Propane C3H8
Hydrogen H2

3.2 Requirements on a fuel gas

The following requirements must be met when fuel gas is used for welding purposes:
- high calorific value (J);
- high combustion velocity (m/s);
- high flame temperature (°C);
- high flame intensity (J/cm2 or kikM2);
- defense against the atmospheric air,
- safety in use;
- economy in use (cheap manufacture).

Efficiency of the flame

The ability of a fuel gas to achieve rapid local heating is usually indicated by its flame temperature
and/or flame intensity.
Both flame temperature and flame intensity are highly dependent on the mixing ratio between oxygen and fuel gas.

3.3 Acetylene

Symbol C2H2

Acetylene is a combustible gas. It is a combination of carbon and hydrogen.

3.3.1 Manufacture
Acetylene is manufactured by reacting calcium carbide (CaC2) with water.

Calcium carbide + water acetylene + lime + heat

1.2 Page 10 of 88
Carbide production

"Carbide" or calcium carbide is produced by fusing lime and coke in an electric arc furnace.

Acetylene industrial manufacture

Acetylene is produced in a high pressure gas generator. The acetylene is delivered from the generator to a
holding tank.
After chemical cleaning, where impurities are removed, gas is compressed (2.5 MPa = 25 bar, 362 psi).
After compression, the acetylene passes a water separator and is then dried in high pressure driers.
The purified, compressed acetylene is distributed to a filling manifold for charging into gas cylinders or
cylinder bundles.

Fig. 1.2 - 5.1

Types of generator
Types of generator can be classified as follows:

According to method of operation:

- carbide-to-water generator,
- influx generator (addition of water to carbide);
- recession gas or immersion acetylene generator.
According to the level of gas pressure:
- low-pressure generator, up to 0.3 bar;
- high-pressure generator from 0.3 bar to 1.5 bar.
- Recession gas (immersion) generator

1.2 Page 11 of 88
 Fig.1.2- 5.2

Properties
- Acetylene is a colorless, inflammable, in the pure state odorless and non-toxic gas. Acetylene has a
garlic-like odor.

- The gas is slightly lighter than air. Density 1.17 kg / m3 (0 °C, 101.3 kPa).

- Acetylene burns in air and oxygen with an intensely hot, luminous and smoky flame.

- Acetylene mixed with oxygen produce the hottest and most concentrated flame of any industrial fuel gas.

3.3.3 Explosion limits

If a fuel gas leaks out into the surrounded air an e\ plosive mixture can be formed.
The figure shows the lower and upper explosion limits for some common fuel gases in air.
Below the lower explosion limit the mixture is too lean" to be explosive, and above the upper limit it is
too rich.

1.2 Page 12 of 88
 Fig. 1.2 - 6

For acetylene the lower limit is at 1.2 %, the upper limit is at 82 %.

- Acetylene cylinders should always be stored upright in a place vented to atmosphere air with flameproof
switches and lights.
- Working area
At least 50 m3 air space should be allowed for every acetylene gas cylinder in operation.
- Before starting work check the complete gas installation with a leak spray or soap solution that there is no
leakage.
- Inadequate ventilation in confined space

Fig. 1.2 - 7

1.2 Page 13 of 88
Locate compressed gas cylinders outside the confined space.

- Use special suspension for hoses.

Fig. 1.2 - 8

- Acetylene gas should not come into direct contact with copper or alloys with more than 70 % copper, as an
explosive compound (copper acetylide) is formed. For this reason the acetylene piped from the manifold
is conveyed in steel pipes.
3.3.4 Storage of acetylene

Acetylene becomes unstable and liable to explode when compressed above 2 bar (30 psi) but can be safely stored
under pressure in cylinders packed with porous material soaked in acetone. This is known as dissolved acetylene.
The function of the porous mass (filler) is to soak up the acetone and to provide a certain protection
against flashbacks.

Fig.1.2 - 9

1.2 Page 14 of 88
Under normal conditions the porous mass effectively stops any decomposition which may be initiated.

Porous masses
- Solid porous mass
The usually used porous mass consists of diatomaceous earth, asbestos, charcoal, cement and water.
The porosity of this mass is 71-80%. The gas cylinder must always be kept standing upright

- Monolith mass
Consists of calciumhydrosilicate and asbestos.
The porosity of this mass is nearly 91%. Therefore cylinders with this mass may also be used in flat position.
These cylinders are marked with a red ring.

3.3.5 Content of an acetylene cylinder

Interior of an acetylene cylinder

Fig. 1.2 - 10

The gas content of an acetylene cylinder cannot be calculated exactly from the pressure, as the solubility
of acetylene in acetone is strongly dependent on temperature.
The exact content must be determined by weighing

1.2 Page 15 of 88
However, a rough calculation of the gas content (about 15 °C) can be made as follows:
One liter acetone dissolves 25 liters of acetylene at 15°C.
In a 40-liter cylinder there is approximately 16 liters acetone. The
pressure of a full gas cylinder = 15 bar:

161 x 15 bar x 25 = 60001 =

6m3
quantity of pressure of dissolving gas content
acetone a full capacity of 11
cylinder acetone at 1 bar

Approximate calculation
Multiply the regulator pressure in bar by the acetylene cylinder volume in liters and then multiply by ten.
Example:
Cylinder with 50 l volume, 10 bar.
The approximate gas content will then be
50 1 x 10 bar x 10 = 5000 liters of gas, which corresponds to 5 kg.

3.3.6 Cylinder pressure - Temperature

Contens refer to the gas volume obtained when the compressed gas in a cylinder is converted
to the corresponding volume at normal pressure and temperature.
Pressure increase in an acetylene gas cylinder corresponding to temperature increase

Fig. 1.2 - 11

1.2 Page 16 of 88
3.3.7 Permissible gas consumption rate

The hourly discharge rate of acetylene gas from one cylinder may not be greater than
900 1- 1000 l acetylene per hour at short time discharge;
500 1 - 600 1 acetylene per hour at continual discharge;

otherwise acetone will be sucked along.

Permissible gas consumption rate of oxygen 02 is 1200 - 1500 liters per hour - or there is a danger of
the pressure regulator freezing.

For continuous working or a higher discharging rate it is necessary to use gas bundle or a manifold system.

Fig. 1.2 - 12

Each gas will be supplied from a manifold system with two banks of cylinders, each bank having an insulating
valve. When one bank is exhausted the insulating valve is closed and the one for the second bank is opened.

1.2 Page 17 of 88
3.4 Propane gas

Symbol C3H8
Propane gas is a liquid or liquefied petroleum gas (LP gas).
Propane is a colorless, not-toxic but mildly anaesthetic gas.
The gas is heavier than air (2.02 kg / m3).

Propane is mainly produced with the refining of crude oil and the cracking of other petroleum products.
Propane is easy to handle because it can be stored in liquid form in cylinders at room temperature under
its own vapor pressure, which is only 9 bar absolute (130 psi) at room temperature.

Propane has a higher calorific value per kg of gas than acetylene, but generates a lower proportion of
this heat in the primary flame. The flame temperature is lower and the oxygen requirement is
approximately 4 times higher than for acetylene.

The high density of propane means that leaking propane readily accumulates in low-lying areas, giving
rise to a high explosion hazard.

The cylinder contains both gas and liquid. If the temperature of the gas is increased, the vapor pressure
rises and more gas changes to liquid.

