(a)Analog Input Subsystem:

✓ Analog signals like currents and voltages are derived from the switchyard of the substation which are then
multiplexed, sampled and converted to digital signals.
✓ This process is known as discretization in the area of digital signal processing.
✓ Moreover, surge filters are required for protection of the low-voltage digital components.
✓ Signal conditioning is required to adjust and match voltage levels to the input range of an ADC.
✓ An analog low-pass filter is also required to block the higher unwanted frequency components to avoid aliasing.

(b) Digital Input Subsystem

It consists of the status of other relays and the circuit breaker (open or close) in the associated network.

(c) Processor :
✓ Fast acting microprocessors and microcontrollers were typically used in earlier times.
✓ Nowadays, digital signal processors (DSP) are used in numerical relays, which are faster in comparison to
microcontrollers.
✓ Earlier, DSPs used specialized multiplication hardware and instructions to achieve fast multiplications, and contained
additional hardware, such as wide accumulator registers, to increase numeric fidelity.
✓ Clock speeds of current mainstream DSPs have increased between 50 MHz to 100 MHz, with the latest DSPs
executing at 200 MHz or higher.
✓ Some high-end DSP processors include two multiplication units and can compute two instructions in every cycle. At
200 MHz, each instruction pair thus requires only 5 ns.
(d)Data and Program Storage:
✓ The Random Access Memory (RAM) of a computer holds the acquired samples from the input system.
✓ It also acts as a buffer storage for additional samples if the relaying algorithm takes time.
✓ Apart from this storage, the RAM acts as what is called a data scratch pad, i.e., a temporary storage to be used during
the filtering algorithm and relay algorithm execution.
✓ The ROM (Read Only Memory) stores the program permanently.
✓ The ROM is used for storing the relay logic and the monitor program required for interaction between the
user/operator and the relay.
✓ The EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) is needed for storing parameters which need
to be changed from time to time, for example, relay settings.
✓ Flash Memory has replaced EE-PROM in recent times.
✓ The bulk storage memory is required for storing historical data files.
✓ This is used for storing time-tagged event data, fault related data tables and recording of significant transient events of
the power system.
✓ The digital filter program is essential to all relaying applications.
✓ The data samples acquired within the RAM are passed through the digital filter program.

(e) Digital Output Subsystem:

This subsystem is used to give trip signals, alarm and control signals to the external system.

(f) Power Supply:

The relay has to be operative even if the station supply is not available. Thus, an uninterrupted dc supply is
provided to the numerical relay by means of battery-charger sets.
(g)Communication Peripherals and Protocol:
✓ Communication facility is available with various communication ports like RS 232/485, RJ 45, etc.
Communication between the numerical relay and a personal desktop/laptop computer can be
established through Ethernet and fiber optical cables.
✓ A specific set of communication rules is called a protocol.
✓ Each relay manufacturer has patented protocols for communication with their relays. Even
communication protocols are different for relays of different platforms of the same manufacturers like
SPA, Modbus, Profibus, LON, IEC 60870 series, etc. There is no problem with patented communication
protocols as individual communication is possible. But with the modern concept of substation
integration and automation (i.e., SCADA and EMS) interoperability of relays with some common
communication protocol has to be realized. In these schemes, all the relays of the substation are
integrated with some common network for the substation level and also remote communication. Due
to this requirement, a common communication protocol IEC 61850 has been developed.
Data Acquisition System:
The current and potential transformers are used for two
purposes.
✓ Firstly, they are used to scale down the levels to
become compatible with that of the digital subsystem.
✓ Secondly, they provide isolation between the power
circuit and the measuring and protective hardware.
These scaled-down analog signals must be converted to
voltage signals suitable for conversion to digital form.
The voltage developed across a resistor connected to the
secondary of a CT injects the current to the numerical
relay.
Moreover, a resistive potential divider arrangement across
the P.T.’s secondary feeds the required potential.
For other electrical and thermal signals, suitable transducers are used which convert the primary relaying quantities to
equivalent dc analog quantities.

Digital inputs to the numerical relay are usually the contact status, obtained from other relays or circuit breakers.

When the digital inputs are derived from contacts within the yard, it is necessary to apply surge filtering and (or) optical
isolation in order to isolate the numerical relay from the transient surges.

Surges are induced on wiring connected to the relays like that of power supply, analog and digital inputs. Industry
standards have been prepared to define the requirements of surge filtering.
Surge filters:
▪ The surges are produced due to faults and switching operations on the power system or the control room itself.
▪ Suppression of these surges can be achieved by careful grounding and shielding of leads and equipment as well as
low-pass filtering.
▪ Surge filters are lowpass filters with cut-off frequencies of the order of hundreds of kHz. They do not affect the
relaying input signals.
▪ Nonlinear energy absorbing Metal Oxide Varistors (MOVs) may also be used in addition to the lowpass filters in
some designs.

