ECT443 INSTRUMENTATION-

MODULE 3
 CONTENTS
Electronic Measuring Instruments
Digital storage oscilloscope,
Working principle and applications of waveform analyzer,
Digital frequency meter,
harmonic distortion meter,
harmonic analyser,
spectrum analyser and logic state analyser
IEEE - 488 General Purpose Interface Bus (GPIB) Instruments with application.
EMI, Grounding and Shielding
 DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPE
A digital oscilloscope digitizes the input signal, so that all subsequent signals are digital.
A conventional CRT is used, and storage occurs in electronic digital memory.
The input signal is digitized and stored in memory in digital form.
Digital storage oscilloscope are available in two type
1. Processing
2. non-processing types.
Processing types include built in computing power, which takes advantage of the
fact that all data is already in digital form.
The inclusion of interfacing and a microprocessor provides a complete system
for information acquisition, analysis and output.
Processing capability ranges from simple functions (such as average, area, rms, etc.) to
complete Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) spectrum analysis capability.
Non-processing digital scopes are designed as replacements for analog instruments for
both storage and non-storage types.
Their many desirable features may lead to replace analog scopes entirely (within the
Bandwidth range where digitization in feasible).
Features and Advantages
➢ The basic advantage of digital operation is the storage capability,
➢ The stored waveform can be repetitively read out, thus making transients
appear repetitively and allowing their convenient display on the scope screen.
➢ The voltage and time scales of display are easily changed after the waveform has
been recorded, which allows expansion (typically to 64 times) of selected
portions, to observe greater details.
➢ A cross-hair cursor can be positioned at any desired point on the waveform and
the voltage/time values displayed digitally on the screen, and/or readout
Electrically
➢ Some scopes use 12 bit converters, giving 0.025% resolution and 0.1% accuracy
on voltage and time readings, which are better than the 2–5% of analog scopes.
➢ Split screen capabilities (simultaneously displaying live analog traces and
replayed stored ones) enable easy comparison of the two signals
➢ Once the sampled record of the event is captured in memory, many usefull
manipulations are possible
➢ Pre-trigger capability is also a significant advantage.
➢ Pre-triggering recording allows the input signal preceding the trigger points tobe
recorded.
➢ In ordinary triggering the recording process is started by the rise of the input (or
some external triggering) above some preset threshold value.
➢ The display of stored data is possible in both amplitude versus time and X-Y
modes.
➢ In addition to the fast memory readout used for CRT display, a slow readout is
possible for producing hard copy with external plotters.
➢ When more memory than the basic amount (typically 4096 points/words) is
➢ needed, a magnetic disk accessory allows expansion to 32,000 points.
➢ All digital storage scopes are limited in bandwidth by the speed of their A/D
➢ converters. However, 20 MHz digitizing rates available on some scopes yield a
➢ 5 MHz bandwidth, which is adequate for most applications.
Operation

The input signal is applied to the amplifier and attenuator section.

The attenuated signal is then applied to the vertical amplifier.
To digitize the analog signal, analog to digital (A/D) converter is used.
the output of the vertical amplifier is applied to the A/D converter section.
The successive approximation type of A/D converter is most oftenly used in the digital storage oscilloscopes.
The sampling rate and memory size are selected depending upon the duration & the waveform to be recorded
Once the input signal is sampled, the A/D converter digitizes it.
The signal is then captured in the memory.
Once it is stored in the memory, many manipulations are possible as memory can be readout without being
erased.
The digital storage oscilloscope has three modes:

