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Foundation ADV Plus 2023 (Phy & Chem)

* The body is uniformly accelerated from rest at point P to point Q * Then its acceleration is reversed keeping the magnitude same * Let the acceleration be 'a' both ways * Distance travelled under uniform acceleration 'a' from rest is given by s = (1/2)at^2 * From P to Q: s = (1/2)a(t1)^2 * From Q to R: s = (1/2)a(t2)^2 * But the acceleration is in opposite direction from Q to R * So the distances must be equal for the body to come to rest at R * Equating the distances: (1/2)a(t1)^

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

83 views251 pages

Foundation ADV Plus 2023 (Phy & Chem)

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Paneer Mante

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Dear student,

Thanks and congratulations for choosing Bakliwal Tutorials to be your trainer. Bakliwal
Tutorial's approach, culture, extremely competent and committed faculty team of IITians, well
designed seminars, concept of merit wise batches, JEE like tests with detailed analysis and
improved JEE focused material, will deﬁnitely help you in attaining your goal.

However, there is no substitute for all the hard work that you and you alone must put in. Being
over dependent on the institute will only dim your chances of making it to the best colleges.
Good students take responsibility of their lives and understand that institute can only act as a
guide and support.

Do not hesitate to study topics by yourselves, before they are even covered in the class. I
personally believe that learning a topic for the 1st time directly from a teacher, who because of
time constraints cannot give you ample time for thinking and reﬂecting, can never bring the same
pleasure and insight as one can get by reading and understanding at one's own pace. Now when
the topic is already studied, thought over and worked upon once, the lecture then results in doubt
clariﬁcation, better comprehension and deeper understanding for the open and receptive student.

When you read for your learning cum pleasure, you can use the following strategies, which shall
help you organize and remember the information.

 Study in small blocks of time: During these blocks, close all channels of communication
and study as if you are writing a test.
 Focus on main points: Put main ideas and concepts in your own words.
 Make full use of your textbook: Don't be afraid to write in your books—you have paid for
them! Write in the margins. Be brief, but clear.
 First read, then underline and/or highlight: Reading a section ﬁrst will help you see key
ideas and avoid underlining too much.
 Review what you read: Immediately after you read it; within a few days; before the test,
don't forget to review. Also remember that reviewing is not just skimming through the
chapter, but recalling key ideas from memory. Read a heading, and then ask yourself what
subheadings and important concepts are contained within before looking them up.

Also understand that learning occurs through pictures and associations. For example, take a
minute to answer the following question: what were you wearing day before yesterday in the
evening?
First, you may have accessed a picture of yourself immediately and easily remembered what you
were wearing. Or you might have remembered where you were and that triggered your memory.
Perhaps you thought of what you were doing whether you had any special reason to wear a
certain kind of clothing. Maybe you remembered how you felt wearing the clothing. All of these
things are known as associations. One thing reminded you of another. They were paired up in
your brain with something else and voila – you remembered when you made the “connection” or
“association”. If we can learn to creatively use the technique of association, we can remember
huge chunks of information.

Finally, if you feel that all these are techniques, let me use a term coined by me, READ
EMPATHETICALLY. Many authors talk about listening empathetically, where you do not
follow any technique, but you genuinely listen to understand. Similarly, read empathetically,
with a sincere intent to understand what the author wants to say.

The book that you carry in your hand is JEE focused and assumes that you have some amount of
knowledge of the topic already. If you want to read topics from the scratch and detail, you may
use other books suggested by teachers at Bakliwal Tutorials.

I hope and wish that this book helps you in achieving your target of getting a seat in your dream
college.

Best Wishes,
Vaibhav Bakliwal
Welcome to the BT family!! Yes, BT is not just an institute, but a family, where all students and
teachers are always willing to help each other grow and enjoy. So as a new member to our family try
solving this simple but interesting question about BT and Btians.

1) Generally on what date is Round 1 of Whizz-kid (BT's Annual Puzzle Competition) held every year?
2) Can you suggest any 1 set of names of siblings, who studied in BT & cleared JEE Advanced?
3) What was VB sir's percentile in the Math section of CAT 2004?
4) How many times did BT secure Pune topper from 2010-2016 in JEE advanced?
5) BT completes how many years of service to students till March 2017?
6) VB sir in his early years (and theirs as well) of playing a particular game has defeated Abhijit Kunte,
Abhijit Gupta, Koneru Humpy. Which game are we referring to?
7) What maximum cash prize can be won by a BT student at the annual felicitation function?
8) As per student's testimonials, what are the popular full forms of BT?
9) Which BT student secured AIR-1 in NDA exam?
10) A student scored 193/200 in MT-CET 2016. He belonged to which center of BT?
11) Name a few BT students who have later studied at IIM Ahmedabad?
12) These lines have been taken from the testimonial of which student?
These 2 yrs in BT were, quite simply, AWESOME. I studied the hardest I had ever in my life, and I also
did the most to enjoy myself these two years. And if I could turn back time, I'd do it again, no doubt.
13) What has been the best AIR BT has produced in IIT-JEE/JEE Advanced so far and which student got it?
14) Which BT student won the President's Gold medal at IIT(B) by securing the highest grade point across
all departments, when she passed out?
15) Omkar Thakoor, Sahil Agarwal, Karthik Mahesh, T.Akshay did well in which Olympiad?
16) Tushar Baranwal, Kalpesh Krishna, Akshay Sehgal, Shibani Santurkar, Gauri Deshmukh, Akshay
Ramnath topped which same exam?
17) Who was the 1st ever student to take admission in BT? Did he clear JEE?
18) If VB=24, CM=16, then BT=? (Hint: What is digit sum for BT's IVR number?)
19) Which BT student created national record in one handed Rubix cube?
20) Match the following:
BT Students Company Name
a)Omkar Thakoor, Rohan Prinja1) Boston Consultancy Group b)R.Sundararajan,
Amey Gadae2) Google
c)Pranav Vaish3) Samsung Korea d)Akshay Sehgal, Bhavik R, Varun
Bhave4) Oracle US e)Anuj Gupta, Shishir Mathur5) Mckinsey f)Aniket
Damale6) Microsoft
Answer

1) On 14th October VB Sir's Birthday

2) Utsav-Utkarsh Bansal; Sahil-Sushant Agarwal; Sukanya-Ankit Patil; Waseem-Waqar

Yunis; Arnab-Arpan Paul; Amit-Sumit Yadav; Yash-Jay Wagh, Samarth-Sarthak Tripathi,

Srijan-Soumil Maulik etc.

3) 99.99

4) 6 times

5) 12 glorious years

6) Chess

7) Rs. 10,00,000 for AIR 1 in JEE Advanced

8) BT = Brilliant Teachers, BT = Blissful Times

9) Rahul Joshi

10) Solapur

11) Hemanshu Pandey, Sumit Kumar Yadav, Yugal Tiwari, Mahesh Sobale

12) Rohan Prinja

13) AIR 2 in JEE Advanced 2017 by Akshat Chugh

14) Sukanya Patil

15) All of them cleared the 2nd round of Physics Olympiad.

16) 12th CBSE Boards

17) Niranjan Parab, passed out from IIT(B). Currently in US, pursuing Phd.

18) 22

19) Pranav Manerikar

20) a-3, b-6, c-2, d-1, e-4, f-5

INDEX
PHYSICS

CHAPTER TOPIC PAGE NO.

1 REVISION 1 to 29
2 Optics 30 to 66
3 Magnetism 67 to 91
4 EMI 92 to 104
5 Derivatives 105 to 114
6 Heat and Thermodynamics 115 to 130

CHEMISTRY
1 Chemical Bonding 132 to 169
2 Nomenclature Of Organic Compounds 170 to 187
3 Somerism 188 to 217
4 Types of Reactions 218 to 245
Foundation Advanced Plus Course Booklet Bakliwal Tutorials - IIT

PHYSICS
REVISION (Lecture-1&2)
Q.1 speeds of two identical cars are u and 4u at a specific instant. They are uniformly retarded. What
is the ratio of the respective distances at which the two cars are stopped from that instant ?..

(a) 1:16 (b) 1:18 (c) 1:4 (d) 1:1

Sol : -A

For A, u1 = u, v=0, s=s1, a-ve

For 𝐵, 𝑢2 = 4𝑢, 𝑣 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 = 𝑠2, 𝑎 − 𝑣𝑒

Using v2=u2 + 2as

For A 0 =u2 -2as1 = u2 -2as1

For B 0= 16 u2 – 2as2 = 16 u2 – 2as2

16 𝑠2
= = 𝑠2 = 16𝑠1
1 𝑠1

⇒ 𝑠1 ∶ 𝑠2 = 1 ∶ 16

Q.2 A ball is dropped downwards . After 1 second another ball is dropped downwards from the same
point. What is the distance between them after 3 second ?.
(a) 25m (b) 20m (c) 50m (d) 9.8m

Sol : -A
After 3 second, the first ball will cover a distance 𝑠1 , where
1 1
𝑠1 = 𝑔𝑡 2 = × 10 × 9 = 45 𝑚
2 2

And the second ball will travel for t = 2 s,

1
𝑠2 = × 10 × 4 = 20 𝑚
2

𝑠1 − 𝑠2 = 45 − 20 = 25 𝑚

Q.3 A body is uniformly accelerated from it’s rest position at P till it reaches a point Q. Now its
acceleration is suddenly reversed keeping the magnitude same. The body comes to rest at point R.
which of the following is true?..

(a) point R coincides with point P (b) the distance PQ =QR

(c) PQ>QR (d) PQ<QR

In the journey from P to Q, its velocity increases form 0 to v, and for the journey from Q to R its
velocity decreases from v to 0 as it is a retarded motion. But as the magnitude of acceleration and
retardation are the same, it will cover the same distance PQ = QR

Q.4 A man slides freely down a frictionless inclined plane while his bag falls down vertically from
the same height .the final speeds of the man (𝑣𝑀 ) and the bag (𝑣𝐵 ) should be such that

(a) VM< VB (b) VM = VB

(c) they depend on the masses (d) VM> VB

sol:- B

The velocity acquired by the man, when moving from B to A is calculated by using

𝑉 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 where𝑎 = 𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢 = 0 𝑉𝑀2 = 0 + 2 ( 𝑔 sin 𝜃) × 𝑙 = 2𝑔 (sin 𝜃) × 𝑙

ℎ
𝑉𝑀2 = 2𝑔 × × 𝑙 = 2𝑔ℎ
𝑙

𝑉𝑀 = √2𝑔ℎ

And if the bag falls vertically from B to C, then the velocity

𝑉𝐵 = √2𝑔ℎ

Thus, 𝑉𝑀 = 𝑉𝐵

Q.5 Two bodies A (of mass 1 kg ) and B (of mass 3 kg ) are dropped form heights of 16 m and 25 m
. respectively. What is the ratio of the times taken by them to reach the ground?
5 12 5 4
(a) 12 (b) 5
(c) 4 (d) 5

Sol :-D

For a freely falling body.