At a sufficiently high temperature there is a risk of cylinder explosion.

To avoid this the cylinder has a safety valve which releases sufficient quantities of gas when the
pressure raises, i.e. gas passing through the safety valve if the cylinder is kept in an upright position.

WARNING!
In order for the
safety valve to
regulate the gas
pressure properly, the gas cylinder
must always be kept standing upright.
1. 2. 3. 4.
Normal Temperature Safety valve Normal
conditions increases opens conditions

How vapor pressure and the proportion of liquid product increase with temperature in a propane cylinder.

Fig.1.2 - 13

1.2 Page 18 of 88
3.5 Summary - Fuel gases

fuel gases
Name oxygen
acetylene propane methane hydrogen
Chemical 02 C2H2 C3H8 CH4 H2
formula
Manufacture separation of reaction refining natural gas electrolysis of
air into its between of crude consists water
components calcium- oil primarily
carbide and of methane
Properties colorless, water
colorless, non- non-toxic, odorless, colorless,
odorless, non- toxic, odorless colorless, colorless, odorless, non-
toxic, non- heavier than not toxic, lightest of
inflammable air particularly all gases
Method of under under pressure condensed at toxic
as gas in pipe compressed gas
storage pressure in dissolved in room directly to
cylinders acetone temperature customer or in
under cylinder
moderate
Density pressures
3
kg/m at 1 1.17 1.88 0.67 0.09

15°C, 1.013
Boiling
bar point -183 -84 -42 -162 -253
(°C) at I bar
Critical
temperature °C +35 +97 -82 -240
Flame
temperature
for normal 2325 1925 1875 2045
flame- with air
°C with
oxygen °C 3150 2850 2750 2850

1.2 Page 19 of 88
4 Gas cylinders
ONORM M 7377
There are many different types of gas cylinders designed for a variety of uses. Compressed gases that are
stored in gas cylinders can be divided into four main groups:
- non-liquefied gases (air, oxygen, argon, helium, nitrogen and hydrogen);
- dissolved gases (acetylene);

- liquefied high pressure gases (carbon dioxide);

- liquefied low pressure gases (propane).

Fig. 1.2 - 14
Cylinders for non-liquefied gases are available in a number of sizes, the most common being 5, 10, 20,
40, 50 liters water volume.
The cylinders are normally made of steel (aluminum is now also being used) and are fitted with a safety
relief valve or a rupture disk.

The pressure is read on a pressure gauge.

Each cylinder is marked as follows:

- information about manufacture (strength of the material, pressure test specimen);

- origin;

- owner,

- designation of the gas;

- cylinder pressure;
- test information (test sign, date of testing).

1.2 Page 20 of 88
 1. 2.-21
4.1 Color-code and cylinder connections

ONORM M7390

Type of gas color code cylinder inlet application

connection flame yielding,
white (A) flame cutting,
combustible acetylene C2H2 bow-connection
yellow (D) brazing, pre-
gases
heating
propane C31-113, butane
C4I-110, methane C2H4 flame cutting,
red W21.80x1/14" left
pre-heating

hydrogen H2 red W21.80x1/14" left

anti-slag gas red W21.80x1/14" left degassing
non-combustible
gases G3/4" outside thread supports
oxygen 02 blue
combustion

right hand thread

. retards
nitrogen N2 green W24.32x1/14"
combustion

argon Ar grey W21.80x1/14' shielded

helium He grey W2 1 .80x 1/14" gas
carbon-dioxide CO2 grey W21.80x1/14" weldin
supports
g
combustion,
compressed air grey R5/8" inside thread
gouging

Acetylene cylinders of type 48 and 50 which are filled with monolith mass are additionally
marked with a red ring on the cylinder neck

1.2 Page 21 of 88
 Cylinders for welding and cutting gases are painted as follows (English):
Type of gas ground collar of cylinder cylinder inlet connections
combustible acetylene C2H2 maroon left hand thread
gases propane C3H8 red R1/2" left
hydrogen H2 red R1/2" left
oxygen black R3/4" right hand thread
non-
compressed air grey right hand (inside)
combustible
argon blue right hand
gases
argon/CO2 mixture blue with green band right hand
CO2 black with white strip right hand
helium mid-brown right hand
nitrogen grey with black top right hand

4.2 Transportation of gas cylinders

Always transport gas cylinders carefully and remember the following:
- the cylinder cap must always be in place so that the valve cannot be opened accidentally;
- gas cylinders must be protected from shock and impact;
- handle cylinders carefully. Do not drag, slide or drop them;
- use suitable racks and trolleys to move cylinders;
- do not lift by the valve cap. A suitable cradle, basket, or platform must be used to lift cylinders with a
crane or hoist. Do not sling with ropes or chains;
- when being transported by road vehicle or lift truck, the cylinders must be secured so that they cannot
shift, roll, or fall;
- do not transport cylinders in an enclosed vehicle;
- do not transport leaky cylinders.

Fig. 1.2 - 15
1.2 Page 22 of 88
 1.2-23 .

4.3 Storage of gas cylinders

Gas cylinders should be stored in easily accessible areas that are cool in temperature, well-ventilated, and
that provide protection for the cylinders from shock and impact
- Store cylinders in a clearly identified storage area away from doorways, aisles, elevators and stairs. Mark the area
with "No smoking"-signs. The area should be dry and well-ventilated.
- Protect cylinders from ground contact, ice or snow, water, salt and corrosion, and high temperatures. Never use a
flame or boiling water to thaw a frozen valve. Valves or cylinder heads contain fusible plugs which can melt. Use
warm water.
- Store cylinders in the upright position secured with a chain but not locked.

Fig. 1.2 - 16

- Do not place cylinders where they might become part of an electrical circuit. Never use them for a ground
connection.
- Store full and empty cylinders separately. Return empties to the supplier as soon as possible. Mark empty
cylinders as such.
- Store with regulators removed and protective caps in place.
- Store cylinders and fittings where they cannot be contaminated with grease or oil.
- Gas cylinders are to be guarded against sunlight

1.2 Page 23 of 88
5 Cylinder valves

ÖNORM M 7390

- Valves for oxygen are made of brass (steel is not allowed for danger of fire).

- Valves for acetylene gas are made of steel.

Only seals made of FIFE (Teflon, Hostaflon) for oxygen and fuel gases are to be used. Do not use seals made
of copper for valves for fuel gases (danger of explosion).

Fig. 1.2 - 17

Before attaching the regulators, "crack" the cylinder by momentarily opening the valve slightly, then
closing immediately. This blows out dust or dirt_ Use two hands on the valve and do not stand directly in
front or behind the valve.

OPEN CLOSE
COUNTERCLOCKWISE CLOCKWISE Figure 12 - 18
Fig. 1.2 - 18
Fig. 1.2 - 18

1.2 Page 24 of 88
 Fig. 1.2 - 19

6. Cylinder pressure regulators

Cylinder pressure regulators have to fulfill the specifications of ONORMM 7875 and ISO 2503.

These pressure regulators are designed for connection to gas cylinders used for

- compressed gases;

- gases dissolved under pressure;

- liquefied gases.

Important!
Please observe the regulations and rules valid in your country!