Sample and Hold (S/H) Circuit:

A simplified diagram for the sample-and-hold is shown. The S/H
circuit is an analog circuit which acts like a voltage memory
device.
The analog input voltage is acquired and stored on a high-
quality capacitor with low leakage and low dielectric
absorption characteristics.
An electronic switch is connected to the hold capacitor.
OPAMP-1 is an input buffer amplifier with high input
impedance. OPAMP-2 is the output amplifier; it buffers the
voltage on the hold capacitor.
Two schemes are available for sampling, viz.,
(a) Non-simultaneous sampling
(b) Simultaneous sampling
In a relaying application, generally the three-phase currents
and the three-phase voltages are to be acquired. So the
magnitude as well as phase of each signal is significant, and
hence all signals must be sampled at the same instant. Hence, a
simultaneous sampling scheme is preferred.

All the input analog signals are sampled at the same instant.
Then the multiplexer takes the different signals inside as per
the sequence and the ADC interfacing are coordinated by
proper programming.

Nowadays, multichannel ADCs with simultaneous sampling are

also available. So S/H and multiplexer functions are
incorporated within the ADC itself.

Generally, the successive approximation type ADCs having

conversion time in the range of 15 to 30 ms are used for
relaying applications. The time between two sampling instants
has to accommodate the conversion time of the ADC and allow
the processor to take the digital value inside the input buffer
RAM. Also, the sampling rate must fulfill the Nyquist criterion.
 Advantages of Numerical Relays

1. Self-checking Facility:
All components like processor, memory, analog I/O system, digital I/O ports, dc control supply, etc., are self-checked
by the relay and a warning, annunciation or corresponding defensive action is initiated if any error or problem is
detected.

2. Reliability and Dependability:

This is achieved due to the proven digital technology being used. Self-checking facility also contributes for increased
reliability and dependability.

3. Numerical relays are immune to variations in parameters of components as there are no solid-state components
like op-amp in static relays.

4. Very Low Burden Numerical relays offer very low burden on CTs and PTs. This is helpful in fulfilling the ideal
requirement that sensors should not consume any power. If a sensor consumes power from the quantity it measures,
it will lead to distortion of the measured signal.

5. Flexibility and Compactness:

As an example, to provide magnitude scaling and phase-shift to a voltage signal, extracting line-to-line voltage from
phase to neutral voltage is much simpler with computer relaying because equations can be implemented by
programming. Also, programming feature helps in including multiple characteristics in a single relay. Further, generic
hardware can be developed for different relays, which reduces the cost of inventory
6. Simplicity of Interfacing with CT and PT:
Ex:- In open delta connection of PT secondary for getting zero sequence voltage is not required. It can be
mathematically computed inside the processor.

7. Fiber Optical Communication in Substation LAN:

Once the analog signals from CTs and PTs are digitized, they can be converted into optical signals and transmitted
on a substation LAN using fiber optic network. With higher levels of EMI (Electromagnetic Interference) immunity
offered by fiber optic cables, it has become the transmission medium of choice in substation environments. This
leads to automation, multiplexing of multiple analog signals, reduction in complexity of wiring and thereby
reducing burden on CTs.

8.Adaptive Relaying:
Adaptive protection is a recent protection philosophy that permits and acts to make adjustments in various
protection functions automatically in order to make them more suitable to prevailing power system conditions.

Adaptive relaying allows to automatically change the settings or characteristics of relays to adapt with the existing
(modified) system conditions. This change of settings is decided by a master computer located at load dispatch
centres which is usually placed higher in hierarchy and equipped with software for real-time calculations of
modified settings. The modified settings are communicated to the relays whose settings are to be adapted. Hence,
numerical relays with communication capabilities are essential for implementing adaptive relaying.
9. Storage of Historical Data:
Facility of storage of pre-and post-fault data is provided in numerical relays. This data can be used for measurement
of fault current and statistical analysis of fault occurrences.

10. Time Synchronization with GPS System:

GPS (Geographical Positioning System) is a cluster of 24 satellites of Pentagon, USA, which give a timing pulse every
1 microsecond for defense purposes. It is utilized for the benefit of power system monitoring, control and
protection by having synchronized phasor measurement units based on GPS signals.

Numerical relays have incorporated this feature. Time stamping of relay operations allows us to capture the
sequence of relay operations which helps in the diagnosis of the exact cause of complex situations like blackouts.
Moreover, by synchronizing the sampling processors for different signals which may be hundreds of kilometers
apart, it is possible to put their phasors on the same phasor diagram. A Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU) is used for
this purpose. When such PMUs are placed at multiple critical locations, the arrangement is known as Wide Area
Measurement System (WAMS).
11. Merging of Protection, Control and Metering (IED):
Numerical relays have features meeting the control and metering requirements. So merging them into a single entity is
possible.

