The Development of Science in Mesoamerica

The term Mesoamerica is literally means Middle/ Central America; it is derived from Greek word which
meso means “Middle” or “Intermediate”.

Mesoamerica includes the entire area of Central America from southern Mexico up to the boarder of
South America. Mesoamerican peoples included a complex pantheon of deities, architectural features, a
ballgame, the 260-day calendar, trade, food (especially a reliance on maize, beans, and squash), dress,
and accoutrements (such as earspools).
Some of the well-known Mesoamerican cultures are the Olmec, Maya, Inca and Aztec (or Mexica).

The term Mesoamerica is derived from the Greek and means "Middle America." It refers to a
geographical and cultural area which extends from central Mexico down through Central
America, including the territory which is now made up of the countries of Guatemala, Belize,
Honduras, and El Salvador. It is therefore seen as partly in North America, and encompassing a
large part of Central America

Science and Technology in Mesoamerica

Agriculture

In early period or hunter-gatherer period of Mesoamerica, people had a lifestyle that was based on a
combination of hunting, gathering, and fishing. Until such time Olmec Civilization flourishes in
Mesoamerica and it is the first major civilization in Mesoamerica. The name Olmec is a Nahuatl—the
Aztec language word; it means the rubber people. They introduced farming activities like planting many
crops where corn or maize is the first cultivation. While Maya Civilization who made the greatest
progress in science and technology, they developed an advanced tools and machineries that is use for
growing their crops like the hydarulic system or sophisticated waterways. And the Aztecs were famous
for their agriculture, cultivating all available land, introducing irrigation, draining swamps, and creating
artificial islands in the lakes. Inca is also into plant cultivation where maize was not only produced by the
states.

Astronomy

Where the observtion of the sky had an important role among the Mayan, Aztec, Inca and other
prehispanic people of Mesoamerica. They had made calendars for planting and harvesting season,
rituals and cultural celebration through the used of buildings and structures alignment just with
astronomical
observation and astrological cycles.

Achitecture

Mesoamerican people are known for building and structures like amazing pyramids and temples
especially the mayan and aztecs people who are famous with it while Inca empire strength was civil
engineering (road and bridge construction).

Mathematics

As Mayan had the greatest progress in Science, mathematics is one among of their innovations.were the
position-value number system with zero.Mesoamerica is where they developed the
numbering system.

Arts

Mesoamerica is the first civilization who use writing system known as heiroglyohics where Mayan is the
first to ise it just developed by the Aztecs. The colossal head of Olmec are also famous for the sculptures
and stone monuments of mesoamerica where all civilization adapted and developed it through rock
carving.The Inca textiles are also famaous for it is contain pattern stuctures and symbols,which they
carry messages that only expert can decipher. And lastly,establishing public school system.
In Mesoamerican Civilization, many new technologies and strategies were invented included the
construction of durable buildings such as pit houses, intensive techniques of cultivation and resource
exploitation, new industries including ceramics, weaving, storage, and prismatic blades. The first
sedentism appears about the same time as maize, and over time more and more people gave up mobile
hunter-gatherer life, transition from village life to a more complex social and political organization, and
elaborate architecture.

Contribution of Mesoamerica in the field of science

Achievements of Math and Science in Mesoamerica. In what is now Central and South America,
there were three highly advanced ancient civilizations: The Aztecs, the Maya, and the Inca. All three of
these achieved incredible feats of engineering and science because they highly valued education

Mesoamerica is a region that stretches south from modern-day Mexico to

northern Honduras. Several complex societies flourished here beginning over
3,000 years ago.

One of the first civilizations we know of in Mesoamerica was the Olmec

people. They lived from about 1200-400 BCE. There are very few written
records to help historians fully understand this civilization.

From what we do know, the Olmec thrived in the fertile lands of south-
central Mexico. They were very resourceful and used many of the natural
resources in the area, including rubber and corn.

Their major urban city was San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan. It was located on vast
agricultural land with a ceremonial center whose population could have
reached 13,000. The Olmec were great traders and engaged with cultures
throughout Mexico and Central America.

The Olmec are best known for the colossal stone heads they carved. The
sculptures are between 3 and 11 feet tall and weigh up to 28 tons. Historians
believe that the monuments are portraits of powerful Olmec rulers.

The Olmec had a rich, polytheistic religion with at least eight gods and it
appears priests and shamans were important figures in their society.