6.1 Function

Its function is to reduce the high cylinder pressure to the working pressure (depending upon the regulator
pressure screw setting). Even when the cylinder pressure drops, the working pressure must remain the same until
the cylinder is exhausted_

1.2 Page 25 of 88
Regulator for oxygen

Fig. 1.2- 20

Regulator for acetylene

Fig. 1.2- 21

Fig. 1.2 - 21

1.2 Page 26 of 88
Do not use gas cylinders without a regulator.
Install the correct regulator.
Make sure the regulator is clean, free of grease, with a clean filter on the inlet nipple

Flow rates of pressure regulator (standard condition)

Oxygen 02

Inlet pressure flow rate m3/h

bar With outlet pressure bar
1
Withoutletpressurebar 2.5 4 10 20
40 15 30 10 40 50 60
20 15 20 20 25 30
10 15 15 15
5 10 10 10

Acetylene C2H2

Inlet pressure flow rate m3/h

bar with outlet pressure
0.5 1
bar 1.2
18 5 6 1 8
10 4.5 5.5 6.5
4 3 4 5
2 1.5 2 3

For other gases multiply the flow rate of oxygen by the following factors:

Argon Ar 0.90
Carbon Dioxide CO 2 0.84
Compressed Air 1.05
Hydrogen H2 4.00
Methane 1.40
Nitrogen 1.05.

1.2 Page 27 of 88
6.2 Operating instructions for cylinder pressure regulators

1. Out of work

2.In Wo rk

Fig. 1.2 - 22

1.2 Page 28 of 88
Connecting the pressure regulator
- Make sure that the pressure regulator is suitable for the type of gas to be used.
- Before screwing on the pressure regulator, briefly open the cylinder valve and close again in order to blow out
any dirt.
- Connect up the pressure regulator with the union nut or stirrup (2) to form a gas tight seal with the cylinder
valve. The spring cap with the adjusting screw (5) must point vertically downwards. Fit the hose to the hose
connection (7) and the gas consumption unit, using suitable hose clips to secure it..
Important:
Use only tools that are in good order!
Setting the pressure
- Close the shut-off valve (throttle screw) (6)
- Relieve the regulator from pressure by unscrewing the adjusting screw.
- Open the cylinder valve gradually. The inlet pressure gauge shows the cylinder pressure.
- Open the shut-off valve and slightly open the shut-off valve arranged on the gas consumption unit
- Now screw the adjusting screw back in again until the desired outlet-pressure is set, which can be read
off on the outlet pressure gauge (4).
Where there are great variations in the volume of gas consumed, it is possible that a slight deviation may occur from
the preset outlet pressure. In this event, the outlet pressure must be re-adjusted by means of the adjusting screw.
Taking out of service
In the event of short breaks between operations it is sufficient to close the shut-off valve (throttle screw). After completion of
work or for prolonged breaks:
- close the cylinder valve;
- unscrew the regulator adjusting screw until the spring pressure is released;
- close the shut-off valve (throttle screw).

Fig. 1.2 - 23

1.2 Page 29 of 88
Important:
- Keep all components that come into contact with oxygen free from oil and grease on account of explosion
risks.
- Do not open the cylinder valves more than 1/2 turn.
- Leave the cylinder key on the acetylene cylinder.
- Open the shut-off valves (throttle screws) of both regulators.
Recommended pressures:
acetylene = 0.1 - 0.8 bar
oxygen = 1.8 - 2.5 bar.

6.3 Leak test of a pressure connection

Check that no gas leakage occurs.

Adjustment screw Adjustment screw

fasten Loose

Fig. 1.2 - 24

- Check the pressure drop like in Fig. 1.2 - 24.

- Use detergent solution of leak spray for leak test.
- Check that e.g. the seal between torch handle and welding insert or cutting attachment is intact Never
use matches to light up - use a spark lighter

Light up with flame

is not allowed!

Fig. 1.2 - 25
Shut-off valve (throttle screw) has a stuffing box package. In case of leakage, tighten up stuffing box unit.
1.2 Page 30 of 88
6.4 Gauges
The gauges of the pressure regulators must be suitable for the type of gas and the pressure.
The acetylene gauges are designated with "Acetylene".
The oxygen gauges are designated with "Oxygen - Free from oil and grease".
Damaged gauges must be changed.

Fig. 1.2 - 26

1.2 Page 31 of 88
7. Safety Equipments
Safety devices have to provide safety against:
- backfire;
- sustained backfire;
- reverse flow,
- flashback.
By using safety devices the risk of backfire and flashback can in most cases be avoided. The most
common type of safety equipment are check valves and flash-back arrestors.
In some countries check valves and flashback arrestors are mandatory while in others there are only
recommendations.

7.1 Check valves

Check valves are installed on the torch, both fuel gas and the oxygen connection. In many cases the torch
is already provided with check valves from the beginning. Check valves effectively prevent reverse flow
of gas.
Note!
Check valves cannot stop a flashback.
If check valves are to be reliable it is important to subject them to functional checking at regular intervals.

1. Check valve closed . 2.Normal flow-

check valve open.
Check valves mounted on a torch
Fig. 1.2 – 27

7.2 Flashback arrestors

A flashback arrestor will effectively prevent a flashback from entering the cylinder or supply system,
which could cause a serious accident.
Flashback arrestors can be mounted on either the torch or the regulator.

1.2 Page 32 of 88
7.2.1 Torch-mounted flashback arrestor

Check valve

Sintered metal filter

1. Check valve closed. 2. Normal flow-check valve open.

Torch -mounted f lashback arrestor

Fig. 1.2 – 28

Torch-mounted flashback arrestors are mounted straight onto the torch and have two functions. They stop
the flame in the event of a backfire with the help of a flame arrestor, and they prevent reverse flow with the
help of a built-in check valve.
The flame arrestor consists of a sintered metal filter, normally of stainless steel.
Gas can flow through, but a flame is extinguished due to the cooling effect
A flashback arrestor mounted on the torch prevents hose explosions.
Remember that the flame arrestor in a torch-mounted flashback arrestor creates some pressure drop. This
can reduce the flow capacity.
So first check what flow the application demands.
7.2.2 Regulator-mounted flashback arrestors
Regulator-mounted flashback arrestors are mounted on the regulator or outlet .

Flashback arrestor

Fig. 1.2 - 29
1.2 Page 33 of 88
 Besides preventing reverse flow with the help of a check valve and extinguishing the flame after a
flashback with the help of a flame arrestor, regulator-mounted flashback arrestors can also have the
following functions:
- to shut off the gas supply in the event of a flashback. If this function is activated you can reset the
arrestor yourself. It is of course important that you first find out what caused the flashback;
- to prevent gas from flowing out of the cylinder in the case of fire. If this function has been activated you
cannot reset the arrestor yourself. It has to be replaced.
The different functions of a regulator-mounted flashback arrestor are shown below.

Normal Flow

Fig. 1.2 - 30

1.2 Page 34 of 88
Advantages
A regulator-mounted flashback arrestor has more safety functions and a greater flow capacity
than a torch-mounted flashback arrestor.
Disadvantages
A regulator-mounted flashback arrestor does not prevent a hose explosion as a torch-mounted arrestor does.
The best safety is therefore met by having flashback arrestors on both regulator and torch. This is
possible if the required flows are not too high.
For higher flows one has to be content with check valves on the torch and flashback arrestors on the
regulators.
It is important to equip not only the fuel gas side but also the oxygen side with flashback arrestors. A
flashback arrestor on the oxygen regulator can e.g. prevent oxygen from continuing to flow out in case of
fire. This is important as additional oxygen raises the combustion velocity.