Nowadays, there is a new term introduced for this entity, namely, IED (Intelligent Electronic Device). Any device
incorporating one or more processors with the capability to receive or send data/control signals from or to an external
source is known as IED. Electronic multifunction meters, digital relays, controllers are examples of IEDs. IEDs help in
implementing the concept of unmanned substations in electrical distribution systems where all control, metering and
protection functions can be done in a remote control room.

12. Benefits of Metering:

The benefits of metering are as given below:
(a) No separate connections for CT and PT are required.
(b) Metering of all parameters like A, V, Hz, kW, kWh, P.F., kVA, kVAR, etc., is possible.
(c) Accuracy class may be as high as 0.5% class.
(d) Since separate meters are not required, there is space saving.
(e) Networking of IEDs for metering of all feeders is possible at a single node.
(f) Measurement of THD (Total Harmonic Distortion) and individual harmonic levels for voltage and
current waveforms is possible.
13. Benefits of Control Functions:
The following functions of control are incorporated in numerical relays:
(a) ON/OFF control for circuit breaker and isolator
(b) Flexibility of auxiliary supply voltage for control circuits; generally all models of relays have flexible auxiliary
voltage acceptability of 80-380 V ac/dc.
(c) Trip circuit supervision
(d) Local/remote selection
(e) Alarm/trip signal generation at a remote place
(f) Blocking of particular operation/protection
(g) Indication through LED, mimic generation
(h) Condition monitoring of circuit breaker like electrical wear, preventive maintenance alarm, circuit breaker travel
time, gas pressure monitoring, etc.
(i) Spring charging control
(j) Interlock for operation (a) Closing interlocks (b) Tripping interlocks
(k) Complex logic generation using I/Os.
(i) A number of inputs and outputs are possible.
(ii) Analog inputs transducers like RTDs (Resistance Temperature Detectors) are also possible.
(iii) Logic gate functions like AND, OR, NAND, NOR are possible.
(iv) Flip-flops and timers are available
14.Wide range of Facilities:
Numerical relays have a vast range of facilities. Industrial customers have been quite enthusiastic and innovative in
maximizing utilization of these features for best returns on their capital investment.
Some features appreciated and adopted by the industry are
(a) Group setting Virtually more than one relay
(b) Self-monitoring/internal relay failure
(c) Circuit-breaker failure protection (CBFP)
(d) Events, e.g., start-trip/history/disturbance recorder for fault analysis
(e) Load-shedding with intelligence Use of df/dt, dv/dt functions
(f) Auto-synchronization of alternators with infinite bus or other alternators.
(g) Fast Bus Transfer Scheme For bus transfer, the conventional scheme has been using discrete relays.
Nowadays, the Fast Bus Transfer Scheme is possible using numerical relays.
(h) Transformer Differential Scheme Features like ratio and phase-angle correction, zero-sequence current
and harmonic filtration are utilized. Variable bias characteristic is available.
(i) Numerical Distance Protection Relays These relays provide the following features:
• Flexibility of selecting quadrilateral or mho characteristics
• Switch-on-to-fault (SOTF) feature • Fuse failure
• Loss of voltage • Fault locator
• Disturbance recorder • Weak in-feed and current reversal
• Auto-reclosure • Check synchronization
• Directional/non-directional overcurrent and earth fault protection
• Local breaker back-up (LBB) protection
• Overvoltage/undervoltage protection.
Disadvantages of Numerical Relays:

(i) Short Life Cycle:

All microprocessor-based systems, including numerical protection systems, have short life cycles. Since each generation of
microprocessor based systems increases the functionality as compared with the previous generation, the pace of change
makes the numerical protection systems obsolete in shorter times. Because of this, it becomes difficult for the users to
maintain expertise in using the latest designs of the equipment. Another variation of this disadvantage is in the from of
changes in the software used on the existing hardware platforms.

(ii) Susceptibility to Transients:

Microprocessor-based numerical protection systems are more susceptible to incorrect operations due to transients
because of the nature of the technology compared to the systems built with the electromechanical technology.

(iii) Setting and Testing Complexities:

Numerical relays, which are designed to replace the functions of electromechanical or static relays, offer programmable
functions that increase the application flexibility compared with the fixed function relays. The multifunction numerical
relays, therefore, have a number of settings. There may be problems in management of the increased number of settings
and in conduction of functional tests. Setting management software is generally available to create, transfer, and track the
relay settings. Numerical relays are generally tested by using special testing techniques, specifically the ability to enable
and disable selected functions. This increases the possibility that the desired settings may not be invoked after testing. In
order to ensure that correct setting and logic are activated after the tests are completed, proper procedures must be
followed.
SAMPLING THEOREM:

Statement: A continuous time signal can be represented in its samples and can be recovered back
when sampling frequency fs is greater than or equal to the twice the highest frequency component
of message signal. i. e.

fs ≥ 2fm.