1. Roll mode

2. Store mode

3. Hold or save mode.

The digital memory also may be read directly (without going through DAC) to, say, a
computer where a stored program can manipulate the data in almost any way desired.
Pre-triggering recording allows the input signal preceding the trigger points to
be recorded.
In ordinary triggering the recording process is started by the rise of the input (or some external
triggering) above some preset threshold value.
As in digital recorder, DSO can be set to record continuously (new data coming into the
memory pushes out old data, once memory is full), until the trigger signal is received; then the
recording is stopped, thus freezing data received prior to the trigger signal in the memory.
An adjustable trigger delay allows operator control of the stop point, so that the
trigger may occur near the beginning, middle or end of the stored information.
Timing and Mode logic control the mode of output data displayed on the CRO
Two basic ways of display X-Y mode and the triggered-sweep mode.
The X-Y mode displays the graph of the variation of two external signals—one versus the
other.
The triggered-sweep mode displays the variation of only one external signal as it varies with
time.
The digital storage oscilloscope has three modes:
1. Roll mode
2. Store mode
3. Hold or save mode.
1 Roll Mode :- This mode is used to display very fast varying signals, clearly on the screen.
The fast varying signal is displayed as if it is changing slowly, on the screen.
In this mode, the input signal is not triggered at all.
The stored signal is rolled slowly from right to left across the screen.
2 Store Mode This is most commonly used and called refresh mode.
In this mode, the input initiates a trigger circuit.
This initiates the memory write cycle.
The digital data is transferred to the memory.
When the memory is full, the write cycle stops.
Using digital to analog converter, the memory data is converted to analog and then displayed
on the screen.
When the next trigger occurs the memory is refreshed.
3 Hold or Save Mode:-
This is called automatic refresh mode.
When new sweep signal is generated by time base generator, the old contents get
overwritten by new one.
If a particular signal is to be stored then by pressing hold or save button, overwriting
can be stopped and previously saved signal is locked.
Single shot events, such as the waveform of an explosion are transient in nature and
very quickly lost.
The observer cannot see such events, unless the waveform is photographed or
stored.
Such events can be stored in memory of digital storage oscilloscope and reading the
memory rapidly and repetitively the continuous waveform can be obtained.
 Advantages
i) It is easier to operate and has more capability.
ii) The storage time is infinite.
iii)The display flexibility is available. The number of traces that can be stored and recalled
depends on the size of the memory.
iv) The cursor measurement is possible.
v) The characters can be displayed on screen along with the waveform which can indicate
waveform information such as minimum, maximum, frequency, amplitude etc.
vi) The X-Y plots, B-H curve, P-V diagrams can be displayed.
vii) The pre trigger viewing feature allows to display the waveform before trigger pulse.
viii) Keeping the records is possible by transmitting the data to computer system where the
further processing is possible
ix) Signal processing is possible which includes translating the raw data into finished
information e.g. computing parameters of a captured signal like r.m.s. value, energy stored etc.
 6.2 FREQUENCY METER
• It’s a digital instrument that can measure & display the frequency of any periodic
waveform.
Principle of Operation
The signal waveform is converted to trigger pulses and applied continuously to an AND gate,
A pulse of 1 s is applied to the other terminal, and the number of pulses counted during this
period indicates the frequency.
The signal whose frequency is to be measured is converted into a train of pulses, one pulse for
each cycle of the signal.
The number of pulses occurring in a definite interval of time is then counted by an electronic
counter.
Since each pulse represents the cycle of the unknown signal, the number of counts is a direct
indication of the frequency of the signal (unknown).
Since electronic counters have a high speed of operation, high frequency signals can be
measured
Block diagram of Frequency meter
• The input signal is amplified and converted to a square wave by a Schmitt trigger
circuit.
• The square wave is differentiated and clipped to produce a train of pulses, each
pulse separated by the period of the input signal.
• The time base selector output is obtained from an oscillator and is similarly
converted into positive pulses.
• The first pulse activates the gate control F/F.
• This gate control F/F provides an enable signal to the AND gate.
• The trigger pulses of the input signal are allowed to pass through the gate for a
selected time period and counted.
• The second pulse from the decade frequency divider changes the state of the
control F/F and removes the enable signal from the AND gate, thereby closing it.
• The decimal counter and display unit output corresponds to the number of input
pulses received during a precise time interval; hence the counter display
corresponds to the frequency.
WAVE ANALYZER
WAVE ANALYZER
WAVE ANALYZER

