Sections 2.1 PTT

Chapter 2
CALCULUS BY SULLIVAN
SECOND EDITION
SECTION 2.1 RATES OF CHANGE AND
THE DERIVATIVE: OBJECTIVES
Find equations for the tangent line and the normal line to
the graph of a function
Find the rate of change of a function
Find average velocity and instantaneous velocity
Find the derivative of a function at a number
TANGENT LINE (1 of 2)
DEFINITION Tangent Line
The tangent line to the graph of a function 𝑓 at a point 𝑃 =
(𝑐, 𝑓 𝑐 ) is the line containing the point 𝑃 whose slope is
𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑓(𝑐)
𝑚𝑡𝑎𝑛 = lim
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥 − 𝑐
provided the limit exists.
This limit occurs so frequently it is given the special notation
𝑓′(𝑐), read “𝑓 prime of 𝑐.”
𝑓′ 𝑐 = lim
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐
TANGENT LINE (2 of 2)
EQUATION OF TANGENT AND NORMAL
LINES
THEOREM Equation of a Tangent Line
If 𝑚𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝑓′(𝑐) exists, then an equation of the line tangent
to the graph of a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at the point 𝑃 =
(𝑐, 𝑓 𝑐 ) is
𝑦 − 𝑓 𝑐 = 𝑓′(𝑐)(𝑥 − 𝑐)
The line perpendicular to the tangent line at a point 𝑃 on
the graph of a function 𝑓 is called the normal line to the
graph of 𝑓 at 𝑃.
TANGENT LINE AND NORMAL LINE
EXAMPLE (1 of 3)
(a) Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 at
𝑐 = −3.
Solution: At 𝑐 = −3 the slope of the tangent line is
𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑓 −3 𝑥2 − 9 𝑥−3 𝑥+3
𝑓′(− 3) = lim = lim = lim = lim 𝑥 − 3 = −6
𝑥→−3 𝑥 − −3 𝑥→−3 𝑥 + 3 𝑥→−3 𝑥+3 𝑥→−3
(b) Use the result to find an equation of the tangent line when
𝑐 = −3.
Solution: 𝑓 −3 = 9 and the slope is −6.
𝑦 − 9 = −6(𝑥 − −3 )
𝑦 − 9 = −6𝑥 − 18
𝑦 = −6𝑥 − 9
EXAMPLE (2 of 3)
(c) Find an equation of the normal line to the graph of 𝑓 at
the point (−3,9).
Solution: Since the normal line is perpendicular to the
tangent line and the slope of the tangent line is −6, the
1
slope of the normal line is .
6
So, the equation of the normal line is
1
𝑦 − 9 = (𝑥 + 3)
6
1 19
𝑦 = 𝑥+
6 2
EXAMPLE (3 of 3)
AVERAGE AND INSTANTANEOUS RATE
OF CHANGE
𝑓 𝑥 −𝑓(𝑐)
Average rate of change over the interval from 𝑐 to 𝑥 is ,𝑥 ≠ 𝑐.
𝑥−𝑐
DEFINITION Instantaneous Rate of Change

The instantaneous rate of change of 𝑓 at 𝑐 is the limit as 𝑥 approaches
𝑐 of the average rate of change. Symbolically, the instantaneous rate
of change of 𝑓 at 𝑐 is
lim
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐
The expression “instantaneous rate of change” is often shortened to
rate of change.
FINDING RATE OF CHANGE EXAMPLE
(1 of 2)
Find the rate of change of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 at
𝑐 = 3.
Solution: 𝑓 3 = 32 − 7 ⋅ 3 = −12
The rate of change of 𝑓 at 𝑐 = 3 is
𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − ( − 12) 2 − 7𝑥 + 12
𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑓(3) 𝑥
𝑓 ′ 3 = lim = lim = lim
𝑥→3 𝑥 − 3 𝑥→3 𝑥 − 3 𝑥→3 𝑥 − 3
(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 3)
= lim = lim 𝑥 − 4 = −1
𝑥→3 𝑥 − 3 𝑥→3
FINDING RATE OF CHANGE EXAMPLE
(2 of 2)
Find the rate of change of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 at
any real number.
Solution: If 𝑐 is any real number, then 𝑓 𝑐 = 𝑐 2 − 7𝑐, and