The Olmecs were likely the inventors of the Mesoamerican ballgame, also
known as pok-ta-pok. This is one of the earliest known sports and was played
with a rubber ball and a stone goal.
The Olmec are considered to be the “mother” civilization in Mesoamerica.
Civilizations that followed such as the Mayan and Aztec were heavily
influenced by the Olmec’s characteristics.

The Zapotec civilization came nearly 100 years after the Olmec and thrived
from about 500 BCE to 900 CE. They also lived in the Valley of
Oaxaca. They were an agricultural society with many well-developed cities.
Their largest city was Monte Alban which housed over 25,000 people.

The Zapotec created one of the earliest inscriptions and writing systems in
Mesoamerica. They were also artisans and created jewelry for rulers.

They had a complex polytheistic religion, with two main gods called Cocijo,
the rain god, and Coquihani, the god of light. The Zapotec may have also
practiced human sacrifice in their religious rituals. They made use of
pyramids that the Aztec and Maya would later adopt.

The Olmec civilization declined between 400-350 BCE. Archaeologists are

unsure about the exact reason but evidence shows that it might have been
caused by environmental changes that choked off their water supply.
However, they didn't disappear completely and evolved into later
civilizations.

The Zapotecs fought the growing Aztec Empire which came to dominate the
region. They were finally fully conquered by the invading Spanish in the
early 1500s.

The Maya civilization dates back as far as 2000 BCE. At this time, early Mayans were
developing a complex society in Central America and became the largest civilization in the
region from about 420 CE to 900.

Their civilization stretched from southern Mexico to northern Central America, centered in the
Yucatan Peninsula and the dense jungles of modern-day Guatemala and Belize. The land in the
region ranged from highland mountains to lowland plains.

The early Maya were nomads moving from region to region to find food and shelter. They
established settlements around 1,800 BCE and began farming crops of maize, beans, squash, and
chili peppers.
Following this, the Maya began building more complex cities with large structures and pyramids.
It was during this time that the Maya made many advancements in art and thinking. They
practiced astronomy, mathematics, art, and architecture. They used this knowledge to develop a
sophisticated calendar and a complex writing system.

They preserved their work on a bark-paper book known as The Codex, three of which still
survive. Their farming advanced as well and they engineered new techniques such as planting on
raised beds above swamps and on hillside terraces.

The Maya believed in many gods that were based on nature and influenced all parts of their lives.
They carried out human sacrifices to their gods and made other offerings. Gods were associated
with the 4 directions and different colors. Mayan kings were believed to be mediators between
people and the gods. Many kings were thought to be gods themselves. The Maya religion was
connected to the calendar. They believed that each day was a living god whose behavior could be
predicted with calendars. Their important ceremonies and festivals were scheduled based on the
position of the stars and the days of their calendar.

The Mayan civilization reached its peak around 900 CE before various problems led to its
decline. Many people abandoned the cities in the lower part of the region. Evidence of new
building stopped, with various theories as to why this happened. Some believe that a natural
disaster or disease affected the people, or that there was not enough food to feed the growing
population.

The northern region of the Mayan civilization continued in small villages until they were finally
conquered by invading Spanish conquistadors. There are still 6 million people with Mayan
ancestry living in Central America today.

he Inca were a powerful civilization that developed in the Andes Mountains along the west coast
of South America. The mountain ranges helped protect their city-states and allow for a well-
developed government and society. The empire thrived in this region from about 1200-1532.
The Inca Empire was ruled by an emperor known as the Sapa Inca, meaning “sole ruler”. Manco
Capac was the first Sapa Inca and established the Kingdom of Cuzco around the year 1200. The
city of Cuzco was the capital of the Inca Empire.

A later Sapa Inca, Emperor Pachacuti greatly expanded the empire by conquering nearly all of
Peru. At its peak, the Inca Empire had over 10 million inhabitants.
The Inca called their empire Tawantinsuyu. They were skilled diplomats and divided the territory
into smaller units with a central bureaucracy that featured different ranks of government
officials. The government had total control over economic and social life. They had a laws, a tax
system, and harsh punishments for criminals.

The Inca built large cities and temples made of stone without the use of any iron tools. They also
engineered intricate stone-paved roads and bridge systems that extended across their empire.
They built around the environment inserting steps into steep areas of the mountains. The stones
were shaped and fit together perfectly to provide strength to withstand earthquakes and time.