1 1
ℎ = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 = 𝑔𝑡 2 ( ∴ 𝑢 = 0)
2 2

𝑡1 ℎ1 16 4
= √ = √ =
𝑡2 ℎ1 25 5

( t does not depend upon the mass.)

Q.6 A body at rest is falling freely under gravity. The distance travelled by the body in the first 3 s is
equal to the distance travelled by same body in the nth second. What is the value of n ?..

(a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 5 (d) 6

Sol : - C

The body starts from rest.

Distance travelled in the first 3 s

1 9
𝑠1 = × 𝑔 × 32 = 𝑔
2 2

And the distance travelled by the body in the nth second,

𝑔 𝑔
𝑠2 = 0 + (2𝑛 − 1) = (2𝑛 − 1)
2 2

9 𝑔
∴ 𝑠1 = 𝑠2 ∴ 2 𝑔 = 2
(2𝑛 − 1)

9 = 2𝑛 − 1 ∴ 2𝑛 = 10 ∴𝑛=5

Q.7 From the top of a building two balls A and B are thrown in such a way that A is thrown upwards
with a velocity u and B downwards with a velocity u (both vertically). If 𝑉𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝐵 are the their
respective velocities on reaching the ground, then

(a) 𝑉𝐴 > 𝑉𝐵 (b) 𝑉𝐵 > 𝑉𝐴

(C) their velocities depend upon their masses (d) 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵

Sol :- D

The first ball A, thrown with a velocity u, reaches the maximum height, where its velocity = 0.
But during its downward journey, when it comes to the top of the building, it has the velocity u
and when it reaches the ground 𝑉𝐴2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑔ℎ. Similarly for the ball B, 𝑉𝐵2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑔ℎ .
thus 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵 .

1 1 √2
(a) (√2 − 1 (b) ( (c)2 (d)
√2−1) 1

Sol : - B
1
For the distance AB, 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑔𝑡 2

1
∴ 𝑦 = 2 𝑔𝑡12 ∴ 2𝑦 = 𝑔𝑡12 …………………(1)

And for the distance AC,

1
2𝑦 = 2 𝑔 ( 𝑡1 + 𝑡2 )2 ………………(2)

1
From (1) and (2) , ∴ 𝑔𝑡12 = 2 𝑔( 𝑡1 + 𝑡2 )2

∴ 2𝑡12 = ( 𝑡1 + 𝑡2 )2 ∴ √2𝑡1 = 𝑡1 + 𝑡2

∴ √2𝑡1 − 𝑡1 = 𝑡2 ∴ 𝑡1 (√2 − 1) = 𝑡2

𝑡1 1
∴ =
𝑡2 (√2 − 1)

Q.9 The water drops fall at regular intervals from a tap 5m above the ground. The third drop is
leaving the tap at an instant when the first drop touches the ground. How far above the ground is the
second drop at that instant?

(a) 5.00m (b) 1.25m (c) 3.75m (d) 2.50m

Sol:- C

But u = 0, t= 2t and g=10

1
∴5= × 10 × (2𝑡)2
2
1 1
∴ 4𝑡 2 = 1 ∴ 𝑡2 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑠
4 2

And in this time, the second drop will cover a distance,

1 1 1 5
𝑠1 = 𝑔𝑡 2 = × 10 × = 𝑚
2 2 4 4
The height of the second drop from the ground

5 15
=5− = 𝑚 = 3.75 𝑚
4 4

Q.10 Large number of balls are thrown in air vertically upwards with the same velocity one after the
other, at an interval of 2 s. with what speed the balls should be thrown, so that more than two
balls are in the air at any instant ?

(a) 9.8 m/s (b) 19.6 m/s (c) less than 19.6 m/s (d) more than 19.6 m/s

Sol :- D
2𝑢
For a ball thrown vertically upwards, time of flight 𝑇 = , where u is the velocity with which
𝑔
the ball is projected upwards. Time interval between two balls 𝑡 = 2𝑠 since more than two balls
remain in air at any instant , the time of flight of the first ball must be more than 2𝑡 = 2 × 2 =
2𝑢
4𝑠, 𝑇 > 4𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑔
> 4 𝑜𝑟 𝑢 > 2𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑢 > 2 × 9.8 𝑜𝑟 𝑢 > 19.6 𝑚/𝑠

Q.11 A particle is dropped vertically from rest, from a certain height. The time taken by it to fall
through successive distances of 1m each will then be

(a) all equal , being equal to √2/𝑔 second

1 1 1 1
(b) in the ratio of the reciprocal of the square roots of integers, that is, , , , , … ….
√1 √2 √3 √4

√1 , (√2 − √1 ), (√3 − √2 ), (√4 − √3), . . . ..

(d) in the ratio of the square roots of the integers 1, 2, 3, …….

The time taken by the particle to cover a distance h metre is given by

1 2ℎ 2ℎ
ℎ = 𝑔𝑡12 ∴ 𝑡12 = ∴ 𝑡1 = √
2 𝑔 𝑔
2(ℎ+1)
and the time taken by the particle to cover a distance of (h +1) metre is given by 𝑡2 = √
𝑔

2(ℎ + 1) 2ℎ
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = √ − √
𝑔 𝑔

2
= √ [√ℎ + 1 − √ℎ]
𝑔
For ℎ = 0, 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ∝ √1
For ℎ = 1, 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ∝ √2 − √1
For ℎ = 2, 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ∝ √3 − √2
Thus the times taken will be in the ratio of the difference in the square roots of the integers.
i.e.√1 , (√2 − √1) , (√3 − √2) , (√4 − √3) , ….

Q.12 The ratios of the distances travelled by a freely falling body, starting from rest, in successive
intervals of time, are

(a) 1 : 2 : 3 : 4 ….. (b) 1: 3 : 5 : 7 …….

(c) 2 : 4 : 6 : 8 ……. (d) 1: 4 : 7 : 10 ……

Sol : - B

For a freely falling body a= g and the distance travelled in the nth second is
𝑔
𝑠𝑛 = (2𝑛 − 1)(∴ 𝑢 = 0)
𝑛
𝑔 𝑔
For the first second, 𝑠1 = (2 − 1) =
2 2

𝑔 3𝑔
For 𝑛 = 2 , 𝑠2 = (4 − 1) =
2 2

𝑔 5𝑔
For 𝑛 = 3 , 𝑠3 = (6 − 1) =
2 2

𝑔 3𝑔 5𝑔 7𝑔
Thus = 𝑠1 ∶ 𝑠2 ∶ 𝑠3 ∶ 𝑠4 … . = 2
∶ 2
∶ 2
∶ 2

= 1 ∶ 3 ∶ 5 ∶ 7 ......

Q.13 A 120m long train is moving in a direction with a speed of 20 m/s. A 130 m long train B moving
with a speed of 30 m/s in the opposite direction crosses the train in a time of

(a) 5 s (b) 15 s (c) 20 s (d) 25 s

Relative velocity of a B w.r.t. A

= 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = 30 − (−20) = 50𝑚/𝑠

And the train has to travel a total distance of 120m +130m = 250m

Time taken by B to cross the train A is

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 250𝑚
𝑡= = = 5𝑠
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 50𝑚/𝑠

Q.14 A river is flowing at the rate of 2km/h. A boatman who can row the boat at a speed of 4km/h in
still water, goes a distance of 2 km upstream and then comes back. What is the time taken by him
to complete his journey ?

(a) 90 minute (b)80 minute (c) 70 minute (d) 60 minute

Sol :- B

When he travels in the direction of the river flow, his relative speed is 6 km/hour and in the
opposite direction it is 2km/hour.

2𝑘𝑚 2𝑘𝑚
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = +
6𝑘𝑚/ℎ 2𝑘𝑚/ℎ

4
= ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 = 80 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒
3

Q.15 A thief is driving a jeep which is moving on a straight road with a speed of 72km/hour. Find
speed of police van , 720m behind the jeep, so that it can overtake the jeep in one minute ? ..

(a) 24 m/s (b) 27 m/s (c) 32 m/s (d) 35 m/s

Sol :- C
𝑘𝑚 1000
Speed of jeep 𝑉1 = 72 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 = 72 × 3600 = 20𝑚/𝑠

Let 𝑉𝑃 be the velocity of police van. The relative velocity of the police van w.r.t. the jeep

= (𝑉𝑃 − 20)𝑚/𝑠

Distance between the two vehicles s = 720 m and t=60s

𝑉𝑝 − 20 = 12 ∴ 𝑉𝑝 = 32 𝑚/𝑠

Q.16 Acceleration – time graph of a body is shown .which one of the following graphs gives the
corresponding velocity – time graph of the same body ?..

Sol :- 4

From the acceleration time graph we find that in the first part a = constant
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑎= 𝑑𝑡
=constant or velocity increases continuously But when a=0, 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑡
=0

V = constant The velocity time graph will be as follows:

This is shown in figure (4).

Q. 17 A block of mass 15 kg is held by a sting on a smooth inclined plane of inclination 600. What is
the tension T in the string? (g=10 m/s2 )

(a) 55 N (b) 60 N

Sol :- C

The downward component along the incline mg sin 𝜃 of the weight

= Tension T in the string

𝑇 = 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 = 15 × 10 × sin 300 = 75 𝑁

Q.18 A 10 kg stone is suspended by rope of breaking strength 30 kg wt. what is the minimum time in
which the stone can be raised through a height 10 m, if the stone is at rest ? (g=10m/s2)

2
(a) 1.0 second (b) 2.0 second (c) √3 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 (d) 0.5 second

Sol :- A

For min. time we require max acceleration

𝑇 − 𝑚𝑔
𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑚
300 − 100
=
10

20 𝑚/𝑠 2

1
10 = × 20 × 𝑡 2
2

𝑡 2 = 1𝑠

Q.19 A horizontal force 𝐹⃗ acts on a block of mass m kept on a smooth inclined plane of inclination 𝜃 ,
as shown in the figure. What is the normal reaction N on the block?