A Permanent Magnet Moving Coil- PMMC

BASIC WAVE
ANALYZER
Frequency selective wave Analyzer
• The complex wave to be analyzed is passed through an adjustable attenuator which serves
as a range multiplier and permits a large range of signal amplitudes to be analyzed without
loading the amplifier.
• The output of the attenuator is then fed to a selective amplifier, which amplifies
• the selected frequency.
• The driver amplifier applies the attenuated input signal to a high-Q active filter.
• This high-Q filter is a low pass filter which allows the frequency which is selected to pass
and reject all others.
• The magnitude of this selected frequency is indicated by the meter and the filter section
identifies the frequency of the component.
• The filter circuit consists of a cascaded RC resonant circuit and amplifiers.
• For selecting the frequency range, the capacitors generally used are of the closed tolerance
polystyrene type and the resistances used are precision potentiometers.
• The capacitors are used for range changing and the potentiometer is used to change the
frequency within the selected pass-band,
• Hence this wave analyzer is also called a Frequency selective voltmeter.
• The entire AF range is covered in decade steps by switching capacitors in the RC section.
• The selected signal output from the final amplifier stage is applied to the
• meter circuit and to an un-tuned buffer amplifier.
• The main function of the buffer amplifier is to drive output devices, such
• as recorders or electronics counters
• The meter has several voltage ranges as well as decibel scales marked on it.
• It is driven by an average reading rectifier type detector.
• The wave analyzer must have extremely low input distortion, undetectable by the
analyzer itself.
• The bandwidth of the instrument is very narrow, typically about 1% of the
selective band
SPECTRUM ANALYZER
The instrument providing to display signals in the frequency domain view is the
spectrum analyzer.
A spectrum analyzer provides a calibrated graphical display on its CRT, with
frequency on the horizontal axis and amplitude (voltage) on the vertical axis.
These instruments provide a display of the frequency spectrum over a given
frequency band.
Spectrum analyzers use either a parallel filter bank or a swept frequency technique.
In a parallel filter bank analyzer, the frequency range is covered by a series of filters
whose central frequencies and bandwidth are so selected that they overlap each other
For wide band narrow resolution analysis, particularly at RF or microwave signals,
the swept technique is preferred.
 SPECTRUM ANALYSER
Spectrum analysis is defined as the study of energy distribution across the frequency
spectrum of a given electrical signal.
It gives valuable information about bandwidth, effects of different types of modulation and
signal generation.
The spectrum analysis is divided into two major categories on account of instrumentation
limitations and capabilities.
They are:
(I) Audio frequency analysis, and
(II) Radio frequency (RF) spectrum analysis.
These instruments find wide applications for measurement of attenuation, FM deviation,
and frequency in pulse studies.
The basic spectrum analyzer is designed to represent graphically, a plot of amplitude
versus frequency of a selected portion of the frequency spectrum under study.
The modern spectrum analyzer basically consists of a narrow band super heterodyne
receiver and a CRO.
The receiver is electronically tuned by varying the frequency of the local oscillator..
• The circuit incorporates a saw tooth generator which supplies a ramp voltage to the
frequency control element of the voltage tuned local oscillator.
• The local oscillator then generates voltage according to frequency applied to it by saw
tooth generator & the same saw tooth voltage is simultaneously applied to the horizontal
plates of the CRO.
• The RF signal to be tested is applied to the input of the mixer stage.
• An IF component is produced only when the corresponding component is present in the
RF input signal.
• The resulting IF signals are amplified and then detected.
• After that they are applied to the vertical deflection plates of the CRO thereby producing
display of amplitude versus frequency on the screen.
• The signals are broken down into their individual frequency component and displayed
along X-axis of CRO.
• A dimensional representation of a fundamental frequency f1 and its harmonic f2 = 2f1 is
shown in the figure above
 Logic State Analyser
The most popular test instrument for trouble shooting digital and microprocessor based
systems is the logic analyzer.
Its appearance is similar to CRO but it looks into the activity on the communicating links in
a digital system known as interface buses.
An interface bus is a parallel assembly of connections, data is transmitted as parallel bit
streams.
Thus, at discrete instants in time data words are formed and this form of activity takes place
in the data domain.
Software running on the logic analyzer can convert the captured data into timing diagrams,
protocol decodes, state machine traces, assembly language, or correlate assembly with
source-level software.
A logic analyzer detects logic threshold levels
When the input is above the threshold voltage, the level is
said to be “high” or “1;”
conversely, the level below the threshold voltage is a
“low” or “0.”
When a logic analyzer samples an input, it stores a 1 or a
0, depending on the level of the signal relative to the
voltage threshold.
A logic analyzer’s waveform timing display is similar to
that of a timing diagram found in a data sheet or produced
by a simulator.
All of the signals are time-correlated and effectively show
progressive system “snapshots” through time.
simplified functional block diagram of a logic analyzer
There are four steps to using a logic analyzer:
• Probe (connect to the SUT (system under test.) )
• Setup (clock mode and triggering)
• Acquire
• Analyze and display
The block numbers correspond to the four steps just listed.
The acquisition probes connect to the SUT.
The probe’s internal comparator is where input voltage comparison occurs against the threshold
voltage and the signal’s logic state (l or 0) is determined.
You set the threshold value, ranging from TTL levels to CMOS, ECL, or your own user-
definable ones.
Operation
A logic analyzer can trigger on a complicated sequence of digital events, and then
capture a large amount of digital data from the system under test (SUT).
• The best logic analyzers behave like software debuggers by showing the flow of the
computer program and decoding protocols to show messages and violation.
• When logic analyzers first came into use, it was common to attach several hundred
"clips" to a digital system. Later, specialized connectors came into use.
• These probes provide a durable, reliable mechanical and electrical connection
between the probe and the circuit board with less than 0.5pF to 0.7 pF loading per
signal.
Steps of operation
• Once the probes are connected, the user programs the analyzer with the names of each
signal, and can group several signals into groups for easier manipulation.
• Next, a capture mode is chosen, either timing mode, where the input signals are sampled
at regular intervals based on an internal or external clock source, or state mode,
• In state mode where one or more of the signals are defined as "clocks," and data is taken
on the rising or falling edges of these clocks, optionally using other signals to qualify these
clocks.
• After the mode is chosen, a trigger condition must be set.
• A trigger condition can range from simple (such as triggering on a rising or falling edge of
a single signal), to the very complex (such as configuring the analyzer to decode the higher
levels of the TCP/IP stack and triggering on a certain HTTP packet).
• At this point, the user sets the analyzer to "run" mode, either triggering once, or repeatedly
triggering.
• Once the data is captured, it can be displayed several ways, from the simple (showing
waveforms or state listings) to the complex (showing decoded Ethernet protocol traffic).
• The analyzer can also operate in a "compare" mode, where it compares each captured
data set to a previously recorded data set, and stopping triggering when this data set is
either matched or not.
• This is useful for long-term empirical testing.
• Recent analyzers can even be set to email a copy of the test data to the engineer on a
successful trigger.
Uses
Many digital designs, including those of ICs, are simulated to detect defects before the unit
is constructed.
The simulation usually provides logic analysis displays. Often, complex discrete logic is
verified by simulating inputs and testing outputs using boundary scan.
Logic analyzers can uncover hardware defects that are not found in simulation.
These problems are typically too difficult to model in simulation, or too time consuming to
simulate and often cross multiple clock domains.
Field-programmable gate arrays have become a common measurement point for logic
analyzers.
Probes :- Today, the most common method of data capture for logic analyzers is through a
probe
A logic analyzer can measure anything electronic if it has the proper probe connected.
Mostly logic analyzer measure data buses.
The probes try to tap into the electronic signals being passed through a data bus or wire.
 Comparison of DSO & Logic State Analyser
A DSO is an ideal test instrument when you need to measure:
A few analog characteristics of no more than four signals at a time.
You need to know analog characteristics of a signal, such as rise and fall times,
phase, power, current, amplitude, and edge relationships.
You need to determine a signal’s stability (jitter).
You need to measure timing margins such as setup/hold and propagation delays.
You need to determine transient states, such as runt signals, glitches, and metastable
states.
A logic analyzer is best when you need to:
Debug and verify digital system operations.
Trace and correlate many digital signals simultaneously.
Detect and analyze timing relationships for many digital signals.
Trace embedded software operations.
HARMONIC DISTORTION ANALYZER
Link https://slideplayer.com/slide/16772089/
A distortion analyzer measures the total harmonic power present in the test wave
rather than the distortion caused by each component.
Fundamental Suppression Type:- Suppress the fundamental frequency by means of a
high pass filter whose cut off frequency is a little above the fundamental frequency. This
high pass allows only the harmonics to pass and the total harmonic distortion can then
be measured.
Various Fundamental Suppression types are
1. Resonance Bridge
2. Wien bridge
3. Bridged T-Network
1. Resonance Bridge :
The bridge is balanced for the fundamental frequency,
i.e. L and C are tuned to the fundamental frequency.
The bridge is unbalanced for the harmonics,
i.e. only harmonic power will be available at the output
terminal and can be measured.
If the fundamental frequency is changed, the bridge
must be balanced again.
If L and C are fixed components, then this method is
suitable only when the test wave has a fixed frequency.
Indicators can be thermocouples or square law VTVMs.
This indicates the rms value of all harmonics.
2. Wien’s Bridge Method :-
• When a continuous adjustment of the
fundamental frequency is desired, a Wien
bridge arrangement is used
• The bridge is balanced for the fundamental
frequency.
• The fundamental energy is dissipated in
the bridge circuit elements.
• Only the harmonic components reach the
output terminals.
• The harmonic distortion output can then be
measured with a meter.
• For balance at the fundamental frequency,
C1 = C2 = C, R1 = R2 = R, R3 = 2R4.
 3. Bridged T-Network