There were strict social classes in Inca society, with most people remaining in their class their
whole lives. The highest class were the nobles whose ancestors established the city of Cuzco.

Below the nobles were the public administrators or lower-level government officials. The lowest
class were the commoners, who were artisans and farmers.
Religion played a large role in daily and governmental life. The Inca built marvelous temples in
tribute to their gods. Coricancha was the most important temple. It was covered in sheets of gold
and was built to the Inca Sun god, Inti. The Inca practiced mummification of bodies and
provided gifts to the dead to help them in the afterlife.

The arrival of Europeans in 1520 brought war and disease to the Inca which weakened the
empire. The Inca were eventually conquered by Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro
in 1533.

The Aztec Empire

Listen to this article
The Aztec Empire
2:27

2:28
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The greatest empire of Mesoamerica, the Aztecs, developed in the Valley of Mexico where
modern-day Mexico City is located. The Aztecs were driven out of their previous home in
Culhuacan and roamed central Mexico for a place to settle. In 1325, they found an island in the
middle of Lake Texcoco. There, they saw an eagle perched on a cactus with a snake in its mouth.
They believed this was a sign from the gods that this is where they would live and founded the
city of Tenochtitlan.

The Aztecs built islands on the water and used the natural resources available to them to grow
crops. Tenochtitlan was an incredibly well planned and built city. The Aztecs built causeways,
bridges, and canals to travel to and from the city. At its peak, it housed around 400,000 people.
In the city, there were temples, ball game courts, schools, and markets.
For farming, they invented chinampas, which were floating gardens to grow crops in swampy
lake beds with canals running between them.

The Aztec Empire had city-states that were mostly independently and paid tribute to their
emperor. In 1498, The Aztecs formed the Triple Alliance with the Acolhua in Texcoco and the
Tepaneca in Tlacopan. Combined, the Triple Alliance represented a powerful military and
economic force. The alliance was sustained through trade and a shared culture.

The Aztecs believed that emperors were chosen by the gods and had divine right. They had a
complex code of laws and different levels of courts. Tenochtitlan was the center of the Aztec
government where the emperor and most of the nobles lived.

Aztec society was made up of classes with nobles ruling over commoners. Slaves were held and
served the wealthy commoners and nobles. Family was important to the Aztecs, and families
were grouped together in Calpulli or small tribes.

The Aztec people had their own language called Nahuatl. Their writing consisted of glyphs or
pictographs. They developed two calendars: the Tonalpohualli, which was used to track
ceremonies and festivals and the Xiuhpohualli, which tracked time.
The Aztecs worshiped many gods. Some of the main gods were Huitzilopochtli, the god of war,
sun, and sacrifice, and Quetzalcoatl, the god of life and wind. Priests performed ceremonies to
make sure that the gods were always pleased. The Aztecs practiced human sacrifices to their
gods at the top of large ziggurats.

In 1521, the mighty Aztec Empire was conquered by Spanish conquistadors. Believing that he
was the god Quetzalcoatl, the Aztec emperor Montezuma II welcomed the Spanish conquistador
Hernan Cortez, who later turned the Triple Alliance against the Aztecs and took over
Tenochtitlan.
Development of Science in Mesoamerica

It is fascinating how creative people's minds are and how they can do things I could never foresee. The
Mesoamerican Civilization had shaped our society because of their methods and intellectual
accomplishments. In these notable achievements, we have a much better understanding of why and
explain how history took its current path and the world is the way it is, as it is now.

In the ancient times, Mexico and Central America's great cities are typically called "Mesoamerica"
civilizations attributed to populations of natives before the 16th-century Spanish conquistadors. These
civilizations consist of the Maya, Inca, and Aztecs. The Maya civilization is a Mesoamerican civilization,
notorious for its beautiful sculptures, monumental architectures, and complex mathematical and
astronomical structures, as the only wholly evolved written language in pre-Columbian America.
Although Maya agriculture also included city planning, constructing pyramids, it is also known to have
more subdued characteristics and hieroglyphic writing, which is one of the most astounding advances in
the Americas' history owing to its overall architecture and use. They established a great civilization in a
tropical rainforest environment was one of Maya's many complex aspects. Inca's main contribution is the
Inca Road System, which was constructed without using advanced surveying machines; instead, they
relied on wooden, stone, and bronze materials. Besides, they employed the farming method of building
terraces that aided crops' growth in hilly or mountainous regions. Aztecs' significant achievements were
their two calendars, invented canoes, excellent knowledge in medicine and engineering, and the Aztec
temple. They were also able to tell stories through sculpture, pottery, weaving, and poetry. What made me
interested the most is their mandatory education. There was no discrimination between them; every child
was educated regardless of their social status, whether noble, commoner, or slave, and they were given an
equal chance to learn.