7.2.3 Automatic flashback arrestor

Here gas backflow is prevented by an inlet membrane which triggers a special locking device.
Closing of the automatic flashback arrestor can be seen on the warning sign mounted on the
lever that swings out from the arrestor.

—Warning lever
Dirt filter (only
for fuel gas)
Pressure regulated flow
gate
Gas back-flow valve

—Temperature sensitive shut off

device

Solder Flame
gate

Pressure relief valve

Flashback arrestor SUPPER 66 Witt /AGA

Fig. 1.2 - 31

1.2 Page 35 of 88
8 Welding hoses
ONORM M7870
ISO 3821
DIN 8541
DIN 4825 (liquid gas)

8.1 Design of hoses

These are made from rubber and have double cloth liners in order to withstand the working pressure.
8.2 Distinguishing signs 8.2.1
Color code
Gas color code example
oxygen blue
fuel gas red acetylene
liquid gas orange Propane
non-inflammable gases black pressure air

8.2.2 Inner diameter

Inner diameter (rated diameter)

mm
6.3 8 10 12.5 16 20

8.2.3 Working pressure

Category
Pressure
A B
maximum working pressure 10 bar 20 bar
test pressure 20 bar 40 bar
bursting pressure >30 bar >60 bar

8.3 Length of hoses

- for generators at least 5 m;
- for cylinders at least 3 m.

1.2 Page 36 of 88
 8.4 Attachment of hoses
ÖNORM M 7871
1S0 5253-1975
Use only well-fitting hose connections.

Hose connections
Fig. 1.2 – 32

Secure the connections with hose clamps.

Do not connect with wire!

Fig. 1.2 – 33

For inflammable gases: left hand threat

A groove in the nut indicates a left hand thread. For non-
inflammable gases: right hand thread.

1.2 Page 37 of 88
8.5 Handle with hoses and their connections
- Use the correct hoses and fittings.
- Check hoses for damage before use.
- Replace a leaky hose.
- Do not tape a leaky hose to stop the leak.
- Prevent kinks in the hose.
- Do not use hoses longer than necessary.

Fig. 1.2 - 34

8.6 Gaskets
Because of the great danger of confusion, only those gaskets which have been designed especially for the
purpose may be used for the connection oxygen or inflammable gas equipment.
Gasket material is acetone-resistant material, plastic, teflon etc.

1.2 Page 38 of 88
9. Welding torch
ONORM M 7880
ISO 5172-1977

9.1 Design of torch

Depending on how the gases are mixed, we distinguish between
- injector torches (low pressure torches) and
- equal pressure torches.

9.1.1 Injector torch

In an injector torch, a type of low pressure torch, the fuel gas pressure is always considerably
lower than the oxygen pressure.
The gases are mixed by letting the oxygen flow suck in the fuel gas through the injector nozzle.
According to ISO, injector torches must always be marked with the symbol "i".

Fig. 1.2 - 35

1.2 Page 39 of 88
9.1.2 Principle of injector effect

Fig. 1.2 - 36
Injector or suction blowpipes are almost exclusively used for low pressure gas fusion welding

9.2 Equal pressure torch

In an equal pressure torch the pressures of the fuel gas and oxygen are equal on the inlet side. According
to ISO equal pressure torches must always be marked with the symbol

Equal- pr essure torc h

Fig. 1.2 - 37
Equal pressure blowpipes or mixing chamber blowpipes are used for high pressure gas fusion
welding and for medium pressure, too.

1.2 Page 40 of 88
9.3 Correct blowpipe attachment
The choice of blowpipe attachment depends on the flame strength required, which depends on:
- the nature of the material to be welded;
- the thickness of the material;
- the type of welding process used.
Used working pressure of oxygen 2.5 bar
Blowpipe oxygen consumption l/h, acetylene gas consumption
material thickness mm
attachment 0°C, 1.013 bar ~ l/h
0 0.2-0.5 40±5 40
1 0.5-1 80+10 75
2 1-2 160+15 150
3 2-4 315+30 300
4 4-6 500+50 480
5 6-9 800+80 750
6 9-14 1250+125 1150
7 14-20 1800+180 1700
8 20-30 2500+250 2400

9.4 Injector blowpipe

Fig. 1.2 - 35
Fig. 1.2 - 35

1.2 Page 41 of 88
9.5 Special attachments

Fig. 1.2 - 39
Flexible welding heads for inaccessible welding positions
Fig. 1.2 - 40
Fig. 1.2 – 39

Flexible welding heads for increasible welding position

Fig. 1.2 - 40
9.6 Maintenance and service
- Repairs and service must be performed by skilled technicians.
- Keep all parts of the equipment clean. Do not lubricate any parts. Oil or grease in contact with oxygen can cause
an explosion.
- Use the correct cleaning needle for cleaning cutting nozzles and welding head. Push the cleaning needle
carefully
in and out without twisting. Other objects than cleaning needles will scratch and spoil the nozzle ducts.
- Open and shut off the torch valves carefully.
- Cool the nozzle after finishing work.
- Overheated nozzles or tips may be cooled in a bucket of water.
- Do not combine equipment of different manufactures.
- Check that no gas leakage occurs. Check, e.g., that the seal between torch handle and welding insert or cutting
attachment is intact.

Always keep your equipment in good condition.

1.2 Page 42 of 88
10 The oxy-acetylene flame
The oxygen-acetylene flame is mainly used for gas welding and heating. The flame has to
melt the joint and the filler metal and furthermore to defend the molten pool against
atmospheric oxygen.
10.1 Oxy-acetylene flame

Fig. 1.2 - 41
It is mainly the carbon which provides the intense heat and very high flame temperature
(approximately 3200°C) when burned with oxygen.
Shapes of the illuminated cone

Fig. 1.2 - 42
1.2 Page 43 of 88
10.2 Combustion of the oxy-acetylene flame
An acetylene and oxygen mixture burns in two steps:

Fig. 1.2 - 43
st
1 step of combustion
C2H2 + 202 — 4C0 + 2H
Acetylene + oxygen from cylinder — carbon monoxide + hydrogen

2nd step of combustion

4C0 + 2H2 + 30 — 4CO2 + 2H20
carbon monoxide + hydrogen + oxygen from the air — carbon dioxide + steam

The zone of the highest flame temperature (~3200°) for an acetylene-oxygen flame is situated in the
reducing zone and is 2 to 5 mm distant from the top of the illuminated flame cone.
The heat output of the flame is of great importance for the speed with which the material can be heated to
ignition temperature.

1.2 Page 44 of 88
 For complete combustion of one part (e.g. 1 m3) of acetylene, 2.5 parts (e.g. 2.5 m3) of oxygen are required. 1 part
of oxygen is taken from the oxygen cylinder and the other 1.5 parts are taken from the ambient air.
The result is that the theoretical mixing ratio of the fuel gases acetylene:oxygen has to be 1:1. The practical
mixing ratio is
1:1.05 to 1:1.1,
which means the oxygen consumption is 5% to 10% higher than the consumption of acetylene. Flame
temperature of oxy-fuel flames

Fig. 1.2 – 44

The chart shows the flame temperature per mixing ratio between fuel gases and oxygen.

10.3 Welding flame - flame types

Mixtures of acetylene and oxygen produce different types of welding flame. It is important to use the right flame
for the material to be welded.
- Normal or neutral welding flame
- Carburizing welding flame
- Oxidizing welding flame
The normal (neutral) and carburizing flames are reducing in nature.