The, L and C’s are tuned to the fundamental frequency, and R is adjusted to bypass
fundamental frequency.
The tank circuit being tuned to the fundamental frequency, the fundamental energy will
circulate in the tank and is bypassed by the resistance.
Only harmonic components will reach the output terminals and the distorted output can be
measured by the meter.
Bridged T-Network:-
• The switch S is first connected to point A so that the attenuator is excluded and the bridge
T-network is adjusted for full suppression of the fundamental frequency,
• i.e. minimum output.
• Minimum output indicates that the bridged T-network is tuned to the fundamental
frequency and that the fundamental frequency is fully suppressed.
• The switch is next connected to terminal B, i.e. the bridged T-network is excluded.
Attenuation is adjusted until the same reading is obtained on the meter.
• The attenuator reading indicates the total rms distortion.
• Distortion measurement can also be obtained by means of a wave analyzer, knowing the
amplitude and the frequency of each component, the harmonic distortion can be
calculated.
❑ The distortion meters based on fundamental suppression are simpler to design and less
expensive than wave analyzers.
❑ The disadvantage of distortion meters is that they give only the total distortion and not the
amplitude of individual distortion components.
The GPIB interface, sometimes called the General Purpose Interface Bus (GPIB), is a general purpose
digital interface system that can be used to transfer data between two or more devices.
It is particularly well suited for interconnecting computers and instruments.