Proof:
✓ Consider a continuous time signal x(t).
✓ The spectrum of x(t) is a band limited to fm Hz i.e. the spectrum of x(t) is zero for |ω|>ωm.
✓ Sampling of input signal x(t) can be obtained by multiplying x(t) with an impulse train δ(t) of
period Ts.
✓ The output of multiplier is a discrete signal called sampled signal which is represented with y(t)
in the following diagrams:
An ADC cannot handle a continuously changing analog signal. We must first sample the analog signal and then feed one
sampled analog value to the ADC at a time. Figure shows the sampling of an analog signal at 16 samples per cycle.
Least Square Error Method:
Thus, the estimated value with minimum error that we arrived at by minimizing the sum of the squares of the errors is
the same as the mean or the average value. Hence, there is greater significance to the average value as a value which
minimizes the sum of squares of errors, which is the closest that can approach the true value.
Pseudo Inverse Method:
 A/D Converters

the ADC forms a very crucial link between the analog and the digital worlds. Therefore, the choice of the appropriate
type of ADC will decide the overall performance of the digital relay. ADCs can be implemented using a variety of
techniques. Each technique of A to D conversion has its pros and cons. However, it is possible to talk about the ADC at a
functional level, without going into the details of its working. Figure shows a bipolar ADC with ‘N’ bits in the output.

The ADC can accommodate signal between –Vm and +Vm volt and produces an ‘N’ bit digital code corresponding to the
input analog voltage.
 Numerical Overcurrent Relay

A numerical overcurrent relay acquires sequential samples of the current in numeric (digital) data form through the Data
Acquisition System (DAS), and processes the data numerically using a numerical filtering algorithm to extract the
fundamental frequency component of the current and make trip decision.

In order to make the trip decision, the relay compares the fundamental frequency component of the current (I) with the
pick-up setting and computes the plug setting multiplier (PSM), given by (I/Ipick-up) at which the relay has to operate.

If the fundamental frequency component of the fault current (I) exceeds the pick-up Ipick-up (i.e., PSM > 1), the relay issues a
trip signal to the circuit breaker.

The time delay required for the operation of the relay depends on the type of overcurrent characteristic to be realized.

In case of instantaneous overcurrent relay there is no intentional time delay. For definite time overcurrent relay, the trip
signal is issued after a predetermined time delay.

In orders to obtain inverse-time characteristics, the relay either computes the operating time corresponding to the fault
current or selects the same from the look-up table
The numerical filtering algorithms based on DFT, FWHT, RHT and BPF can be used for extraction of the
fundamental frequency component of the fault current I.

The fundamental Fourier sine and cosine coefficients (F1 and F2) are respectively equal to real and imaginary
components (IS and IC) of the fundamental frequency current phasor I.

I in complex form is given by I = IS + jIC and |I| = 𝐼𝑠2 + 𝐼𝑐2

The operating time t can be computed by using the following expression for time-current characteristic.

𝑘
t = 𝐼𝑛 −1

The values of k and n for various characteristics are as follows:

Characteristic k n
(i) IDMT 0.14 0.02
(ii) Very inverse 13.50 1.00
(iii) Extremely Inverse 80.00 2.00
(iv) Definite-Time Any value based on design 0
The current derived from the Current Transformer (CT) is applied to the signal conditioner for electrical isolation of the
relay from the power system, conversion of current signal into proportional voltage signal and removal of high frequency
components from the signals using analog low-pass filter. The output of the signal conditioner is applied to the analog
interface which includes S/H circuit, analog multiplexer and A/D converter (ADC).
After quantization by the A/D convertor, along current (i.e., voltage proportional to current) is represented by discrete
values of the samples taken at specified instants of time.

The current in the form of discrete numbers is processed by a numerical filtering algorithm which is a part of the software.

The algorithm uses signal-processing technique to estimate the real and imaginary components of the fundamental
frequency current phasor.

The measured value of the current is compared with the pick-up value to decide whether there is a fault or not. If there is a
fault in any element of the power system, the relay sends a trip command to circuit breaker for isolating the faulty element.
Differential protection is based on current comparison. It makes use of the fact that
any internal fault in an electrical equipment would cause the current entering it, to
be different from that leaving it. The percentage differential protection is widely
used for the protection of electrical equipment against internal faults. The main
component of a percentage differential protection scheme is the percentage
differential relay. Percentage differential relay provides high sensitivity to light in
faults with high security (high restraint) for external faults and makes differential
protection scheme more stable.