1.2 Page 45 of 88
 10.3.1 Normal or neutral flame
luminated flame_ cone

Shieled-zone ( without gas-surplus)

Normal ( neutral) welding flame

Fig. 1.2 - 45

This flame burns equal quantities of oxygen and acetylene (in practice it is advisable to have the smallest possible
acetylene haze at the cone tip to begin with).
Gas mixture
Oxygen + acetylene approximately 1:1.
Application
This flame is used for the welding of steel cast iron, stainless steel copper.
Setting a neutral flame
When setting a neutral flame yon start with a carburizing flame as it is easy to see when the carbon cone
disappears into the primary cone.
Starting with the carburizing flame the acetylene is reduced and the oxygen increased alternately until
the carbon cone just disappears.

10.3.2 Carburizing flame

Fig. 1.2 - 46

1.2 Page 46 of 88
This flame has an excess of acetylene which results in a carbon rich zone extending around and beyond the
cone.

Application

A strongly carburizing flame is used for hard facing with hard surfacing rods (stellite).
A slightly carburizing flame is used for brazing and welding of aluminum and other non-ferrous metals
(lead and zinc-alloys), where the smallest amount of oxygen would be undesirable.
A higher carburizing flame is used for welding cast iron.

Fig. 1.2 - 47
The parent metal is heated and the flame gives up carbon to the parent metal
Setting the carburizing flame
A carburizing flame arises when the flow of acetylene is mixed with so much oxygen that a distinctly
glowing yellow zone (carburizing zone or carbon cone) is formed in front of the primary cone.
The carburizing flame is unsuitable for the welding of steel - especially stainless steel and low-alloyed
steels - and for the welding of copper.

10.3.3 Oxidizing flame (mildly reducing welding flame)

This flame has an excess of oxygen which results in an oxygen-rich zone just beyond the cone.

Application
A strongly oxidizing flame is used for welding brass and other zinc alloys (e.g. German
silver). A slightly oxidizing flame is used when brazing zinc coated sheet.

Setting the oxidizing flame

Starting with a neutral flame, the acetylene is decreased and the oxygen increased alternately until the
reducing zone just disappears.

1.2 Page 47 of 88
10.4 Flame intensity
All three types of flame (normal, carburizing, and oxidizing) may be used soft or hard rushing
without changing the mixture rate acetylene:oxygen.
We distinguish three types of flame intensity, depending on the gas velocity.

The choice of flame intensity mainly depends on the personal experience of the welder.

10.5 Flame distance

Distance between flame and work piece should be 3 to 5 mm.

This distance guarantees the hottest flame temperature of approximately 3200°C.

Fig 1.2 - 48

1.2 Page 48 of 88
If the distance between torch and work piece is too small or too great, the following disadvantages will be the
result:
- too slight (weak?? low7?) welding heat;
- burnt weld;
- pores in the deposited metal;
- hardening of the seam.

10.6 Backfire
Definitions
A backfire implies that the flame burns back into the torch with a sharp bang. The flame is either
extinguished or reignited at the nozzle opening.
A backfire is fairly harmless in itself but it can be a sign of some fault in the equipment or gas supply.

Sustained backfire
In a sustained backfire the flame burns back into the torch with continued burning in the mixer,
often at the mixing point itself
A sustained backfire is characterized by an initial bang (bacicfire) followed by a whistling or screeching sound from the
continued combustion.
If the sustained backfire is not quickly interrupted, melting will occur in the torch and escaping
combustion products can cause injuries.

10.7 Reverse flow (backflow)

Backflow occurs when gas at higher pressure flows into the gas line with a lower gas pressure.
Causes of backfire
The actual cause of a backfire is that the combustion velocity exceeds the exit velocity of the gas mixture.
- Incorrect pressure for. tip;
- tip blocked by spatter,
- damaged nozzle tip;
- overheating of nozzle.

Action
- Promptly turn off the blowpipe valves, especially the acetylene, to prevent soot forming in the blowpipe.
- The cylinder valve should be closed.
- Hoses and equipment should be checked before welding.
- Overheated nozzles or tips may be cooled in a bucket of water.

1.2 Page 49 of 88
10.8 Flashback
Definitions

Flashback implies that the flame burns back through the torch and into the gas supply system.
If a flashback reaches an acetylene cylinder which lacks the necessary safety equipment a serious
accident can occur.
Flashback is mostly caused by reverse flow, e.g. flow of oxygen into the acetylene hose, so that an
explosive mixture is present in the hose.
This mixture can then be ignited by a backfire which occurs when the torch is lit.
The hose will then explode.

Causes of flashbacks

The cause of flashbacks and hose explosions is the forming of an explosive gas mixture before
the mixing point due to the reverse flow, e.g. of oxygen into the fuel gas hose. If a flashback
occurs on ignition and if there is a sufficient quantitiy of gas mix there is such a violent explosion
in the hose that it bursts.
Causes of reverse flow include the following:
 nozzle clogged by dirt, slag or damage. The gas with a higher pressure will then flow into the
line with a lower pressure;
 the oxygen pressure is dropping to less than the fuel gas pressure. Unless the oxygen valve on
the torch is closed, fuel gas will flow over into the oxygen line;
 if both regulators are closed and the torch valves are left open when the operator leaves the
job, the fuel gas with the lower pressure will be evacuated first. - Oxygen can then flow into
the fuel gas line;
- too high oxygen pressure when igniting the torch: if the operator opens both torch valves and
tries to ignite with the oxygen flowing, oxygen can flow backward into the fuel gas line;
- a small nozzle in relation to the valves opening on the torch.
Summary:
Flashback occurs when the velocity of the gas stream is less than the rate of combustion.

10.9 Remedies
- Set the correct pressure according to the manufacturer's welding or cutting table.
- Use the correct nozzle size and remember to reset the pressure when changing nozzles.
- Make sure that the nozzle is not blocked by dirt or slag.
- Damaged nozzles must be replaced.
- When cleaning use the correct size of cleaning needle.
- Do not have the nozzle too close to the work. The gas exit velocity can then be impaired so that the
nozzle heats up and can cause a backfire.

1.2 Page 50 of 88
  Before lighting the flame, purge the fuel gas and oxygen hoses for a few seconds with the
respective gas to avoid the risk of having mixed gases in a hose when igniting. The hoses must
be purged one at a time.

1.2 Page 51 of 88
11 Initiation of the gas welding plant
11.1 Igniting and regulating the welding flame

Shut off valve

(Throttle
Shut off valve screw)

Adjustment A justment
screw screw

Fig. 1.2 - 49
- Open the cylinder valves max. 1/2 turn.
- Set the working pressure by turning the adjustment screws of the regulators clockwise until the working
gauges show the required pressure.
Recommended pressure:
acetylene = 0.1 - 0.8 bar,
oxygen = 1.8 - 2.5 bar.
- Open the shut-off valve (throttle screw) of both regulators slowly.
- Flush the hoses (e.g. 5 seconds) and light the flame.

How to light the flame

- Open the oxygen throttle valve on the torch shank one turn round. Allow oxygen to flow out for a few
seconds.
- Then close the valve until there is only a slight gas flow. (It is accompanied by a hissing noise.)
- Open the acetylene throttle valve on the torch shank about 1/4 turn. Allow the gas mixture to flow out
for a few seconds.
- Light the flame and adjust the welding flame with shank valves.
- Remember to point the torch in a safe direction.
- Use a spark lighter.
- The torch is now ready for use.