As we have seen with the Maya, Inca, and Aztec empires, there is nothing impossible for those striving to
make a better future. Over the many developments, the world has become much more evolved right now.
They had remarkable ideas and the way they came up with concepts, and it was also intriguing to see how
original their thoughts were. They influenced and opened doors for the new generations to be
sophisticated to progress and development. They stand out as particular and monumental examples of the
advance of humanity's knowledge and knowledge itself, showing that innumerable more insights are
waiting to be uncovered.

Cradles of Early Science

Development of Science in Mesoamerica

Mesoamerica includes the entire area of Central America from Southern Mexico up to the border
of South America. There is no doubt that the Mesoamerican region is rich in culture and
knowledge prior to the arrival of its European colonizers.

The Mayan civilization is one of the famous civilizations that lasted for approximately 2,000
years. These people are known for their works in astronomy. They incorporated their advanced
understanding of astronomy into their temples and other religious structures. This allows them to
use their temples for astronomical observation. For example, the pyramid a Chichen Itzá in
Mexico is situated at the location of the Sun during the spring and fall equinoxes.

Mayan knowledge and understanding about celestial bodies were advanced for their time, as
evidenced by their knowledge of predicting eclipse and using astrological cycles in planting and
harvesting.

The Mayans are also known for measuring time using two complicated calendars systems. These
calendars were very useful for their life especially in planning their activities and in observing
their religious rituals and cultural celebrations.

The Mayans also developed the technology for growing different crops and building elaborate
cities using ordinary machineries and tools. They built hydraulics system with sophisticated
waterways to supply water to different communities.

Furthermore, they used various tools and adapt themselves to innovations especially in the field
of arts. The Mayans built looms for weaving cloth and devised a rainbow of glittery paints made
from a mineral called mica. They are also believed to be one of the first people to produce rubber
products 3,000 years before Goodyear received its patent in 1844.

The Mayans are considered one of the most scientifically advanced societies in Mesoamerica.
They are also famous as one of the world's first civilizations to use a writing system known as
the Mayan hieroglyphics. They were also skilled in mathematics and created a number system
based on the numeral 20. Moreover, they independently developed the concept of zero and
positional value, even before the Romans did.

The Inca civilization is also famous in Mesoamerica. The Incas made advanced scientific

ideas considering their limitations as an old civilization. The following were scientific ideas and

tools that they developed to help them in everyday life:

1. roads paved with stones;
2. stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters;
3. irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all types of land;

4. calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for planting

season;
5. the first suspension bridge;
6. quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret; and 7. Inca
textiles since cloth was one of the specially prized artistic achievements.

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lOMoARcPSD|37851876

Following the Inca, the Aztec civilization has also made substantial contributions to science and

technology and to the society as a whole.

Some of their contributions are the following:

1. Mandatory education. The Aztec puts value on education, that is why their children

are mandated to get education regardless of their social class, gender, or age. It is an early

form of universal or inclusive education.

2. Chocolates. The Aztec in Mexico developed chocolate during their time. In the Mayan

culture, they used it as currency. The Aztec valued the cacao beans highly and made it as

part of their tribute to their gods.

3. Antispasmodic medication. They used a type of antispasmodic medication that could

prevent muscle spasms and relax muscles, which could help during surgery.

4. Chinampa. It is a form of Aztec technology for agricultural farming in which the land

was divided into rectangular areas and surrounded by canals.

5. Aztec calendar. This enabled them to plan their activities, rituals, and planting season.

6. Invention of the canoe. A light narrow boat used for traveling in water systems.
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Development of Science in Mesoamerica

Mesoamerica is a historical region and cultural area in the Americas, extending from approximately
central Mexico through Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and northern Costa Rica,
and within which pre-Columbian societies flourished before the Spanish colonization of the Americas in
the 15th and 16th centuries. It is one of six areas in the world where ancient civilization arose
independently.