the rate of change is
𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑓(𝑐) 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − (𝑐 2 − 7𝑐) 𝑥 2 − 𝑐 2 − 7(𝑥 − 𝑐)
𝑓′ 𝑐 = lim = lim = lim
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐
𝑥 − 𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑐 − 7(𝑥 − 𝑐) (𝑥 − 𝑐)(𝑥 + 𝑐 − 7)
= lim = lim = lim 𝑥 + 𝑐 − 7 = 2𝑐 − 7
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
APPLICATION OF RATE OF CHANGE
In a metabolic experiment, the mass 𝑀 of glucose decreases
according to the function
𝑀 𝑡 = 3.7 − 0.02𝑡 2
where 𝑀 is measured in grams (g) and 𝑡 is the time in hours (h). Find
the reaction rate 𝑀′(𝑡) at 𝑡 = 1 h.
Solution: The reaction rate of 𝑡 = 1 is 𝑀′(1).
𝑀 𝑡 − 𝑀(1) 3.7 − 0.02𝑡 2 − (3.7 − 0.02) −0.02𝑡 2 + 0.02
𝑀′ 1 = lim = lim = lim
𝑡→1 𝑡 − 1 𝑡→1 𝑡 − 1 𝑡→1 𝑡 − 1
(−0.02)(𝑡 − 1)(𝑡 + 1)
= lim = lim −0.02(𝑡 + 1) = −0.02 ⋅ 2 = −0.04
𝑡→1 𝑡 − 1 𝑡→1
The reaction rate at 𝑡 = 1 h is −0.04 g/h. That is, the mass 𝑀 of

glucose at 𝑡 = 1 h is decreasing at the rate of 0.04 g/h.
AVERAGE VELOCITY
DEFINITION Average Velocity

The distance 𝑠 from the origin at time 𝑡 is given by the
position function 𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑡). If at time 𝑡0 the object is at 𝑠0 =
𝑓 𝑡0 and at time 𝑡1 the object is at 𝑠1 = 𝑓 𝑡1 , then the
average rate of change of position with respect to time is
Δ𝑠 𝑓 𝑡1 − 𝑓(𝑡0 )
= 𝑡0 ≠ 𝑡1
Δ𝑡 𝑡1 − 𝑡0
AVERAGE VELOCITY EXAMPLE
If the function 𝑠 = 𝑓 𝑡 = 16𝑡 2 gives the distance 𝑠, in feet, for

an object and 𝑡 is the time in seconds for 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 7. Find the
average velocity of the object.
Solution:
Δ𝑠 𝑓(7) − 𝑓(0) 784−0
= = =112 ft/sec
Δ𝑡 7−0 7−0
INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY
If we find the average velocity over smaller and smaller intervals, we
get close to estimating how fast the object moves at one particular
instant of time.
DEFINITION Instantaneous Velocity
If 𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑡) is the position function of an object at time 𝑡, the
instantaneous velocity 𝑣 of the object at time 𝑡0 is defined as the limit
Δ𝑠
of the average velocity as Δ𝑡 approaches 0. That is,
Δ𝑡
Δ𝑠 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑓(𝑡0 )
𝑣 = lim = lim
Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡 𝑡→𝑡0 𝑡 − 𝑡0
We usually shorten “instantaneous velocity” and just use the word
“velocity.”
FINDING VELOCITY EXAMPLE (1 of 2)
Find the velocity 𝑣 of from the previous example where

𝑠 = 𝑓 𝑡 = 16𝑡 2 at:
(a) 𝑡0 = 1 s .
Use the definition of instantaneous velocity with
𝑓 𝑡 = 16𝑡 2 and 𝑡0 = 1
Δ𝑠 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑓(1) 16𝑡 2 − 16 16(𝑡 − 1)(𝑡 + 1)
𝑣= lim = lim = lim = lim
Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡 𝑡→1 𝑡−1 𝑡→1 𝑡 − 1 𝑡→1 𝑡−1
= lim 16(𝑡 + 1) = 16 2 = 32
𝑡→1
At 1s, the velocity is 32 ft/s.
FINDING VELOCITY EXAMPLE (2 of 2)
(b) at any time 𝑡0 .

𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑓(𝑡0 ) 16𝑡 2 − 16𝑡02 16(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )(𝑡 + 𝑡0 )
𝑣 = lim = lim = lim
𝑡→𝑡0 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑡→𝑡 0 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑡→𝑡0 𝑡 − 𝑡0
= 16 lim (𝑡 + 𝑡0 ) = 32𝑡0
𝑡→𝑡0
At 𝑡0 seconds, the velocity 32𝑡0 ft/s.

DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION AT A
NUMBER
DEFINITION Derivative of a Function at a Number
If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is a function and 𝑐 is in the domain of 𝑓, then
the derivative of 𝑓 at 𝑐, denoted by 𝑓 ′ 𝑐 , is the number
𝑓′ 𝑐 = lim
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥 − 𝑐
provided this limit exists.
FINDING THE DERIVATIVE OF A
FUNCTION AT A NUMBER EXAMPLE 1
Find the derivative of 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 4 at 𝑥 = 2. That
is, find 𝑓′(2).
Solution: Using the definition of the derivative, we have
2 − 2𝑥 − 4 − 4
𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑓(2) 3𝑥
𝑓 ′ 2 = lim = lim
𝑥→2 𝑥 − 2 𝑥→2 𝑥 − 2
(3𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 2)
= lim
𝑥→2 𝑥 − 2
= lim (3𝑥 + 4) = 10
𝑥→2
INTERPRETATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE
• Geometric interpretation: If 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 , the derivative

𝑓′(𝑐) is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of 𝑓 at
the point (𝑐, 𝑓 𝑐 ).
• Rate of change of a function interpretation: If 𝑦 =
𝑓 𝑥 , the derivative 𝑓′(𝑐) is the rate of change of 𝑓 at 𝑐.
• Physical interpretation: If the signed distance 𝑠 from
the origin at time 𝑡 of an object in rectilinear motion is
given by the position function 𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑡), the derivative
𝑓′(𝑡0 ) is the velocity of the object at time 𝑡0 .
FINDING AN EQUATION OF A TANGENT
LINE EXAMPLE
Find the equation of the tangent line to 𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥 at 𝑥 = 4.
Solution: To find the slope, we need to find 𝑓′(4) using the definition.
𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑓(4) 4𝑥 − 4 ( 4𝑥 − 4)( 4𝑥 + 4)
𝑓′ 4 = lim = lim = lim
𝑥→4 𝑥 − 4 𝑥→4 𝑥 − 4 𝑥→4 (𝑥 − 4)( 4𝑥 + 4)
4𝑥 − 16 4(𝑥 − 4) 1 4
= lim = lim = lim =
𝑥→4 (𝑥 − 4)( 4𝑥 + 4) 𝑥→4 (𝑥 − 4)( 4𝑥 + 4) 𝑥→4 4𝑥 + 4 2
Since 𝑓 4 = 4, the equation of the line using point-slope form is

1
𝑦−4= 𝑥−4
2
1
𝑦 = 𝑥+2
2

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Chapter 2

DEFINITION Instantaneous Rate of Change

Solution: If 𝑐 is any real number, then 𝑓 𝑐 = 𝑐 2 − 7𝑐, and

The reaction rate at 𝑡 = 1 h is −0.04 g/h. That is, the mass 𝑀 of

DEFINITION Average Velocity

If the function 𝑠 = 𝑓 𝑡 = 16𝑡 2 gives the distance 𝑠, in feet, for

Find the velocity 𝑣 of from the previous example where

(b) at any time 𝑡0 .

At 𝑡0 seconds, the velocity 32𝑡0 ft/s.

• Geometric interpretation: If 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 , the derivative

Since 𝑓 4 = 4, the equation of the line using point-slope form is

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