1.2 Page 52 of 88
11.2 Extinguishing the flame
- First close the fuel gas valve on the shank and then the oxygen valve.
- Close the cylinder valve.
- Then open the torch valves to release pressure in the lines and close again.
- Release the pressure adjusting screw on the regulator (turn counterclockwise).
- Check that the inlet gauge pressure is at zero (0) and that the cylinder valve is closed.

12 Gas welding techniques

There are three major techniques for gas welding, which differ mainly in the extent to which the flame
points ahead of the completed weld:
- leftward welding or forehand welding;
- rightward welding or backhand welding;
- two-operator technique.
12.1 Leftward welding
Leftward welding or forehand welding means that the welding flame is directed towards the progress of
welding. It is used for welding steel plates up to 3 mm (0.12 in) in thickness and for welding cast iron
and non-ferrous metals.
The welding direction is normally from right to left.
The welding wire is moved in front of the welding flame.

Welding wire Blow pipe

Steel 30° Steel 45°

Al , Cu 15°.. 30° Al and Cu 45°.90°

--8---Welding-directi on

Place of the
welder

Single V-butt joint

Weld pool (performance for Al Cu cast iron)
Square butt weld

Figure 1.2 - 50

1.2 Page 53 of 88
 Movement of wire

 Welding wire
o Blow pipe

Movement of blow pipe

Fig. 1.2 - 51

Leftward welding technique

Welding is started at the right-hand end of the joint and proceeds towards the left.
The blowpipe is given a forward motion with a slight sideways movement to maintain melting of the
edges of both plates at the desired rate, and the welding rod is moved progressively along the Weld seam.
The sideways motion of the blowpipe should be restricted to a minimum.

Gas consumption
For 1 mm thickness of the material nearly 100 liters oxygen and 100 liters acetylene are used in 1 hour.

Advantages
 smooth weld face;
 slight base metal heating;
- suitable up to 3 mm.
Disadvantages
 large heat losses;
 quick cooling of the seam;
- bad penetration with material thickness over 3 mm.

Welding direction
quick cooling of the sea
(hardsurface)

bad penetration

Porosity
Fig. 1.2 - 52 Disadvantages - Leftward welding

1.2 Page 54 of 88
 Fig. 1.2 - 53
12.2 Rightward welding
Rightward welding or backhand welding means that the welding flame is directed opposite to the
progress of welding.
It is used for high-quality welding of steel more than 3 mm thick
The welding direction is normally from left to right.
The welding wire is moved behind the welding flame.
The welding flame is kept still while the welding wire is moved in an oval movement in the weld pool.

Fig 1.2-54

1.2 Page 55 of 88
 Fig. 1.2 – 55

The weld is started at the left hand end and moves towards the right with the blowpipe flame preceding
the filler rod in the direction of travel.
The rod is given a circular forward motion and the blowpipe is moved steadily along the weld seam.
Gas consumption
For 1 mm thickness of the material nearly 135 liters oxygen and 135 liters acetylene are used in one hour.
Advantages
- less distortion;
- faster than leftward welding;
- less porosity;
- less gas consumption.

>

Fig. 1.2 - 56 Advantages

1.2 Page 56 of 88
Disadvantage
- Rough surface of the seam

12.3 Two-operator technique

Figure 1.2 - 57

All position rightward

welding

Figure 1.2 - 58

1.2 Page 57 of 88
12.3 Two-operator technique
Vertical welding may be used on a beveled steel plate up to 3 mm (0.12 in) thickness and can be used
up to 13 mm (0.5 in) by employing two welders working on opposite sides of the joint.
When the two-operator method is used, the two welders must be thoroughly trained to work together as
a team. With the wide use of MIG and TIG the two-operator gas welding process is rarely practiced.

Fig. 1.2 - 59
Advantages
- satisfactory through-welding;
- less angular contraction.,
- less gas and filler rod consumption.

12.4 Summary - Gas consumption

Welding process field of application Gas consumption

1 mm plate thickness per hour
oxygen 02 acetylene C2H2
leftward welding steel up to 3 mm, non-ferrous 100 1 100 1
steel, cast iron
rightward welding steel over 3 mm 135 1 135 1
welded from one side, two- steel up to 6 mm 60 1 601
operator method
welded from both sides, steel over 6 mm 30 1 per blowpipe 301 per blowpipe
two-operator method

1.2 Page 58 of 88
13 Gas supply systems

We distinguish between
- station gas supply;
- central supply system.
The supply system which is used depends on gas consumption per month.

13.1 Station gas supply

Consumption less than 100 m3/month.
There are two varieties of use:
- stationary oxy-acetylene unit in a stand;
- portable oxy-acetylene unit in a cylinder trolley.

Gas welding station

Fig. 1.2 - 60

13.2 Central supply system by piping system

A central gas supply system consists of
- stationary acetylene generator (consumption over 10000 m3/month);
- stationary oxygen evaporator (consumption over 600 m3/month);
- cylinder bundle (consumption over 300 m3/month);
- cylinder battery (cylinder manifold) (consumption 100 up to 300 m3/month).

1.2 Page 59 of 88
 Fig. 1.2 - 61

Advantages of a central supply system

- no cylinder transport;
- saving of time;
- less risk of accidents;
- in case of fire the cylinders are located on one safety place;
- reduces the number of cylinders which are required.

Advantages of a station supply

- can be used on each place;
- gas pressure separate to adjusting,
- less maintenance;
- less investment
- less danger of leakage.

1.2 Page 60 of 88
14. Joint preparations
14.1 Welding position

ONORM M 7804 part 3

ISO 6947

Figure 1.2 - 62

1.2 Page 61 of 88
14.2 Rotation
ONORM M 7804 part 3
ISO 6947

Fig. 1.2 - 63

1.2 Page 62 of 88
14.3 Types of joint
14.3.1 Examples of butt welds ONORM M 7800

Fig. 1.2 - 64

Recommended gap

1.2 Page 63 of 88
14.3.2 Fillet welds

Fig. 1.2 - 65
14.3.3 Corner (V) joint

Fig. 1.2 - 66

14.3.4 Flanged edge-joint (Thickness up to 5 mm)

Fig. 1.2 - 67

1.2 Page 64 of 88
15. Weld defects
The strength of a weld depends on the
- tools and filler used;
- their shapes;
- their arrangement on the piece to be welded;
- the manner in which it is done by the welder.
Weld, root and fusion faults are recognizable.
Weld defects can be avoided by correct choice of welding wire and flame size, and the moving of them in
the recommended way (forehand or backhand).
Other requirements are:
- complete melting of the joint edges;
- through-welding to the root of the joint;
- the correct degree of convexity on the top.

Correctly executed weld

Fig. 1.2 - 68

Fig 1.2 - 69
If one or more of these requirements are not met, there is a risk of weld defects.