Maya Civilization

 One of the most famous civilizations that lasted for approximately 2,000 years.
 Considered as one of most scientifically advanced society in Mesoamerica
 They incorporated their advanced understanding of astronomy into their temples and other
religious structures. Ex. Chichen Itza in Mexico is situated at the location of the Sun during the
spring and fall equinoxes

 The Maya, using their knowledge of astronomy, and building on the Olmec solar calendar,

created the most accurate calendar in the ancient world.

 They built looms for weaving cloth and devised rainbow glittery paints made from mica.
 They are also believed to be one of the first people to produce rubber products (3,000 years

before Goodyear received its patent in 1844)

 They use writing system known as Mayan hieroglyphics.

 Hallucinogenic Drugs -Mayan shamans took stimulating substances to initiate daze like states

amid exhibitions and customs in which they endeavoured contact with the spiritual world.

 Human sacrifice in Maya culture was the ritual offering of nourishment to the gods. Blood was

viewed as a potent source of nourishment for the Maya deities, and the sacrifice of a living
creature was a powerful blood offering.
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Mayan Calendar
Chichen Itza, Mexico

Hieroglyphics

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Inca Civilization
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 The Inca Empire, also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire, was the largest empire in
pre-Columbian America. Its political and administrative structure "was the most sophisticated
found among native peoples" in the Americas.
 The Inca were a tribal people, who formed an empire along the western coast of South America.
The Inca empire stretched all the way from Ecuador to Chile, stretching over 4000 kilometres.
 The empire lasted for almost around 300 years, until the arrival of the Spanish in 1532
 The Inca empire lasted from the 13th century until the 16th century. At its height in power, the

empire consisted of over 12 million people, whom were mainly located in cities built into the
Andes

mountains.

 They built paved roads, suspension bridges, stone buildings and terraced fields that surmounted

earthquakes and other disasters.

 Quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret.
 The potato was the main food of the Incas along with other tubers.
 Pottery under Inca flourished because potters didn't have to think of earning, their foods and

clothes and other necessities were supplied by government.

 The Incas performed child sacrifices during or after important events, such as the death of the

Sapa Inca (emperor) or during a famine. Children were selected as sacrificial victims as they were

considered to be the purest of beings.

 Punishments were harsh and fast. Rules If you insulted the Sapa Inca, cursed the gods, or killed

someone, you were thrown off a cliff.

Machu Picchu

Quipu
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Aztec Civilization
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 The Aztec Empire flourished between c. 1345 and 1521 CE and best known as a violent people
who expanded their empire through ruthless because the Aztecs got the last of the land that was
up for grabs in the Valley of Mexico, it wasn't rich farmland. Actually, living on an island in the
middle of a swampy lake.
 This posed a great challenge to the Aztecs as anything they would build would subside due to the
geography of the region. They ingeniously met this challenge by pounding wooden piles into the
lake bed below water in close packed formations to provide a firm foundation for their buildings.
These pilings were surrounded by volcanic stone to add strength.
 The Aztecs produced prodigious amounts of corn, beans and squash, and they even raised
animals such as turkeys through the use of floating gardens known as chinampas.
 They also invented canoe, a light narrow boat used for travelling in water systems
 Schoolchildren who bemoan the modern law requiring them to attend classes can blame the
Aztecs, who developed a system of compulsory education for all of their children.
 The Aztec language, Nahuatl, was the dominant language in central Mexico by the mid-1350s.
Numerous Nahuatl words borrowed by the Spanish were later absorbed into English as well,
including chile or chili, avocado, chocolate, camote, peyote,tequila and moyote
 Aztec physicians, known as tictils, were accomplished herbalists who did medicinal research.
 The Aztec performed surgeries using knives made of volcanic glass.
 Humans, both adults and less often children, were also frequently sacrificed to metaphorically

'feed' the gods and keep them happy lest they become angry and make life difficult for humans by
sending storms, droughts etc. or even just to keep the sun appearing every day.