(a) 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 − 𝐹 sin 𝜃 (b) 𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

(c) 𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝐹 cos 𝜃 (b) 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 + 𝐹 sin 𝜃

Sol :- B

The weight mg is resolved into two components mg sin 𝜃 and mg cos 𝜃as shown in the figure.
Similarly, the force F has components F cos 𝜃along the plane and F sin 𝜃 perpendicular to the
plane. From the figure,

The normal reaction 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 + 𝐹 sin 𝜃

Q. 20 A balloon with mass ‘m’ is descending down with an acceleration ‘a’ (where a <g ) . How much
mass should be removed from it so that it starts moving up with an acceleration ‘a’?
2𝑚𝑎 2𝑚𝑎 𝑚𝑎 𝑚𝑎
(a) 𝑔+𝑎 (b) 𝑔−𝑎 (c)𝑔+𝑎 (d) 𝑔−𝑎

Sol :- A
Let F be the upthrust of air. When the balloon is descending, its equation of motion is given by
𝑚𝑔 – 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 ……………(1)

Let 𝑚′ be the mass removed, so that the balloon starts moving upwards with an acceleration (a), then for
the upward motion, 𝐹 − (𝑚 − 𝑚′ ) 𝑔 = (𝑚 − 𝑚′ )𝑎
∴ 𝐹 − 𝑚𝑔 + 𝑚′ 𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎 − 𝑚′ 𝑎 ………………….(2)

Adding (1) and (2) , we get 𝑚’𝑔 = 2𝑚𝑎 – 𝑚’𝑎

𝑚’(𝑔 + 𝑎) = 2𝑚𝑎

2𝑚𝑎
𝑚′ =
𝑔+𝑎

Q.21 A simple pendulum is set oscillating in a trolley which is moving with an acceleration
‘a’ on a horizontal plane. Then the thread of the pendulum in the equilibrium position makes an angle
with the vertical equal to
𝑎
(a) tan−1 ( )in the forward direction
𝑔

This is a non – inertial frame.

The trolley is moving towards right with an acceleration a. Hence a force ‘ma’ acts on the bob of the
pendulum in the backward direction (towards left). For the equilibrium of the bob,
𝑇 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 cos 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑇 sin 𝜃 𝑚𝑎 𝑎
= tan 𝜃 = =
𝑇 cos 𝜃 𝑚𝑔 𝑔
−1
𝑎
𝜃 = tan ( )
𝑔

Q.22 Two bodies A and B of masses 10kg and 15kg respectively kept on a smooth horizontal surface
are tied to the ends of a light string. If T represents the tension in the string when a horizontal
force F= 500 N is applied to A as shown in fig. (1) and T’ be the tension in the string when it is
applied to B (Fig. 2), then which of the following is true?

(𝐴)𝑇 = 𝑇’ = 500𝑁 (𝐵) 𝑇 = 𝑇’ = 250 𝑁

(𝐶)𝑇 = 200 𝑁, 𝑇’ = 300 𝑁 (𝐷) 𝑇 = 300 𝑁, 𝑇’ = 200 𝑁

Sol :-D
in both cases, F=500 N and Total mass 25kg
𝐹
𝑎= = 20 𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑚

But in fig. (1) 500 − 𝑇 = 𝑚𝑎 ∴ 𝑇 = 500 – 𝑚𝑎

Q23. Two blocks 𝑀1 = 5 𝑔 and 𝑚2 = 10 𝑔 are hung vertically over a light frictionless pulley as
shown in the figure. What is the acceleration of the masses when left free?

𝑔 𝑔 𝑔
(a) (b) (c) g (d)
3 2 5
(where g is acceleration due to gravity)
Sol : -A

For the system of the two masses, 𝑚2 > 𝑚1 Hence𝑚2 moves downwards and 𝑚1 moves upwards. Their
common acceleration is given by
(𝑚2 − 𝑚1 )𝑔
𝑎=
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
(10 − 5)𝑔 5𝑔 𝑔
= = =
(10 + 5) 15 3

Q.24 Two masses 𝑀1 and 𝑀2 are accelerated uniformly on a frictionless surface as shown in the figure.
𝑇
The ratio of the tensions 𝑇1 is
2

𝑀 𝑀 (𝑀1 +𝑀2 ) 𝑀1
(a)𝑀1 (b) 𝑀2 (c) (d) (𝑀
2 1 𝑀2 1 +𝑀2 )
Sol:- D
Let a be the common acceleration.
For the mass 𝑀1 , 𝑇1 = 𝑀1 𝑎 …(1)
𝑀1
∴ 𝑎=
𝑇1
For the mass 𝑀2 , 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 𝑀2 𝑎 …(2)
𝑇 𝑀
∴ 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 𝑀2 𝑀1 𝑇2 = 𝑇1 + 𝑇1 [𝑀2 ]
1 1

Q.25 The pulleys and string shown in the figure are smooth and of negligible mass. For the system to
remain in equilibrium, the angle 𝜃 should be

(A) 600 (B) 450 (C) 300 (D) 00

Sol:- B

For the equilibrium of masses m and m, the tension

𝑇 = 𝑚𝑔 …(1)
For the equilibrium of mass of √2 𝑚, 2𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
√2 𝑚𝑔 …(2)
√2𝑚𝑔 √2𝑚𝑔 1
∴ cos 𝜃 = = =
2𝑇 2𝑚𝑔 √2
°
∴ 𝜃 = 45
Q.26 Three blocks of masses m, 3m and 5m are connected by massless strings and pulled by a force F
on a frictionless surface as shown in the figure below. The tension 𝑇1 in the first string is 16 N.

If the point of application of F is changed as given below

The value of 𝑇1′ and 𝑇2′ shall be

(A)16 N, 10 N (B) 10 N, 16 N (C) 2 𝑁, 8 𝑁 (D) 10 N, 6 N
Sol:-C
The common acceleration of the system is given by
𝐹 5
𝑎= =
𝑚 + 3𝑚 + 5𝑚 9𝑚
∴ 𝐹 = 9𝑚𝑎 ……(1)
and𝑇1 = (3𝑚 + 5𝑚)𝑎 = 8𝑚𝑎 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑇1 = 16𝑁 (𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛)
16=8ma
2
=𝑚
from (1), F = 9ma =18 N

Q.27 A block A of mass 7 kg is placed on a frictionless table. A thread tied to it passes over a
frictionless pulley and carries a body B mass 3 kg at the other end. The acceleration of the system
is (Given: 𝑔 = 10 𝑚/𝑠 2

(a)30 𝑚/𝑠 2 (b) 3𝑚/𝑠 2 (c)100𝑚/𝑠 2 (d) 10𝑚/𝑠 2

Sol:- B

Let T be the tension in the thread, passing over the frictionless pulley. Both masses move with the same
acceleration (a).
For the body B, 𝑚2 𝑔 − 𝑇 = 𝑚2 × 𝑎 ………………(1)
And for the body A, T = 𝑚1 𝑎 …………………..(2)
Adding (1) and (2) , we get 𝑚2 𝑔 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ) 𝑎
𝑚2 𝑔 3 × 10
∴𝑎= ∴𝑎= = 3 𝑚/𝑠 2
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ) 3+7

Q.28 A shell of mass 4 kg initially at rest explodes into three fragments. Two of the fragments, each of
mass 1 kg are found to move with a speed of 2 m/s each in mutually perpendicular directions. What is the
total energy (in joule) released in the explosion?
(a)3 J (b) 4 J (c) 5 J (d)6 J
Sol:- D
Linear momentum p = mv and 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 1𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚3 = 2𝑘𝑔
For the two fragments, 𝑝1 = 𝑝2 = 1 × 2 = 2𝑘𝑔 𝑚/𝑠
But ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑝1 ⊥ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑝2
∴ 𝑝 = √𝑝12 + 𝑝22 = √4 + 4 = 2√2𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠
We have to first find 𝑝3 .
Since initially the shell was at rest, initial momentum = 0 and by the principle of conservation of
momentum 𝑝 + 𝑝3 = 0 ∴ 𝑃3 = −𝑝 = −2√2 𝑘𝑔 𝑚/𝑠
But 𝑝3 = 𝑚3 𝑣 ∴ −2√2 = 2 × 𝑣 ∴ 𝑣 = −√2 𝑚/𝑠
Total energy released

Q.29 If 𝑊1 , and 𝑊2 represent the work done in moving a particle from A to B along 3 different paths, 1,
2 and 3 (as shown in the figure) in the gravitational field of a point mass m. then

(a)𝑊1 > 𝑊2 > 𝑊3 (b) 𝑊1 < 𝑊2 < 𝑊3

(c) 𝑊1 = 𝑊2 = 𝑊3 (d) 𝑊1 > 𝑊2 < 𝑊3
Sol :-C
The gravitational force is a conservation force and in a conservative force field, the work is independent
of the path.
∴ 𝑊1 = 𝑊2 = 𝑊3

Q.30 A body of mass 10 kg is dropped to the ground from a height of 10 metre. The work done by the
gravitational force is (𝑔 = 9.8 𝑚𝑠 −2 )

(a) -490 J (b) – 980 J (C) +490 J (D) +980 J

Sol:- D
Work done by the gravitational force is given by
W = mgh = loss in P.E. = 10 × 9.8 × 10 = 980𝐽

Q.31 Two small particles of equal masses start moving in opposite directions from a point A in a
horizontal circular orbit. Their tangential velocities are v and 2v, respectively, as shown in the figure.

Between the collisions, the particles move with constant speeds. After making how many elastic
collisions, other than that at A, these two particles will again reach the point A?

(a)4 (b)3 (c)2 (d) 1

Sol:-B
In an elastic collision, when the colliding bodies have equal
masses ,then after the collision, they exchange their velocities.

In the case, the particle P has a velocity V it moves in the anticlockwise direction,
While the particle Q moves with the velocity 2v In the clockwise direction.
∵ 𝑣𝑄 = 2𝑣𝑃
∴ When they collide elastically at B,P cover a distance
2𝜋𝑟 4𝜋𝑟
Of 3 and Q covers a distance of 3
( Total distance = Circumference = 2𝜋𝑟)

As P and Q have equal masses, they exchange their velocities after collision at B i.e. P will

Start moving with velocity 2𝑣 in the clockwise direction and Q will move with a velocity 𝑣

In the anticlockwise direction and suffer a second collision at C. At C, again their velocity are

Exchanged i.e. P moves with a velocity ( anticlockwise ) and Q moves with a velocity 2v
clockwiseAnd again they collide at A. Thus P and Q will again reach the point A, after two
collisions.

Q.32 Water is falling on the blades of a turbine at the rate of 100 kg/s from a reservoir at a height of
100 m. what is the power transferred the turbine by the striking water? (𝑔 = 10 𝑚/𝑠 2 )

(a)100 W (B) 10 kW (c)100 kW (d) 20 kW

Sol:- C
𝑊 𝑚𝑔ℎ
Power = 𝑡 = 𝑡
100×10×100
= 1
= 105 𝑊 = 100 𝑘𝑊

Q.33 A body is being raised to a height h from the surface of the earth. What is the sign of work done
by the
(i)applied force and (ii)the gravitational force?