1.2 Page 65 of 88
15.1 Imperfect shape

15.1.1 Undercuts

Fig. 1.2––70
Fig.1.2 70
Causes:
Causes:
--too
toorapid
rapidrate
rateof
oftravel
travelof
ofblowpipe;
blowpipe;

--incorrect
incorrectangles
anglesofofblow
blowppipe

15.1.2 Overlap

Fig. 1.2 – 71 Fig. 1.2 – 72

Causes:
- too hard rushing flame
- blowpipe size too large;
- too slow of travel;
- rod addition too small

1.2 Page 66 of 88
15.1.3 Excessive reinforcement (excess weld metal) (overfilled groove) (reinforced joint)

Fig. 1.2 – 74 Fig. 1.2 - 75

Causes:
- speed of travel is too slow,

- rod addition too large.

15.1.4 Excessive penetration (excessive root convexity)

Fig. 1.2 - 76
Causes:
- unsuitable edge preparation (gap too large, face too small, included angle too large);
- slow speed of travel of blowpipe;
- concentration of heat

1.2 Page 67 of 88
15.1.5 Slag inclusions of the root

Fig. 1.2 - 77
This occurs with leftward welding of sheet metal over 3 mm thick (weld flame has no protective effect
on the root side).

1.2 Page 68 of 88
 Causes:
- melting of filler before plate melts;
- incorrect angle of blowpipe;
- insufficient heat;
- too rapid travel with blowpipe-

15.1.8 Irregular surface – surface defect

1.2 Page 69 of 88
15.1.9 Linear misalignment (linear offset angle misalignment)

Linier Angle
Misalignment Misalignment

Fig. 1.2 - 82 Fig. 1.2 - 83

15.1.10 Lack of fusion and penetration

Binding defect in the joint surface resulting from incomplete penetration.

Fig. 1.2 – 84 Fig. 1.2 - 85

Causes:

- melting of filler without fusing parent metal;

- incorrect angle of blowpipe

1.2 Page 70 of 88
15.1.11 Surface defect

Slag Inclusion

Fig. 1.2 - 86
This could be in the form of blowholes, slag traps, burnt-on scale, cavities, bad "join-ups" showing
humps or craters with cracks, uneven bead width, stray arcing and burnt-on spatter, extremely
coarse ripples, unequal fillet weld leg length.

15.1.12 Weld defects - filler welds

Fig. 1.2 - 87 Satisfactory spigot seam

Excessi ve convexit y

Fig. 1.2 - 88 Excessive convexity

1.2 Page 71 of 88
Improper build-up of weld

Improper build-up of weld

Fig. 1.2 - 89
This occurs where the speed of travel is too high, insufficient filler material is applied
and the torch is held at the wrong angle.

Undercut

Fig. 1.2 - 90 undercut

Fusion faults

Fig. 1.2 - 91 Fusion faults

These occur when the lower run is not melted properly, when the speed of travel is too
high and the torch is held at the wrong angle.

1.2 Page 72 of 88
15.3 Weld assessment (visual inspection)
- Dimension of the weld deposit :
measured by the leg length_
- Shape of profile for fillet welds:
Welds should be uniform and slightly concave, or convex, or if possible a true mitre.
- Uniformity of surface:
The height and spacing of the ripples should be uniform and the width of the bead constant
- Degrees of undercut:
The welded joint should be free from undercut, but small amounts may be disregarded.
- Smoothness of joints (where the welding has recommenced):
These should be fairly smooth without hump or crater.
- Freedom from surface imperfections:
There should be no pin-holes, cavities, cracks, craters or burnt-on scale.
16 Welding filler (welding roots) for gas welding
ONORM M 7823-1
ONORM M 7823-2
DIN 8554 part 1
ISO ...
BS 1453
AWS A 5.2
16.1 Classification General
Welding rods are categorized in seven quality classes according to their properties
(chemical composition and impact test specimen).
Example:

1.2 Page 73 of 88
16.2 Classification according to chemical composition

Chemical composition of gas welding rods

(in accordance with Table 1 DIN 8554 Part 1)

Welding C SI Mn P S Mo Ni Cr
rod
class 96 96 44 44 44 96 96 44

GI 0.03...0.10 0.02...0.20 0.35...0.65 g 0.030 *0.025 - - -

G II 0.03...0.20 0.05...025 0.50_1.20 *0.025 *0.025 - - -

G III 0.05...0.15 0.05...0.25 0.95_1.25 *0.020 *0.020 - 0.35...0.80 -

GN 0.08...0.15 0.10...025 0.90_1.20 g 0.020 *0.020 0.45...0.65 - -

GV 0.10...0.15 0.10...025 0.80...120 *0.020 *0.020. 0.45...0.65 - 0.80...1.20

G V1 0.03...0.10 0.10...0.25 0.40...0.70 *0.020 *0.020 0.90...1.20 - 2.00...2.20

G VII 0.14...0.25 0.10...0.35 0.80...1.20 *0.025 *0.025 - 0.65...0.90 -

Fig. 1.2 – 92

Influence of alloy components in steel

Alloy component increases
carbon C hardness
chromium Cr hardness, rust resistance
vanadium V hardness, strength
manganese Mn strength, wearing resistance
silicon Si durability, acid and scaling resistance
tungsten W durability, thermal resistance
molybdenium Mo thermal resistance
nickel Ni toughness

Reference marks of welding rods

Welding rod class GI Gil Gill GIV GV GVI GVH

stamp I II DI IV V VI VII
color code - grey gold red yellow green silver

.
The welding rods are stamped with those numbers and painted with the color code

1.2 Page 74 of 88
 16.3 Diameters and lengths of gas welding rods
Gas welding rods are supplied as straight rods in usual diameters of
1.6; 2.0; 2.5; 3.0; 4.0; 5.0; (1/16 -3/16 in)
and lengths up to 1 m (36 in).

16.4 Suitability of welding rods

Suitability of Gas Welding Rods for Mild Steels,

Boiler Plates, Piping Steels and Boiler Pipes
(in accordance with Table 2 DIN 8554 Part 1)
Parent material Welding Rod Parent material 0 NORM
class
GI GII GIII GIV GV GVI
Mild steels in St 33 x x x x St33.R
accordance
with DIN 17 100 St37-2 USt37- St 360 B
ONORMM3116 2 RSt37-2 USt 360 B
St44-2 x x x R St 360B
St 4308
St 360C St360CE St360D
St 37-3 St44-3 St430C St430CE St 430D
x x
St 52.3

Boiler plates in
accordance with H I H II x x
DIN 17 155
Piping steels in St 37.0 St44.0 St St 35 St45
accordance with 52.0
DIN 1626, DIN x x x x
1629
Piping steels in St 37.4 St 44.4
accordance with St 52.4
DIN 1628, DIN x x
1630
Welded St 37.8 x x St 35.8
boiler pipes in
accordance with Si 45.8 St 52.4
DIN 17177 St42.8 15Mo3 x

Seamless St 35.8 - x x Si 35KW St 41-KW

boiler pipes in
St45.8 -- St 47KWL
accordance x
with DIN 17 175 15 Mo 3
13CrMo4 4 x
13CrMo910 x

Welding rod class G VII is only suitable for welding of rails.

Fig. 1.2 - 93

1.2 Page 75 of 88
Behavior of welding rods during welding

Welding Welding rod class

Properties GI GII GIII GIV GV GVI GVII
perties
Flow behavior thinly fluid less thinly fluid viscous
spatter considerable slight none
tendency to
yes yes slight no slight
porosity
cost of rising
welding rod

Steel wires may be copper-coated to provide protection from rusting in storage.

For carbon and C-Mn steels the rods usually contain slightly more silicon and manganese than the parent
metal, and care is taken to ensure that the ratio of Si and Mn in the rod results in a slag which has
suitable fluidity. The surface of the rods must be kept free from rust, oil, grease, and paint.