VELOPMENT OF
SCIENCE IN
MESOAMERICA
Mesoamerica includes the
entire area of Central
America from Southern
Mexico up to the border of
South America. There is no
doubt that the Mesoamerican
region is rich in culture and
knowledge prior to the
arrival of its European
colonizers. Mayan
Civilization ~ The Maya
civilization is one of the
famous civilizations that
lasted for approximately
2,000 years. These people
are known for their works
in astronomy. They
incorporated their advanced
understanding of astronomy
into their temples and other
religious structures. This
allows them to use their
temples for astronomical
observation. For example,the
pyramid at Chichén Itzá in
Mexicois situated at the
location of the Sun during the
spring and fall equinoxes. ~
Mayan knowledge and
understanding about celestial
bodies was advanced for
their time, as evidenced by
their knowledge of predicting
eclipse and using astrological
cycles in planting and
harvesting. The Mayans are
also known for measuring
time using two complicated
calendar systems. These
calendars were very useful
for their life especially in
planning their activities and
in observing their religious
rituals and cultural
celebrations.
~ The Mayans also
developed the technology for
growing different crops and
building elaborate cities
using ordinary machineries
and tools. They built
hydraulics systems with
sophisticated waterways to
supply water to different
communities. ~ Furthermore,
they used various tools and
adapted themselves to
innovations especially in the
field of arts. The Mayans
builtlooms for weaving
clothanddevised a rainbow
of glittery paints made from
a mineral called mica.They
are also believed to beone
of the first people to
produce rubber products
3,000 years before Goodyear
received its patent in 1844. ~
The Mayans are considered
one of the most scientifically
advanced societies in
Mesoamerica. They are also
famous as one of the world's
first civilizations to use a
writing system known as
theMayan
hieroglyphics.They were
alsoskilled in mathematics
and created a number
systembased on the numeral
20. Moreover, they
independentlydeveloped the
concept of zero and
positional value, even before
the Romans did. Inca
Civilization ~ The Inca
civilization is also famous in
Mesoamerica. The Incas
made advanced scientific
ideas considering their
limitations as an old
civilization. The following
were scientific ideas and
tools that they developed to
help them in everyday life: 1.
roads paved with stones; 2.
stone buildings that
surmounted earthquakes and
other disasters, 3. irrigation
system and technique for
storing water for their crops
to grow in all types of land; 4.
calendar with 12 months to
mark their religious festivals
and prepare them for planting
season; 5. the first suspension
bridge; 6. quipu, a system of
knotted ropes to keep records
that only experts can
interpret; and 7. Inca textiles
since cloth was one of the
specially prized artistic
achievements.
Aztec Civilization ~
Following the Inca, the Aztec
civilization has also made
substantial contributions to
science and technology and
to the society as a whole.
Some of their contributions
are the following:
1.Mandatory education.The
Aztec puts value on
education; that is why their
children are mandated to get
education regardless of their
social class, gender, or age.
It is an early form of
universal or inclusive
education. 2.Chocolates.The
Aztec in Mexico developed
chocolate during their time.
In the Mayan culture, they
used it as currency. The
Aztec valued the cacao beans
highly and made it as part of
their tribute to their gods.
3.Antispasmodic
medication.They used a type
of antispasmodic medication
that could prevent muscle
spasms and relax muscles,
which could help during
surgery. 4.Chinampa.It is a
form of Aztec technology for
agricultural farming in which
the land was divided into
rectangular areas and
surrounded by canals.
5.Aztec calendar.This
enabled them to plan their
activities, rituals, and
planting season
What language did people speak?
There was no single language that united the peoples of Mesoamerica.
Linguists believe that Mesoamericans spoke more than 125 different
languages. For instance, Maya peoples did not speak “Mayan”, but could
have spoken Yucatec Maya, K’iche, or Tzotzil among many others. The
Mexica belonged to the bigger Nahua ethnic group, and therefore spoke
Nahuatl.

Indigenous languages in Mexico currently spoken by more than 100,000

people
Indigenous languages in Mexico currently spoken by more than 100,000 people

To students learning about Mesoamerica for the first time, the incredible
diversity of people, languages, and even deities can be overwhelming. I recall
my first Mesoamerican art history class vividly. I was intimidated by my lack
of familiarity with different Mesoamerican words, languages, and cultural
groups. By the end of the semester I was proud that I could differentiate
between the Zapotec and Mixtec, and could spell Tlaloc. It took me a few
more years to be able to spell and pronounce words like Tlacaxipehualiztli
(Tla-cawsh-ee-pay-wal-eeezt-li) or Huitzilopochtli (Wheat-zil-oh-poach-lee).