(a)Positive, negative (b) Negative, Negative

(c)Positive, Positive (d) Negative, Positive

Sol:- A
Work done by a force = 𝐹⃗ . 𝑆⃗ = 𝐹𝑠 cos 𝜃
(i) The body moves in the direction of the applied force.
∴ The gravitational force acts downwards and the body
Is moving upwards.
∴ 𝜃 = 180° and𝑊 = 𝐹𝑠 cos 180° = −𝐹𝑠
∴ 𝑊is negative

Q.34 A light string passed over a frictionless pulley. To one of its ends a mass of 6 kg is attached and
to its other end a mass of 10 kg is attached as shown in the figure below. the tension in the thread
will be

(a) 24.5 N (b)2.45 N (c)79 N (d)73.5 N

Sol:- D
10𝑔 − 6𝑔
𝑎=
10 + 6
4𝑔 𝑔
= =
16 4
For block B
10𝑔 – 𝑇 = 10𝑎
= 𝑇 = 10(𝑔 − 𝑎)
𝑔
10 (𝑔 − )
4
30𝑔
𝑇= = 73.5 𝑁
4

Q.35 Three blocks with masses m, 2m and 3m are connected by strings, as shown in the figure. After
an upward force F is applied on block m, the masses move upward at constant speed v. what is
the net force on the block of mass 2 m? (g is the acceleration due to gravity)

(a)Zero (b) 2 mg (c)3 mg (d) 6 mg

Sol:- A
Net force on block of 2m is zero because it is moving with constant velocity.

Q.36 The law of conservation of linear momentum is a logical consequence of Newton’s

(a)First law of motion (b) Second law of motion
(c)Third law of motion (d) All the three laws

Sol:- B

Q. 37 tension on in both strings if system is in equal

𝑚𝑔 2𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔
(a) (b) (c) (d)
cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃 2 cos 𝜃 2sin 𝜃

Sol: (c )

Q. 38 A massive rope of mass 10 kg and length 2m suspended from a ceiling point A is 0.5 m above its
lower end . find tension in the rope at A.

(a) 100 N (b) 50 N

Solution: [C]

Mass pen unit length = 5 kg/m

Mass of length 0.5 m = 2.5 kg

Tension at A = weight of 0.5 m rope 25 N

Q. 39 A car accelerates on a horizontal road due to the force exerted by

(a) The engine of the car (b) The driver of the car

Ans : (d) conceptual

Q.40 A body of weight w1 is suspended from the ceiling of a room through a chain of weight w2. The
ceiling pulls the chain by a force
w1 + w2
(a)w1 (b) w2 (c)w1 + w2 (d) 2

And: (c) conceptual.

REVISION
Lecture -3&4
Q.1 Arrange in order of power dissipated in the given circuits, if the same current is passing through

All circuits and each resistor is ′𝑟 ′ :

(a) 𝑃2 > 𝑃3 > 𝑃4 > 𝑃1 (b) 𝑃3 > 𝑃2 > 𝑃4 > 𝑃1

(c) 𝑃4 > 𝑃3 > 𝑃2 > 𝑃1 (d) ) 𝑃1 > 2 > 𝑃3 > 𝑃4

Sol :-A

Calculate the effective resistance in each case and then calculate the power using the formula,
𝑟 𝑟
𝑃 = 𝐼 2 𝑅. As I is the same in all cases, 𝑃 𝛼 𝑅. Case I: 𝑅 = 3 ⇒ 𝑃1 𝛼 3,Case II :𝑅 = 3𝑟

3𝑟 3𝑟 2𝑟 2𝑟
⇒ 𝑃2 𝛼 3𝑟,Case III:𝑅 = ⇒ 𝑃3 𝛼 , Case IV :𝑅 = ⇒ 𝑃4 𝛼
2 2 3 3

Hence, 𝑃2 > 𝑃3 > 𝑃4 > 𝑃1.

Calculate the effective resistance in each case and then calculate the power using the formula,
𝑃 = 𝐼2

Q.2 One ampere is the amount of current that exists when___ flows by a certain point in a conductor
in___.

(a) One watt, one sec (b) One coulomb, one sec
(c) One coulomb, one hour (d) One volt, one sec

Sol:- B

An ampere is a unit of current. An electric current is defind as the rate at which a charge moves
past a point in a circuit, as measured in standard units of Coulombs of charge per second.

Q.3 Six equal resistance are connected between point P,Q and R as shown in figure. Hence, the

Net resistance will be maximum between:

(a) P and Q (b) Q and R (c) P and R (d) Any two points
Sol:-A
Find the effective resistance in each of a triangle using, 𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ and
1 1 1
𝑅𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙
= 𝑅 + 𝑅 … Proceed as in Question 1 by resolving the circuits and finding the net
1 2

resistance.

4. The resistance of a wire is 1 ohm. The wire is stretched to double its length. Now the resistance

of the wire is:

1
(a) 4 𝑜ℎ𝑚 (b) 4 𝑜ℎ𝑚 (c)2 𝑜ℎ𝑚 (d) 8 𝑜ℎ𝑚

Sol:- B
𝑙
Use the formula ,𝑅 = 𝜌 when length is doubled, area becomes half and (as volume is constant)
𝐴
thus, new resistance is,
2𝑙
𝑅′ = 𝜌 𝐴

𝑙
= 4𝜌 𝐴

= 4𝑅

5. A wire of resistance R is stretched till its half of the original value of radius. Then the resistance

Of the stretched wire is:

(a) 2𝑅 (b) 4𝑅 (c)8𝑅 (d) 16𝑅

Sol:- D
𝑙
Use the formula 𝑅 = 𝜌 𝐴 and take the area of wire as 𝜋𝑟 2 .

6. A conductor of resistance 8Ω is bent in the form of a circle. What will be the resistance between
two points on any diameter of the circle?
(a) 1Ω (b) 2Ω (c)8Ω (d) 16Ω
Sol:- B

1 1 1
𝑅𝑒𝑞
= 3+3 + 3
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 2Ω

1
8. The current ′𝑖 ′ in the figure below is . The value of 𝑛 ia:
5𝑛

(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4

Sol:- B
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 20Ω
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
2 = 𝐼 × 20
1 1
𝐼 = 10 𝑜𝑟 5×2
Thus 𝑛 = 2

9. Two heating wires of equal length are first connected in series then is parallel. The ratio of heat

produced in two cases is 𝑥 ∶ 𝑦.Find the value of y.

(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 4 (d) 8

Sol:- C

𝑟 𝑉2
In series, 𝑅1 = 2𝑟 while in parallel 𝑅2 = 2 Heat is, 𝐻 = 𝑅
𝑡
𝑉2
𝐻1 = 2𝑟
𝑡
𝑉 2
𝐻2 = 𝑟 𝑡
2
𝐻1 𝑉2 (𝑟/2) 1
Thus, 𝐻2
= 2𝑟
× 𝑉2
=4
1
= 2 That is 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 4

11. A technician has only two resistors. By using them singly, in series or in parallel, he is able to

obtain resistance of values 2,4,12 and 16 Ω.

(a) 6 Ω 𝑎𝑛𝑑 10 Ω (b) 4 Ω 𝑎𝑛𝑑 12 Ω (c) 9 Ω 𝑎𝑛𝑑 9 Ω (d) 5 Ω 𝑎𝑛𝑑 12 Ω

Sol:- B
1 1 1 1
In series, 𝑅 = 12 + 4 = 16 ΩIn parallel, 𝑅 = 12 + 4 = 3 Ω

12. You are given equal resistor. How many different combinations of these three resistances
can be made?

(a) 7 (b) 5 (c) 4 (d) 6

Sol:- C

The 4 possible arrangements are

Sol:- (d)
1
Use the formula 𝑅 = 𝜌 𝐴

14. 𝐴 2𝑉 cell is connected to a 1 Ω resistance. How many electrons came out of the negative
terminal of all the cell in 2 minutes?

(𝑎) 1.4 × 1021 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝑏) 1.5 × 1021 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠

(𝑐) 1.7 × 121 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝑑) 1.7 × 1015 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
Sol:-B

15. Two small particles of carbon, each weighing 1 mg and carrying a charge of 10−6 𝐶, are 1 cm
apart. Calculate the electrostatic force between them.

(a) 9 N (b) 900 N (c) 90 N (d) None of these

Solution: (C)
𝑞1 = 10−6 𝐶, 𝑞2 = 10−6 𝐶
𝜖0 = 8.854 × 10−2 𝐶 2 𝑁 −1 𝑚−1
𝑑 = 1 𝑐𝑚 = 10−6 𝐶
𝐾𝑞 𝑞
Electrostatic force 𝐹 = 𝑑12 2
1
Where 𝐾 = = 8.987 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 𝐶 −2
4𝜋𝜀0
≈ 9 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 𝐶 −2
10−6 ×10−6 ×9×109
∴𝐹= (10−2 )−2
−12
= 10 × 9 × 10 × 10+4 = 9 × 10 = 90 𝑁
9

16. Three equal charges, each having a magnitude of 2 × 10−6 C, are placed at the three corners
of a right-angled triangle of sides 3,4, and 5 cm. Find the force on the charge at the right-angled corner.
(a) 22.5N (b) 40N (c) 45.9N (d) None of these

Solution:-(C)

The force on A due to B is

1 𝑞𝐴×𝑞
𝐹1 = 4𝜋𝜀 ( 𝑑2 𝐵 )
0

17. When a plastic comb rubbed on hair is bought near bits of paper, it attracts them because

(A) The comb and the paper get similarly charged

(B) They get oppositely charged
(C) The paper bits are very highly changed.
(D) None of these
Sol:- B

18. Two uncharged bodies when rubbed against each other get charged. This is known as

(A) charging by conduction

(B) charging by friction
`(C) charging by induction
(D) none of these
Sol:- B

19. When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, it is said to be positively charged. Which of the following
statement is true?

(A) Electrons move from silk to glass. (B) Electrons move from glass to silk
(C) Protons move from silk to glass. (D) Protons move from glass to silk
Sol:- B

20. Where do charges reside in the case of a charged conductor?

(A) inside the conductor

(B) On the outer surface of the conductor
(C) On the inner surface of the conductor
(D) Anywhere outside the conductor
Sol:- B

21. Two point charges q and 10 q repel each other with a force of 3.6 ×
10−5 𝑁 when they are 0.02 𝑚 apart. Find the charges.