General Purpose Interface Bus (GPIB)- THE IEEE 488 BUS

The purpose of IEEE 488 bus is to provide digital interfacing between programmable instruments.
There are many instrumentation systems in which interactive instruments, under the command of a central
controller, provide superior error-free results when compared with conventional manually operated systems.
It can over come the problems such as impedance mismatch, obtaining cables with proper connectors and logic
level compatibility
Every device in the system must be able to perform at least one of the roles, namely talker, listener or controller.
A talker can send data to other devices via the bus.
In the listen mode it may receive an instruction to make a particular measurement
In the talk mode it may send its measurand.
A programmable instruments, can both listen and talk.
A controller manages the operation of the bus system.
It controls data gathering and transfer by designating which devices talk or listen as well as controlling specific
actions within other devices.
General Purpose Interface Bus (GPIB) interface
ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY (EMC) :-
It is the ability of a device, unit of equipment, or system to function satisfactorily in its
electromagnetic environment without introducing intolerable electromagnetic disturbances
to anything in that environment.

Electromagnetic interference (EMI), or radio frequency interference (RFI).:-

• EMI is the unwanted disturbance or noise that affects electronic devices and systems due
to electromagnetic radiation.
• Sources of EMI include power lines, electronic devices, radio signals, and nearby
electrical equipment.
• EMI can lead to measurement inaccuracies, signal distortion, and equipment
malfunction.
• It may result in measurement drift, reduced precision, or complete measurement failure.
• In high-frequency applications, EMI can cause crosstalk between adjacent channels or
cables.
GROUNDING :- Electrical grounding or “Grounding” originally began as a safety measure
used to help prevent people from accidentally coming in contact with electrical hazards
• Grounding:- Safety, system protection and performance are the three main reasons to earth
a system.
• GROUNDING is a technique that provides a low resistance path between electrical or
electronic equipment and the earth or common reference low impedance plane to bypass
fault current or noise.
• Computers, televisions, microwave ovens, fluorescent lights and many other electrical
devices, generate lots of “electrical noise” that can damage equipment and cause it to work
less efficiently.
• Proper grounding can not only remove this unwanted “noise”, but can even make surge
protection devices work better
• Safety ground connects the instrument chassis and exposed conductive parts to
the earth (ground) to prevent electric shock.
• Signal ground is used to create a common reference point for electrical signals.
• It helps prevent ground loops, which can introduce noise into measurements.
• Ground isolation may be required to prevent common mode interference.
Isolation transformers can be used for this purpose.
Shielding :-
• It involves using conductive materials or enclosures to block or redirect
electromagnetic radiation away from sensitive instruments.
• Proper shielding can significantly reduce the impact of EMI on measurements.
• Shielding effectiveness depends on factors such as material conductivity,
thickness, frequency of the interference and the type of source (magnetic field,
electric field or electromagnetic field source)
• High-frequency interference requires more effective shielding.
• Shielding effectiveness is tested using specialized equipment like spectrum
analyzers and network analyzers.
• Types of shielding materials include copper, aluminum, and conductive coatings.
• A shielded cable is an electrical cable of one or more insulated conductors
enclosed by a common conductive layer.
• Usually this shield is covered with a jacket.
• The shield acts as a Faraday cage to reduce electrical noise from affecting the
signals, and to reduce electromagnetic radiation that may interfere with other
devices.
• The shield minimizes capacitively coupled noise from other electrical sources.
• The shield must be applied across cable splices.
• In shielded signal cables the shield may act as the return path for the signal, or
may act as screening only.
• High voltage power cables with solid insulation are shielded to protect the cable
insulation, people and equipment
Grounding vs. Shielding:
• Grounding and shielding serve different purposes but work together to ensure
accurate measurements.
• Grounding provides a reference point and safety, while shielding blocks EMI.
• Effective grounding is essential for the performance of shielding.