Writing
Mesoamerican writing systems vary by culture. Rebus writing (writing with
images) was common among many groups, like the Nahua and Mixtec.
Imagine drawing an eye, a heart, and an apple. You’ve just used rebus
writing to communicate “I love apples” to anyone familiar with these
symbols. Many visual writing systems in Mesoamerica functioned similarly
—although the previous example was simplified for the sake of clarity. You
might encounter the phrases “writing without words” or “writing with signs”
used to describe many writing systems in Mesoamerica. It is also called
pictographic, ideographic, or picture writing.
Marriage between Lord 8 Deer and Lady 13 Serpent in the Codex Zouche-
Nuttall, c. 1450 CE, Mixtec (or Ñudzavui), Late Postclassic period, deerskin,
folio 27 (The British Museum)
Marriage between Lord 8 Deer and Lady 13 Serpent in the Codex Zouche-Nuttall, c. 1450 CE, Mixtec (or
Ñudzavui), Late Postclassic period, deerskin, folio 27 (The British Museum)

Only the Maya used a writing system like ours, where signs like letters
designate sounds and syllables, and combined together to create words. Maya
hieroglyphic writing is logographic, which means it uses a sign (think of a
picture, symbol, or a letter) to communicate a syllable or a word.

The 260-day ritual calendar vs. the 365-day calendar

Other shared features among Mesoamerican peoples were the 260-day and
365-day calendars. The 260-day calendar was a ritual calendar, with 20
months of 13 days. Based on the sun, the 365-day calendar had 18 months of
20 days, with five “extra” nameless days at the end. It was the count of time
used for agriculture.
Imagine both of these calendars as interlocking wheels. Every 52 years they
completed a full cycle, and during this time special rituals commemorated the
cycle. For example, the Mexica celebrated the New Fire Ceremony as a
period of renewal. These cycles were understood as life cycles, and so reflect
creation, death, and rebirth. The Maya (especially during the Classic period),
also used a Long Count calendar in addition to the two already mentioned
(rather than a cyclical calendar, the Long Count marked time as if along an
extended line that does not repeat).

Religion and pantheon of gods

A complex pantheon of gods existed within each Mesoamerican culture.
Many groups shared similar deities, although there was a great deal of
variation. Deities that had important roles across Mesoamerica included a
storm/rain god and a feathered serpent deity. Among the Mexica, this
storm/rain god was known as Tlaloc, and the feathered serpent deity was
known as Quetzalcoatl. The Maya referred to their storm/rain deity as Chaac
(there are multiple spellings). The equivalent of Quetzalcoatl among different
Maya groups included Kukulkan (Yucatec Maya) and Q’uq’umatz (K’iche
Maya). Cocijo is the Zapotec equivalent of the storm/rain god. Many
artworks exist that show these two deities with similar features. The
storm/rain deity often has goggle eyes and an upturned mouth/snout.
Feathered serpent deities typically showed serpent features paired with
feathers.

Quetzalcoatl (Feathered Serpent), c. 1321-1521, 210 x 440 cm (National

Museum of Anthropology, Mexico)
Quetzalcoatl (Feathered Serpent), c. 1321-1521, 210 x 440 cm (National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico)
It is difficult to generalize about Mesoamerican religious beliefs and
cosmological ideas because they were so complex. Throughout Mesoamerica,
there was a general belief in the universe’s division along two axes: one
vertical, the other horizontal. At the center, where these two axes meet, is
the axis mundi, or the center (or navel) of the universe. On the horizontal
plane, four directions branch off from the axis mundi. Think of the four
cardinal directions (north, south, east, and west). On the vertical plane, we
generally find the world split into three major realms: the celestial, terrestrial,
and underworld.
Codex Féjervary-Mayer, 15th century, f. 1 (World Museum, Liverpool)
Codex Féjervary-Mayer, 15th century, f. 1 (World Museum, Liverpool)

One Mexica example helps to clarify this complex cosmological system. An

image in the Codex Féjervary-Mayer displays the cosmos’s horizontal axis.
In the center is the deity Xiuhtecuhtli (a fire god), standing in the place of the
axis mundi. Four nodes (what look almost like trapezoidal petals) branch off
from his position, creating a shape called a Maltese Cross. East (top) is
associated with red, south (right) with green, west (bottom) with blue, and
north (left) with yellow. A specific plant and bird accompany each world
direction: blue tree and quetzal (a colorful bird native to Mexico and the
southern U.S., east), cacao and parrot (south), maize and blue-painted bird
(west), and cactus and eagle (north). Two figures flank the plant in each arm
of the cross. Together, these figures and Xiuhtecuhtli represent the Nine
Lords of the Night. This cosmogram describes how the Mexica conceived of
the universe.