(a) 0.4 𝐶 (b) 0.4 𝐶 × 10−6 𝐶 (c)0.4 𝐶 × 10−9 𝐶 (d) 0.4 𝐶 × 10−12 𝐶

Sol:- (C)

1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑑2
9 × 109 × 𝑞 × 10𝑞
3.6 × 10−5 =
(0.02)2
𝑞 = 0.16 × 10−18
2

22. calculate the force between two electrons that are 0.1 nm apart

(a) 23.04 × 10−9 𝑁 (b) 23.04 × 10−6 𝑁 (c)23.04 × 10−10 𝑁 (d)23.04 × 10−20 𝑁

Sol:- (a)
𝑞1 = −1.6 × 10−19 𝐶
𝑞2 = −1.6 × 10−19 𝐶
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑑2
𝐹 = 23.04 × 10−9 𝑁

23. Find the magnitude of force on a 10 𝜇 𝐶 charge placed in an electric field of 1 × 106 𝑁/𝐶.

(a) 1N (b) 10N (c) 100N (d) 1000N

Sol :- b
𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸
𝐹 = 10𝑁

24. A positive point charge q of mass m is released from rest in a uniform electric field E directed
along the x-axis as in the figure.

25. what is the acceleration of the positive charge q ? Is it in uniform acceleration ?

𝑞𝐸 2𝑞𝐸 𝑞𝐸
(a) 𝑞𝐸 (b) 2𝑚
(c) 𝑚
(d) 𝑚

Sol:- (d)
Since E is the electric field,q is the charge, and m is the mass,
𝑞𝐸
𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 =
𝑚
26. what will be the final velocity of the charge after time t.
𝑞𝐸𝑡 𝑞𝐸𝑡 2𝑞𝐸𝑡
(a) 2𝑚
(b) 𝑚
(c) 𝑚
(d) 𝑞𝐸𝑡

Sol:- b
From equations of motion for a particle in uniform acceleration
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡

Sol:-c
1
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
According to the third equation of motion,
𝑞𝐸
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 = 2 𝑥
𝑚
1 2𝑞𝐸
𝐾= 𝑚 ( )𝑥
2 𝑚
𝐾 = 𝑞𝐸𝑥

28. Two equal changes repel each other with a force of 4 × 10−5 𝑁 when they are 0.03 m apart in
air. Find the magnitude of the charges. What will be the force if the distance between them is
doubled?

(a) 2 × 10−6 𝐶 . 10−5 𝑁 (b) 2 × 10−9 𝐶 . 10−3 𝑁

29. Force between two charges is 36 × 10−6 𝑁 when separated by a certain distance. On increasing
the separation by 5 m, the force reduces to 25 × 10−6 𝑁. If one charge is ten times the other,
find the initial separation

(a) 5m (b) 25m (c) 205m (d) 50m

Sol :- (b)

30. Two point charges of 9 𝜇 𝐶and 16 𝜇 𝐶 are placed 0.7 m apart. Find the position of the null point
(A point where the net field is zero ) on the line joining the two charges.

(a) 0.3m from 9 𝜇 𝐶 charge (b) 0.3m from 16 𝜇 𝐶charge

Sol:-A

31. A charge is taken from a point A to a point B. The work done per unit charge in the process is
called

(a) the potential at A (b) the potential at B

(c ) the potential difference between B and A (d) the potential difference between A and B

Sol:- D

32. Joule / coulomb is the same as

(a) watt (b) volt (c) ampere (d) ohm

33. In a metal

(a) all the electrons are free (b) all the electrons are bound to their parent atom
(c) there are no electrons (d) some electrons are free

Sol:- D

34. The free electrons of a metal are free to

(a) move on the surface only (b) are free to escape through surface
(c) are free to fall into the nuclei (d) are free to move anywhere in the volume of the metal
Sol:- D

35. The current in a wire depends

(a) only on the potential difference applied (b) only on the resistance of the wire
(c) none of them (d) on both of them
Sol:- D

36. Electric current flows

(a) from lower to higher potential (b) from higher potential to lower potential
(c) depends on the material (d) in all directions
Sol:- B

37. when a particle of charge 10 𝜇 𝐶 is brought from infinity to a point P, 2.0 mJ of work is done by
the external forces. What is the potential at P?.

(a) 2 volts (b) 20 volts (c) 200 volts (d) 0.2 volts

Sol :- (c)
𝑊
𝑉= = 2 × 10−3 × 10+5
𝑞
= 2 × 102 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

38. How much charge flow through a wire in 10 min if 2.5 A current flows through it ?.

(a) 15 C (b) 150 C (c) 15000 C (d) 1500 C

Sol:- (d)
𝑄
𝑖=
𝑡
𝐼 = 2.5 𝐴, 𝑡 = 10 𝑚𝑖𝑛, 𝑜𝑟 10 × 60 = 600𝑠
𝑄 = 2.5 × 600 = 1500 = 1500 𝐶

39. What is the current passing through 6Ω resistor in the following circuits?.

(a) 1.2 A (b) 0.48 A (c) 0.6 A (d) 0.72 A

Sol:- (b)
6 Ωand4Ω are connected in parallel. If 𝐼1 is the current through 6 Ω and 𝐼2 is the current through 4 Ω ,
then
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 1.2 𝐴
Voltage across each resistor is same.
6𝐼1 = 4𝐼2
2.4
𝐼1 = 𝐴 = 0.48 𝐴
5

40. Find the potential drops across the two resistors shown in figure.

(a) 50 V across 300 Ω , 50 V across 200 Ω (b) 60 V across 300 Ω , 40 V across 200 Ω
(c) 40 V across 300 Ω , 60 V across 200 Ω (d) None of these

Sol:- (b)
The current in the circuit is = 0.2 A
The potential drop across the 300Ω resistor is 300Ω × 0.2 𝐴 = 60 𝑉.
Similarly, the drop across the 200Ω resistor is 40 V.

Chapter: Optics
Lecture -5&6
Reflection through spherical mirror

A spherical mirror is a part cut out of a large hollow sphere. Usually

spherical mirrors are made with a circular boundary. Depending on
which surface is reflecting, spherical mirrors are of two types

Concave Mirror: It has a reflecting surface that bulges inward

(towards incident light).

Convex mirror: It has a reflecting surface that bulges outward

(away from the incident light).

Terminology:

• Centre of Curvature (C): The centre of the sphere of which the mirror is a part. Please note that the
centre of curvature is not a part of the mirror. It lies outside its
reflecting surface. The centre of curvature of a concave mirror lies in
front of it. However, it lies behind the mirror in case of a convex
mirror.
• Radius of Curvature: The radius of the sphere of which the mirror is a
part.
• Pole (P): Geometrical centre of the mirror surface.
• Principal Axis: the line joining C and P. Remember that principal axis is normal to the mirror at its
pole.
• Paraxial Rays: A ray close to the principal axis. They are incident at points close to the pole P of the
mirror and make small angles with the principal axis.
• Focus (F): The point where a paraxial beam parallel to the principal
axis converges or appears to diverge from, after reflection. In the
case of concave mirror, the beam converges at the focus and for
convex mirror, they appear to diverge from the focus.
Although the focus is conceptually a point, practically it has a
spatial extent, called the blur circle.
• Focal Length: distance of the focus from the pole.
• Focal Plane: A plane through the focus and perpendicular to the principal axis.

Image Tracing

In principle, we can take any two rays emanating from a point on an object, trace their paths, find their
point of intersection and thus, obtain the image of the point due to reflection at a spherical mirror. In

1. Draw one ray along the principal axis, incident on the mirror at the pole. This ray is incident normally
on the mirror and hence will be reflected along the principal axis. As the image is the intersection of
at least two reflected rays, it follows that the image must lie on the principal axis only.
2. Draw a second ray and reflect it in accordance to laws of reflection.
3. The intersection of the two reflected rays (actual or produced backwards) gives the image.

For extended objects placed with one end on the principal axis, the image of that end is formed on the
principal axis. To trace the image of the tip of the object, use any two of the following rays:

1. A ray parallel to principal axis passes (or appear to pass) through focus after reflection.

2. A ray passing through or directed towards focus after reflection from the spherical mirror becomes
parallel to the principal axis.

3. A ray passing through or directed towards the centre of curvature, after reflection from the spherical
mirror, retraces its path.

Image positions for different Object positions

Concave mirror

Object Image Ray Diagram

At infinity At the focus F

Highly diminished, point-

sized

Real and inverted

Beyond C Between F and C

Diminished

Real and inverted

Same size

Real and inverted

Between C and F Beyond C

Enlarged

Real and inverted

At F At infinity

Highly enlarged

Real and inverted

Between P and F Behind the mirror

Enlarged

Virtual and erect

It might be noted from the above descriptions that there is a relationship between the object
distance and object size and the image distance and image size.

• Starting from a large value, as the object distance decreases (i.e., the object is moved closer to
the mirror), the image distance increases; meanwhile, the image height increases.
• At the centre of curvature, the object distance equals the image distance and the object height
equals the image height.
• As the object distance approaches one focal length, the image distance and image height
approaches infinity.
• Finally, when the object distance is equal to exactly one focal length, there is no image.
• Then altering the object distance to values less than one focal length produces images that are
upright, virtual and located on the opposite side of the mirror.

• Finally, if the object distance approaches 0, the image distance approaches 0 and the image
height ultimately becomes equal to the object height.

These patterns are depicted in the diagram below. Nine different object locations are drawn and
labelled with a number; the corresponding image locations are labelled with the identical number.

Convex mirror

Object Image Ray Diagram

At infinity At F, behind the mirror

Highly diminished, point-

sized

Virtual and erect

Between infinity, Between P and F

and the pole of the Diminished

mirror
Virtual and erect

Cartesian Sign Convention

• All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror. The pole is taken as the origin.
• The distances measured in the same direction as the incident light are taken as positive and those
measured in the direction opposite to the direction of incident light are taken as negative.
• The heights measured upwards with respect to x-axis and normal to the principal axis (x-axis) of the
mirror lens are taken as positive. The heights measured downwards are taken as negative.

Focal length is +ve in case of convex mirror while it is -ve in case of concave mirror for the following
situation.

Mirror Formula
If u is the distance of object from pole of the mirror, v is the distance of image from pole of the mirror, R
is the radius of curvature of the mirror and f is the focal length of the mirror then -

1 1 1
+ =
v u f
This formula is known as mirror formula. While solving the problems in optics, we always substitute
values with their proper sign.

Relation between radius of curvature and focal length

For paraxial rays(rays closer to principle axis), focal length(f) of the mirror is half of it’s radius of
curvature(R).

f = R/2

Lateral Magnification
The magnitude of lateral magnification gives the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the
object. Mathematically its defined by

hi
m=
h0

h i :Y − coordinate of the tip of the image.

h 0 : Y − coordinate of the tip of the object.