1.2 Page 76 of 88
SPECIAL OXY-FUEL GAS SYSTEMS
CON TENTS
1. Oxy-acetylene processes
1.1 Jonting
1.1.1 Joint welding gas welding
1.1.2 Joint brazing
1.1.3 Gas pressure welding
1.2 Coating
1.2.1. Building up welding
1 .2.2 Hard facing
1.2.3 Bronze facing
1.3 Flame spraying
1.4 Thermal cutting processes
1.4.1 Flame cuffing
1 .4.2 Powder process
1.5 Flame cleaning
1.6 Flame gouging
1.7 Hot forming
1 .7.1 Flame straightening
1.7.2 Heating
1.7.3 Stress relieving by flame
1.7.4 Flame hardening
2. Flame straightening
2.1 Principle
2.2 Execution
2.3 Practical execution
2.4 straightening equipment
2.5 What material can be flame straightened?

1.2 Page 77 of 88
1 Oxy-acetylene processes

l.1 Jointing

1.1.1 Joint welding -gas welding

Suitable materials are joined using heat with or without filler material.

1.1.2 Joint brazing

Braze welding (V-joint, X-joint)
open joint soldering, open joint brazing.

Soft soldering -working temperature below 450°C.

Hard soldering (brazing) -working temperature between 450°C and 900°C.

Soldering and brazing are processes in which two metal parts are joined with the help of a filler metal
which has a lower melting point than the parent metal..

1.1.3 Gas pressure welding

Fig. 1.2 - 94
The parts are joined by pressure after heating to melting temperature.

1.2 Page 78 of 88
1.2 Coating

1.2.1 Building up welding

Nearly the same filler metal will be built up by weld of the basic material.

1.2.2 Hard facing

A hard facing electrode will be deposit of material to get a wearing resistant surface.

1.2.3 Bronze facing

Soft or hard solder will be deposit of the material surface.

1.3 Flame spraying

Flame spraying entails coating a metal surface with a metallic or ceramic layer. The purpose may be to
improve the surface's resistance to wear, corrosion or heal The method is also used to restore improperly
machined or worn parts to their correct dimensions.

The principle of flame spraying is that the filler metal in the form of wire or powder is heated to melting
by a gas flame. The molten particles are transferred to the work piece by a stream of air or gas. Hot
spraying Another variant is to spray the filler metal in the form of powder on to the work piece and then
heat the sprayed-on layer to the melting temperature by a flame or in a furnace or with induction heating.

Fig. 1.2 - 95

1.2 Page 79 of 88
 1.4 Thermal cutting processes

1.4.1 Flame cutting

In oxy-acetylene cutting, oxygen is blown onto the surface to be cut, which has been pre-heated
with the torch flame to the ignition temperature of the material. The oxygen burns the material and
the beat of combustion causes the zone laying underneath to reach ignition temperature. The burnt
material (slag) is blown out of the cut by the oxygen pressure.

1.4.2 Powder process

. Material which cannot be cut 'with the normal oxy-fuel gas flame can be cut by the powder cutting
process. By -the introduction of powder in the oxygen stream, the oxidation reaction is accelerated and
cutting is possible.

1.5 Flame cleaning

Flame cleaning is used to remove rust and mill scale from steel assemblies before they are painted. 1be
method is also used for scaling concrete surfaces and removing surface defects. Flame cleaning can also
be applied to improve the appearance of concrete facedes, to rough up roads and runways

Fig. 1.2 -96 Flame cleaning

1.2 Page 80 of 88
1.6 Flame gouging

Flame gouging is applied to prepare abutting edges for welding

Fig. 1.2 – 97 Starting sequences for flame gouging

Fig. 1.2 – 98 Continuous gouging Step gouging

1.7 Hot forming

1.7. 1 Flame straightening

Flame straightening is a method that is used to remove distortions that occur in connection with the
welding of steel assemblies.

1.2 Page 81 of 88
1.7.2 Heating
In all hot forming processes the area to be formed (bend, forge) is locally heated to the correct
temperature. Forming is then carried out by the application of external forces, either manual or
mechanical.

1.7.3 Stress relieving by flame is applied to reduce welding stresses after welding.

Fig. 1.2 -99 Application: Ship building, tank construction, steel construction

1.7.4 Flame hardening

In flame hardening, a surface layer of the material is heated to the hardening temperature and then cooled
rapidly.

Fig. 1.2 -100 Fig. 1.2 -101

1.2 Page 82 of 88
2 . Flame straightening
2.1 Principle
Flame straightening uses the principle that all metals expand when heated and contract when cooled.

Fig. 1.2 -102

On cooling the heated metal contracts, with the result that the end of the bar moves upwards. German
standard DIN 8522 defines flame straightening as follows:
In flame straightening the work piece is heated locally. In the process upsetting of the metal is achieved
as a result if impeded thermal expansion.
During cooling forces are generated in the upset zone which lead to the desired change of shape.

Fig. 1.2 -103

Unrestrained Heating of a freely supported bar.
The bar expands in all directions. When the
flame is removed, the bar cools and contracts to
its original length.

1.2 Page 83 of 88
.

Fig. 1.2 -104

Restrained
If the bar is restrained instead, it will not be able to expand lengthwise when heated. As a result,
compressive stresses are built up. These stresses increase with rising temperature until the yield limit in
compression for the material is reached. Plastic deformation will then occur. When the flame is removed
and the bar cools. the plastic deformation will remain. At the same time the rest of the bar contracts,
making it shorter than it was at the beginning.

2.2 Execution

In flame straightening the material is heated locally until it becomes plastic. The temperature at which the
yield stress drops considerably is for normal mild steel about 550°C (in practice heating is performed up
to 600 - 700°C, when the steel becomes dark red) and for aluminum and aluminum alloys 350·400°C.
The golden rule:

The heat must be applied fast and be localized, a local heat build-up must be
achieved.

Different constructions with different types deformation demand different. straightening methods.
It is therefore impossible to provide a general description of the flame straightening process.

2.3 Practical execution

Depending on the type of object to be straightened, heat is supplied in the form of spots, bands, wedges or
ovals as well as combinations of these.

1.2 Page 84 of 88
Type of heating

Fig. 1.2 - 105

Heat spots are used for straightening buckled plates.

1.2 Page 85 of 88
Heat oval is used for such processes as straightening pipes deformed by the welding of connection.

Fig. 1.2 - 106

Fig. 1.2 - 107

1.2 Page 86 of 88
Flame straightening of sections

Fig. 1.2 - 108

1.2 Page 87 of 88
2.4 Straightening equipment

Welding or heating torches are used for straightening. To achieve the greatest possible heat build-up, the
nozzle should be chosen one to three sizes larger than for welding.

For thicker work pieces or large plate surfaces special torches are used. The flame is adjusted to hard,
neutral. or even better with a slight excess of oxygen.

2.5 What material can be flame straightened?

Structural steel and pressure vessel steel such as carbon steels, carbon manganese steels, fine-grained
steels (micro-alloyed steels) can be straightened without problems. The material is not heated too much.
The temperature should not exceed 700 °e. Aluminum and aluminum alloys can be flame straightened.
The straightening temperature should be between 350 °C and 400 °C.

Always contact the material supplier for further information.

1.2 Page 88 of 88