The ballgame
Peoples across Mesoamerica, beginning with the Olmecs, played a ritual
sport known as the ballgame. Ballcourts were often located in a city’s sacred
precinct, emphasizing the importance of the game. Solid rubber balls were
passed between players (no hands allowed!), with the goal of hitting them
through markers. Players wore padded garments to protect their bodies from
the hard ball.
The meanings of the ballgame were many and varied. It could symbolize a
range of larger cosmological ideas, including the movement of the sun
through the underworld every night. War captives also played the game
against members of a winning city or group, with the game symbolizing their
defeat in war. Sometimes a game was even played instead of going to war.
Ball Court Model, Mexico, Nayarit, c. 200 B.C.E.–500 C.E., ceramic with
slip and other pigments, 15.24 x 21.59 x 34.29 cm (Los Angeles County
Museum of Art)
Ball Court Model, Mexico, Nayarit, c. 200 B.C.E.–500 C.E., ceramic with slip and other pigments, 15.24 x
21.59 x 34.29 cm (Los Angeles County Museum of Art)

Numerous objects display aspects of the ballgame, attesting to its significant

role across Mesoamerica. We have examples of clay sculptures of ballgames
occurring on courts. Ballplayers are also frequent subjects in Maya painted
ceramic vessels and sculptures. Stone reliefs at El Tajin and Chichen Itza
depict different moments of a ballgame culminating in ritual sacrifice.
Painted pictorial codices, such as the Codex Borgia (above), display I-shaped
ballcourts, and stone depictions of ballgame clothing have been found.
Today, people in Mexico still play a version of the ballgame.
I-shaped ballcourt, Codex Borgia, c. 1500, f. 42 (Vatican Library)
I-shaped ballcourt, Codex Borgia, c. 1500, f. 42 (Vatican Library)

Mesoamerican societies continue to impress us with their sophistication and

accomplishments, notably their artistic achievements. Our understanding
continues to expand with ongoing research and archaeological excavations.
Recent excavations in Mexico City, for instance, uncovered a new
monumental Mexica sculpture buried with some of the most unique objects
we’ve ever seen in Mexica art. With these discoveries, our understanding of
the Mexica will no doubt grow and change.
MESOAMERICAN DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE
The term Mesoamerica is derived from the Greek and means "Middle America." It refers
to a geographical and cultural area which extends from central Mexico down through
Central America, including the territory which is now made up of the countries of
Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador. It is therefore seen as partly in North
America, and encompassing a large part of Central America

MESOAMERICAN CIVILIZATIONS

Mayan Civilization

One of the most famous civilizations that lasted for approximately 2000 years.

The northern region of the Mayan civilization continued in small villages until they were
finally conquered by invading Spanish conquistadors. There are still 6 million people
with Mayan ancestry living in Central America today.

The Maya civilization dates back as far as 2000 BCE. At this time, early Mayans were
developing a complex society in Central America and became the largest civilization in
the region from about 420 CE to 900.

Their civilization stretched from southern Mexico to northern Central America, centered
in the Yucatan Peninsula and the dense jungles of modern-day Guatemala and Belize.
The land in the region ranged from highland mountains to lowland plains.

The Maya civilization is one of the famous civilizations that lasted for approximately
2,000 years. These people are known for their works in astronomy. They incorporated
their advanced understanding of astronomy into their temples and other religious
structures. This allows them to use their temples for astronomical observation. For
example,the pyramid at Chichén Itzá in Mexicois situated at the location of the Sun
during the spring and fall equinoxes

SOME OF THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS ARE THE FOLLOWING:

MAYA FARMING

Like the Olmec, the Maya were expert farmers. They grew several crops but their main
source of food was corn, they called it maize. Because there was plenty of food, the
Mayan population grew.

Maya Cities

Two of the largest cities were:

Tikal (tee-KAHL0, located in the present-day country of Guatemala. It’s population was
about 5,000

Copan (ko-PAHN), located in the present-day country of Honduras

THE MAYAN CALENDAR

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed

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