Although many times the phrases “height of image” and “height of object” are used, we should take it to
mean the Y-coordinates.

In terms of object and image distance,

hi v f
m= =− =
h0 u f −u
The sign of magnification reflects the nature of the image formed. A +ve magnification means an erect
image, whereas a –ve magnification means an inverted image.

Power of a Mirror
The power of a mirror is defined as
1
P=−
f
Here f should be taken in meters with proper sign (-ve for concave and +ve for convex) to get the power
in diopters (D).The power of the mirror is dependent on the focal length, which in turn is governed by the
radius of curvature which is unique for a mirror once it is constructed. Hence power of a mirror is
independent of the medium in which it is placed.

As a plane mirror can be treated as a curved mirror of infinite radius of curvature, power of a plane mirror
is zero.

Exercise -

A. A concave mirror is used to form an image of the sun on a white screen. If the lower half on the
mirror were covered with an opaque card, the effect on the image on the screen would be-

(A) to make the image less bright than before

(B) to make the lower half of the image disappear

(C) to prevent image from being focused

(D) none of the above

[A]

B. Two concave mirror each of focal length f. A point source is placed at a point midway between
two mirror. The minimum value of d for which only one image of s is formed –

(A) f (B) 2f (C) 3f (D) 4f

Ans: [B]

Sol.

F
f f

It is only possible if object and image coincide.

1. The rear-view mirror of a car is-

(A) Plane (B) Convex (C) Concave (D) none of the above

[B]

2. The focal length of spherical mirror is-

(A) Maximum for red light (B) Maximum for blue light
(C) Maximum for white light (D) Same for all lights
[D]
Sol:- Focal length of spherical mirror does not depend upon wave length of light

3. In case of concave mirror, the minimum distance between a real object and its real image is -

(A) f (B) 2f (C) 4f (D) Zero

Ans: [D]

Sol :- When object is placed at ‘c’ Real Image is formed also at ‘c’

4. If a spherical mirror is immersed in a liquid, its focal length will -

(A) Increase (B) Decrease

(C) Remains unchanged (D) Depends on the nature of liquid

Ans: [C]

Sol:-focal length is not mediumdependent

5. The image formed by a concave mirror -

(A) is always real (B) is always virtual

Ans: [C]

Sol : - Theory based

6. A real inverted and equal in size image is formed by -

(A) A concave mirror (B) A convex mirror

(C) Plane mirror (D) None of the above

Ans: [A]

Sol: - for concave mirror when object is placed at ‘c’ a real inverted image is formed of same size

(A) the image lies between the pole and focus

(B) the image is diminished in size
(C) the image is erect
(D) the image is real

Ans:[D]

Sol :- convexmirror can form virtual image of real object only.

8. An inverted image of a real object can be seen in a convex mirror -

(A) Under no circumstances (B) When object is very far from the mirror
(C) When the object is at a distance equal to the radius of the mirror
(D) When the object is at a distance equal to the focal length of the mirror

Ans: [A]

Sol:- theory based

9. A concave mirror of focal length f forms an image of the same size as the object. The distance of
the object from the mirror is -

(A) f (B) f/2 (C) 2f (D) 4f

Ans:-[C]

Sol:- For cancave mirror, when object is place at ‘c’ i.e 2f , Image of same size formed at ‘c’ i.e 2f

10. If an object is placed 10cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length 20cm, the image will be -

(A) Diminished, upright, virtual (B) Enlarged, upright, virtual

(C) Diminished, inverted, real (D) Enlarged, upright, real

Sol. [B]

Sol :- for concave mirror , when object is place between pole & Focus , a virtual, erect& enlarged v
image will be formed.

11. An object is placed at a distance of 40 cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length 20 cm. The
image produced is :
(a) virtual and inverted
(b) real and erect
(c) real, inverted and diminished

12. The relation between magnification m, the object position u and focal length f of the mirror is
f −u f f +u f
(a) m = (b) m = (c) m = (d) m =
f f −u f f +u
[B]
Sol:- theory based .
13. The magnification m, the image position v and focal length f are related to one another by the relation
f −v f f +v −f
(a) m = (b) m = (c) m = (d) m =
f f −v f v− f
[A]
Sol:- theory based.
14. The focal length of a concave mirror is f and the distance of the object from the focus is u (away from
the mirror). The magnification produced by the lens is

f u f2
(a) (b) uf (c) (d)
u f u

[A]
𝑓 𝑓 𝑓
𝑚= 𝑓−𝓊0
= 𝑓−(𝓊+𝑓)
=𝓊
Sol:-

15 The focal length of a concave mirror is 20cm. Determine where an object must be placed to form
an image magnified two times when the image is real
(a) 30 cm from the mirror (b) 10 cm from the mirror
(c) 20 cm from the mirror (d) 15 cm from the mirror
[A]
Sol :-
𝑓
𝑚 = −2 =
𝑓−𝓊
−20
−2 = =>40 + 2𝑢 = −20
−20−𝑢
2u= -60
u = -30 cm

16. Consider the following statements : If an object is placed between a concave mirror and its focal
point, then the image formed will be - (i) Real, (ii) magnified (iii) erect of these statements :
(a) i and ii are correct (b) i and iii are correct

17 In question, (15) if the magnified image is virtual, the distance of the object from the mirror must
be
(a) 30 cm (b) 10 cm (c) 20 cm (d) 15 cm
[B]
Sol: For virtual image 𝑚 = +2
−20
2 = −20−𝑢
=> −40 − 2𝑢 = −20 => 𝑢 = −10𝑐𝑚

18. A linear object is placed along the axis of a mirror as shown in fig. If ‘f’ is the focal length of the
mirror then the length of image is -

3/2 f

2f f
(A) (B) f (C) (D) None of these
3 3

Ans: [B]

Sol:- for image of point A

𝟑
𝐟𝐮 (−𝒇)(− 𝒇)
𝟐
𝐯 = 𝐮−𝐟 => 𝑣 = 𝟑
− 𝒇−(−𝒇)
𝟐

𝑣 = −3𝑓

For Image of point B v = −2𝑓

Length of image = 3𝑓 − 2𝑓 = 𝑓

19. A point object is placed at a distance of 30 cm from a convex mirror of focal length 30 cm. The
image will form at

(A) infinity (B) pole (C) focus (D) 15cm behind the mirror.
Ans: [D]

20. What will be the height of the image when an object of 2 mm is placed at a distance 20 cm infront
of the axis of a convex mirror of radius of curvature 40 cm ?

(A) 20 mm (B) 10 mm (C) 6 mm (D) 1 mm

Ans: [D]

Sol. f = R/2

 f = + 20 cm, u = – 20 cm, h0 = 2 mm

hi hi 20
m= =
f
 =
h0 f −u 2 20 – (–20)

 hi = 1 mm

21 An object 5cm tall is placed 1m from a concave spherical mirror which has a radius of curvature
of 20 cm. The size of the image is

(A) 0.11 cm (B) 0.50 cm (C) 0.55 cm (D) 0.60 cm

[C]
Sol.ho = 5 cm
R
f=– = – 10 cm
2
u = – 1 m = – 100 cm
hi = ?
hi  f 
m= =–  
ho u–f 
 f   – 10 
hi = – ho   =–5  
u–f   – 100 +10 
50 5
= =– cm = – 0.55 cm
– 90 9

22. At what distance from a concave mirror of focal length 10 cm must an object be placed in order
that an image double its size may be obtained -

(A) 5 cm only (B) 15 cm only (C) either 5 cm or 15 cm (D) at10cm

Ans: [C]
𝑓 −10
Sol:-for virtual image𝑚 = 2 => 𝑓−𝑢 = 2 => −10−𝑢 = 2 => 𝑢 = −5𝑐𝑚
𝑓 −10
For real image𝑚 = −2 => 𝑓−𝑢 = −2 => −10−𝑢 = −2 => 𝓊 = −15𝑐𝑚

23. A concave mirror gives an image three times as large as the object placed at a distance of 20 cm
from it. For the image to be real, the focal length should be -

Ans: [B]
f
Sol. m= for real, 3 times magnified image,
f −u
m=–3
f
–3=
f − (–20)
f
–3= or –3f – 60 = f
f + 20
4f = – 60 or f = – 15 cm

Lecture -7&8
Lens:
Refraction is the change in direction of light when it passes from one medium to another. The working of
a lens is based on the refraction of light when they pass through it. Lens is a transparent glass which is
bounded by two spherical surfaces. The light rays are refracted after passing through the lens. It is of two
types, convex lens and concave lens.

Convex lens: This lens bulges out at the centre and is thinner at the edges, i.e. the two sides.
Concave lens: This lens is thinner at the centre and thick at the two sides.

Terminology
Optical centre: The centre point of a lens is called optical centre. The ray of light passing through optical
centre goes straight and does not deviate.
Principal axis: A line passing straight through the optical centre in such a way that it is perpendicular to
its sides from the centre, it is called principal axis.

Principal focus of a convex lens: It is a point on the principal axis of the convex lens where all the light
rays parallel to the principal axis converge after passing through the lens.

If the light rays are coming from left hand side they will converge at right hand side of the lens and
vice versa. That is why, a lens has two foci. They are at equal distance from the optical centre. Focal
length of a convex lens: The distance between the optical centre and principal focus of a lens is called
focal length.

A convex lens is also called converging lens as the parallel beam of light rays passing through it
converges at a single point. This can also be shown through an experiment. Place a piece of paper on
the ground during sunshine. Now hold a convex lens at some distance above the paper in such a way
that a sharp image of sun is formed on the paper. This is the point where all the sunlight is
concentrated and the parallel light rays of the sun get converged. In a while you will notice that the
heat energy of the focussed sunlight has burned a hole in the paper where the image of sun was
formed.

Principal focus of concave lens:

All the light rays after passing through the concave lens diverge and when produced backwards appear to
meet at a point on the principal axis of the lens. This point is known as principal focus of a concave lens.

Thus refracted rays appear to diverge from the focus. Concave lens is opposite to convex lens. The
parallel beam of light rays is diverged after passing through it. Concave lens also has two foci. If the
parallel light rays fall from the left side than they appear to diverge from a point of the left side only and
if the light rays fall from the right hand side that they appear to diverge from a point on right hand side.

A concave lens is also known as diverging lens. The image formed by this lens is virtual.

Focal length of concave lens:

The distance between optical centre and principal focus is called focal length of a concave lens.

Rules for obtaining images formed by convex lens

In convex lens, the image is always formed at a point where at least two refracted light rays meet.

Rule 1: A ray of light which is originally parallel to the principal axis passes through the focus after
refraction through the lens.

Rule 2: A ray of light passing through the optical centre of the convex lens does not bent after refraction
but goes straight. Also, a ray of light going along the path of principal axis of a convex lens also goes
straight and does not deviate

Rule 3: When a ray of light passes through the focus of the convex lens then it becomes parallel to the
principal axis after refraction through the lens.

Types of images formed by a convex lens

The type of image formed by a convex lens depends on the position of the image.

Case 1: If the object is placed between optical centre and focus (between C and F’) then the first ray of
light starting from the top of the object is parallel to the principal axis. Therefore, as per the rule, it passes
through another focus after refraction through the lens. Another ray of light from the object passes

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through the optical centre of the lens and thus as per the rule goes straight after refraction through the
lens. Thus, both the light rays
diverge after refraction through the lens and does not meet. Therefore, both the refracted rays are
produced backwards so that they meet at a point to form an image.

The image formed will be: Behind the object, virtual and erect and larger than the object.

Case 2: When the object is placed at the focus of the convex lens (at F’) then it means that the object
is placed at the distance equal to the focal length of the lens.

One ray of light becomes parallel to the principal axis of the lens and thus, passes through another
focus after refraction through the lens. Another ray of light passes through the optical centre of the
lens and goes straight.

Therefore, the image formed is: At infinity, Real and inverted, highly enlarged.

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Case 3: When the image is placed between focus and distance less than twice the focal length (F’ and
2F’) then a ray of light parallel to the principal axis of the lens passes through another focus (F) after
refraction through the lens. Another ray of light passes through optical centre of the lens and goes
straight.

Therefore, the image formed is: Real and inverted, Larger than object and beyond 2F.

Case 4: When the object is placed at the distance equal to twice the focal length ( at 2F’) of the
convex lens then one ray of light becomes parallel to the principal axis and passes through another
focus of the lens after refraction. Another ray of light passes through optical centre and goes straight
after refraction. Both the refracted light rays meet at 2F` on another side.

The image formed is: Real and inverted, same size as that of an object.

Case 5: When the object is placed at the distance greater than twice the focus ( beyond 2F’) one ray of
light becomes parallel to principal axis and passes through focus after refraction through the lens and
another light ray passes through optical centre and goes straight after refraction.

The image formed is: Between F and 2F, Real and inverted, Smaller than object.

Case 6: When the object is placed at infinity, the light rays become parallel after reaching the lens.

The image formed is: At the focus on another side, Real and inverted, highly diminished.

Object location Image location Image nature Image size

Infinity At F’ Real and Inverted Diminished
Beyond 2F Between 2F’ and F’ Real and Inverted Diminished
Between 2F and F Beyond 2F’ Real and Inverted Enlarged
At F At infinity Real and Inverted Enlarged
At 2 F At 2F’ Real and Inverted Same size
Between F and 0 On the same side as object Virtual and Erect Enlarged

Rules for obtaining images formed by concave lens

Rule 2: A ray of light passing through the optical centre of the concave lens goes straight after
refraction through the lens.

Rule 3: A ray of light going towards the focus on another side of the concave lens becomes parallel to
the principal axis after refraction through the lens.

Case 1: When an object is placed anywhere between optical centre and infinity, the image
formed is between optical centre and focus.
Case 2: When an object is placed at infinity, the image formed by concave lens will be at focus.

Object location Image location Image nature Image size

Infinity At F2 Virtual and Erect Highly Diminished
Beyond infinity and 0 Between F1 and Optical centre Virtual and Erect Diminished

Sign convention for spherical lenses

According to the New Cartesian Sign Convention:

i) Distance is measure from the optical centre of the lens.

ii) The distance measured in the direction same as that of the incident ray are taken as positive.

iii) The distance measured against the direction of incident ray is taken as negative.

iv) The distance measured upward and perpendicular to the principal axis is taken as positive.

v) The distance measured downward and perpendicular to the principal axis is taken as negative.

vii) Focal length of convex lens is considered positive.

viii) Focal length of concave lens is considered negative.

Lens Formula

1/v – 1/u = 1/f

Where v=image distance, u=object distance and f=focal length.

ILLUSTRATION : 1.25

A converging lens is used to read the small print. The lens is held 9.0 cm from the print and produces
a magnitification of +2.5. What is the focal length of the lens?

SOLUTION: The fine print serves as the object for the lens u = 9.0 cm. The image distance is then

v = − mu = − ( 2.5cm )( 9.0cm ) = −22cm

1 1 1 1 1
= + = +
The thin lens equation gives f u v 9.0cm ( −22cm )
So f = +15cm

ILLUSTRATION: 1.26

An object is placed at a distance of 1.50 m from a screen and a convex lens placed in between
produces an image magnified 4 times on the screen. What is the focal length and the position of the lens?

I
SOLUTION: Here, magnification m = = −4
O

Let lens is placed at a distance x from the object. Then

u = −x, and v = (1.5 − x)

v 1.5 − x
U sin g m = , we get − 4 =
u −x
or 4x = 1.5 − x or 5x = 1.5

Thus x = 0.3 metre

f
For focal length, we may use m =
f +u

f
Or −4 = or − 4f + 1.2 = f or 5f = 1.2
f + ( −0.3)

1.5
Thus Thus f = = 0.24
5

The focal length is 0.24 m (or 24 cm)

ILLUSTRATION : 1.27

A lens placed at a distance of 20 cm from an object produces a virtual image 2/3 the size of the object.
Find the position of the image, kind of lens and its focal length.

SOLUTION:
2 1 2
Virtual image means, I is positive and it is given that I = O. Thus, m = +
3 o 3
f
Further because u = -20 cm (given), using m =
f +u
2 f
We get, = or f = −40cm
3 f + ( −20)
v
The f is negative, thus the lens is a concave lens. Again using m =
u
2 v 2
We get = or v = − = 1.33cm
3 −20 3
The virtual image is on the same side of the object.

Magnification produced by the lens:

The size of the image relative to the object is given by the linear magnification. The ratio of the
height of the image to the height of the object is called linear magnification.

Magnification (m) = height of image (h2)/height of object (h1)

Another formula in terms of distance;
Magnification = image distance/object distance
Power of lens
A measure of the degree at which a lens can converge or diverge, light rays falling on it is called power of
lens.
Power of lens (P) = 1/ focal length of the lens (f, in meters)
A lens of short focal length has more power compared to a lens with long focal length. The SI unit of the
power of lens is dioptre(D).

Power of combination of lenses

The power of combination of lenses is equal to the algebraic sum of power of individual lenses.
P = p1 + p2 + p3......
The combination of lenses is used in cameras, microscopes, telescopes etc. Combination of lenses
increases the sharpness of the image which is free from many defects.

ILLUSTRATION : 1.29

A convex lens of focal length 20 cm is placed in contact with concave lens of focal length 60 cm.
calculate : (a) power of each of the lens (b) power of combination (c) focal length of combination (d)
nature of combination
1
SOLUTION: As we know, power of alens P =
f (in metre)
100 100
(a) Power of convex lens = +5D Power of concave lens = = −1.67D
20 60
(b) Power of combination P = P1 + P2 = (+5D) + (−1.67D) = +3.33D
100 100
(c) Focal length of combination f (in cm) = = = +30.0cm
P 3.33
(d) As power of combination is positive, therefore, combination behaves like a convex
lens.
ILLUSTRATION : 1.30

A convex lens of focal length 10.0 cm is placed in contact with a convex lens of 15.0 cm
focal length. What is the focal length of the combination.

SOLUTION: For combination of lenses

1 1 1 1 1 2.5 1
= + = + = =
f f1 f 2 10 15 15.0 6

Therefore, f = 6 cm

ILLUSTRATION: 1.31

Ten identical converging thin lenses, each of focal length 10 cm, are in contact. What is
the power of the combined lens.

SOLUTION: For thin lenses in contact

P = P1 + P2 + ...........
10  100
= 10 P1 = = 100D
10

SINGLE OPTION CORRECT

1. Where an object should be placed in front of convex lens so that its real & inverted image
of same size is obtained?

(A) Between the lens and its focus (B) Between F and 2F

(C) At the focus (D) At 2F

2. Which lens is used as the Magnifying glass?

(A) Concave lens (B) Convex lens (C) Bifocal lens (D) All of these

3. Find the focal length of a lens power -2.0 D. What type of lens is this?

(A) -50 cm, concave (B) 50 cm, convex (C) -0.50cm, concave (D) 0.50cm, convex

Solution: (A)

4. Calculate the distance at which an object should be placed in front of a thin convex lens of focal
length 10 cm to obtain a virtual image of double its size.

(A) -5cm (B) 10 cm (C) 40cm (D) 12cm

Solution: (A)

5. A convex lens of focal length 40 cm is placed in contact with a concave lens of focal length 25 cm.
What is the power of the combination?

(A) -1.5 D (B) 10 D (C) +1.5 D (D) +2.0

Solution: (C)

6. Power of the lens is -40, its focal length is

(A) 4m (B) -40m (C) -0.025m (D) -25m

Solution: (C)

7. If the radius of curvature of a convex lens is 100cm, then the parallel beam of rays after passing
through it, converge at what distance from the optical centre?

(A) 50cm (B) 100cm (C) 75cm (D) 150cm

Solution: (A)

8. The focal length of a mirror for which object is placed at a distance 10cm is found to be 20cm. If the
object is moved towards the mirror by 5cm, the find the new focal length.

(A) 15cm (B) 20cm (C) 25cm (D) 10cm

Solution: (B)

9. A candle flame, 3 cm high is at 10 cm from a diverging lens of focal length 15 cm, the size of image
will be

(A) 1.8 cm (B) 2.4 cm (C) 3.2 cm (D) 3.8

10. Convex lens focus a real, point sized image at focus, the object is placed
(A) At focus (B) Between F and 2F (C) At infinity (D) At 2F
Solution: (C)

11. The unit of power of lens is

(A) Metre (B) Centimeter (C) Diopter (D) M-1
Solution: (C)

12. Light rays A and B fall on optical component X and come out as C and D

The optical component is a

(A) Concave lens (B) Convex lens (C) Convex mirror (D) Prism
Solution: (A)

13. An object is placed 10.0 cm from a diverging lens which forms an image 6.5 cm from the lens. What is
the focal length of the lens? Include the sign.
(A) + 3.9 cm (B) -16.5 cm (C) -21.2 cm (D) -18.6 cm
Solution: (D)

14. Under what conditions does a diverging lens form a virtual image of a real object
(A) Only if u  f (B) Only if u < f.
(C) Only if u = f (D) A diverging lens always forms a virtual image of a real object
Solution: (D)

15. A lens produces a enlarged, virtual image. What kind of lens is it?

16. In an experiment to determine the focal length of a concave lens, a student obtained the image of a
distant window on the screen. To determine the focal length of the lens, she/he should measure the
distance between the
(A) Lens and the screen only
(B) Lens and the window only
(C) Screen and the window only
(D) Screen and the lens and also between the screen and the window
Solution: (A)

17. Which of the following statements is true?

(A) A convex lens has 4 dioptre power having a focal length 0.25 m
(B) A convex lens has -4 dioptre power having a focal length 0.25 m
(C) A concave lens has 4 dipotre power having a focal length 0.25 m
(D) A concave lens has -4 dioptre power having a focal length 0.25 m
Solution: (A)

INTEGER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. A real image, 4/5 size of the object is formed 18 cm from a lens. Calculate the focal length of the lens
Solution: (10)
Since the image is real and diminished, the lens must be convex and the object must be placed beyond
2F.

Given : v = +18 cm,

h ' −4  h' 
= , f = ?  m = is negative for real image 
h 5  h 
h' v
We have m = =
h u
v 4
 = or 4u = −5vor 4u = −5  18 cm
u 5
 u = −22.5cm
Now focal length is given by
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 9
= − = − = + =
f v u 18 −22.5 18 22.5 90
 f = 10 cm

3. An object 50 cm tall is placed on the principal axis of a convex lens. Its 20 cm tall image is formed on
the screen placed at a distance of 10 cm from the lens. Calculate the focal length of the lens.
Solution: ()
h0 = 50 cm, h1 = 20 cm, v = 10 cm
h1 v
U sin g m = = , we get
h0 u
With sign convention,
h0 50
u=v = 10  = −25 cm
h1 ( −20)
1 1 1
U sin g = − we get ,
f v u
1 1 1 25 + 10
= − =
f 10 −25 250
250
f = = 7.14 cm
35

4. An object 20 cm tall is placed on the principal axis of a convex lens. Its 30 cm tall image is formed on
the screen placed at a distance of 10 cm from the lens. Calculate the focal length of the lens.
Solution: ()
h0 = 20 cm, h1 = −30 cm, v = 10 cm
h1 ( −30 ) v
m= = =
h0 20 u
10  2 20
u = − = − cm
3 3
1 1 1
Using = − we get ,
f v u
1 1 1 1 3 5 1
= − = + = =
f 10  20  10 20 20 4
− 
 3
f = +4 cm

5. An object 30 cm tall is placed on the principal axis of a convex lens. Its 10 cm tall inverted image is
formed on the screen placed at a distance of 15 cm from the lens. Calculate the focal length of the lens.
Solution: ()

h0 = 30 cm, h1 = −10cm, v = 15 cm
h1 v
U sin g m = = , we get
h0 u
h0 30
u = v = 15  = −45 cm
h1 −10
1 1 1
Using = − we get.
f v u
1 1 1 3+1 4
= − = =
f 15 −45 45 45
45
f = = 11.25 cm
4

6. A convex lens has focal length of 30 cm. Calculate at what distance should the object be placed from the
lens so that in forms an image at 60 cm on the other side of the lens.
Solution: ()
Given : For convex lens
f = +30 cm, u = ?, v = +60 cm, m = ?
From lens formula
1 1 1 1 1 1
= −  = −
f v u 30 60 u
1 1 1 1− 2
 = − =
u 60 30 60
1 1
=−  u = −60 cm
u 60
So, the object should be placed at a distance of 60 cm to the left of the lens.
Magnification produced by lens,
h ' v +60
m= = = = −1
h u −60
Hence, real, inverted and same size image is obtained.

7. Where should an object be placed from a converging lens of focal length 20 cm, so as to obtain a real
image of magnification 2? Find the magnification produced by the lens in this case.
Solution: ()
f = +20 cm , since image is real, m = -2
1 1 1 v
Using, = − and m =
f v u u
f 20
m=  −2 =
We get, f +u 20 + u
−40 − 2u = 20  −2u = 60  u = −30 cm

8. A 5 cm tall object is placed on the principal axis of diverging lens of focal length 15 cm and at a distance
of 10 cm from it. Find the nature, position and size of image.

 Focal length of the lens = 15 cm = 3 cm

On constructing the ray diagram, it is found
 Size of the image = A1B1 = 0.6 cm = 0.6  5 cm = 3.0 cm
Distance of the image from lens = OB1 = 1.2 cm = 1.2  5 cm = 6 cm
Nature : Image is virtual, erect and diminished

9. An object 3.0 cm high is placed perpendicular to the principal axis of a concave lens of focal length 15.0
cm. The image is formed at a distance of 10.0 cm from the lens. Calculate
(i) distance at which the object is placed and
(ii) size and nature of the image formed.
Solution: ()
Here h = 3.0 cm, f = −15 cm, v = −10.0 cm
(i) From lens formula
1 1 1
= −
f v u
1 1 1 1 1
 = − = −
u v f −10 −15
1 1 1 1
= − = −  u = −30 cm
u 15 10 30

h' v
(ii ) m ==
h u
v −10
h '  h  3 = +1.0
u −30
From (i) and (ii), it is clear that image is formed on the same side of object placed at a distance of 30 cm
and image is virtual, erect and of same size.

10. A convex lens has a focal length of 25 cm. Calculate the distance of the object from the lens if the image
is to be formed on the opposite side of the lens at a distance of 75 cm from the lens. What will be the
nature of the image?
Solution: ()

Focal length of convex lens, f = +25 cm image distance v = +75 cm

From lens formula
1 1 1
= −
u v u
1 1 1 1 1 2
 = − = − =−
u v f 75 25 75
75
 u = − = −37.5 cm
2
Negative sign shows that image is real

Refraction of Light through a Prism:

Prism is a transparent medium bounded by any number of surfaces in such a way that the surface on
which light is incident and the surface from which light emerges are plane and non-parallel. Consider a
triangular glass prism. It has two triangular bases and three rectangular lateral surfaces. These surfaces are
inclined to each other. The angle between its two lateral faces is called the angle of the prism A.

In figure 2.8(a) you can see the incident ray, the refracted ray inside the prism and the emergent ray. You
may note that a ray of light is entering from air to glass at the first surface. The light ray on refraction has
bent towards the normal. At the second surface, the light ray has entered from glass to air. Hence it has
bent away from the normal. The peculiar shape of the prism makes the emergent ray bend at an angle to
the direction of the incident ray. This angle is called the angle of deviation. It’s not only the shape that
matters but importantly difference of refractive index of prism material from surrounding makes ray to
deviate, if glass prism is placed in a fluid with same refractive index as that of glass prism, ray will pass
without deviation. Fig 2.8 (b)

The angle between emergent ray and incident ray is called angle of deviation ( ) .
In quadrilateral, EFGN’ the sum of its four angles should be 360
AEN '+ AFN '+ A +  = 360
180 + A +  = 360 or A +  = 180 .....(1)
In EN ' F, r + r '+  = 180 ......(2)
From eq.(1) and (2), A = r + r '
In GEF,  = exterior angle
 = ( i − r ) + ( i '− r ' )
 = ( i + i ' ) − ( r + r ' ) or  = ( i + i ' ) − A ..... ( 4 )
For minimum deviation, angle of refraction (r) = angle of triangular prism (A)

ILLUSTRATION : 2.3
A ray of light falls normally on a refracting face of a prism of the refractive index  = 1.5 of its
material. Find the angle of prism, if the ray just fails to emerge from the prism.
SOLUTION:

The angle of incidence of the ray of light at the refracting face AB is i1 = 0 which implies that
the angle of refraction at the face r1 = 0 and the, r1 + r2 = A  r2 = A
At the second refracting face AC, the ray just fails to emerge and therefore, r2 = A = ic

1  1  −1  2 
A = sin −1   = sin −1   = sin   = 42
  1.5   3
ILLUSTRATION: 2.4
An equilateral prism is having the refractive index  = 1.5 of its material. Calculate the angle of
emergence i 2 of the ray of light for the maximum deviation  max .
SOLUTION:
For the maximum deviation  max of the light ray, we have i1 = 90
 1  2
r1 = ic = sin −1   = sin −1 = 42
 1.5  3
 r2 = A − r1 = 60 − 42 = 18  As prism isequilateralA = 60
The, by the Snell’s law, we have

sin i 2 =  sin r2 = 1.5  sin18 = 1.5  18  = 0.465  i 2 = 28
180

Dispersion of white Light by a Glass Prism:

The phenomenon of decomposition of the white light into seven component colours when passing
through a prism or through a transparent object delimited by non parallel surfaces is called
dispersion of light. A beam of light containing all the visible spectrum of the light is white,
because the sum of all the colors generates the white color. Normally the light we use is white.
It’s the light containing all the colors mixed together. We can realize this fact when the beam of
light passes through a glass prism: the light is decomposed in all the component colours, Violet,
Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red, called as VIBGYOR. The band of the coloured
components of a light beam is called its spectrum. The phenomenon can be explained by thinking
that light of different colours (different wavelengths) has different velocities while travelling in a
medium: vm = f m. Hence, the change in velocity of light observed when the light passes from
the air to the glass, depends on the wavelength.

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By passing the interface air-glass, lower is the wavelength lower becomes the velocity of the
light, so, for example, red light rays are faster than violet light rays.
This change in velocity coupled with the direction of the light beam to the air-glass interface
explains the decomposition of a white light ray in the component colours while it is passing
through a prism.
This phenomenon is known as “dispersion of light through a prism” and it is also responsible for
rainbows during storms: as a matter of fact, each raindrop can be regarded as a little prism; when
a light ray strikes a raindrop it is refracted and decomposed, spreading out all the visible colours
ranging from red to violet.
Colours in the increasing order with respect to wavelength are as follow: Violet (min.), Indigo,
Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, red (max.)

Newton’s Two Prisms Experiment

Recombination of Different colours of spectrum to give white light

Newton took two prisms P1 and P2 of the same material and having the same refracting angle. He
made white light pass through a slit and allowed it to fall on prism p1 (See Fig. 2.16). He
obtained a spectrum (VIBGYOR) on the white screen. He removed the white screen and placed
prism P2 in an inverted position as shown in Figure. It was observed that the light coming out of
the second prism P2 was almost white.

This experiment proved that the prism P1 dispersed the white light into its constituent colours.
Hence, this prism was called the dispersing prism. The second prism P2 recombined the seven
constituent colours to form white light. Hence, this prism was called the recombination prism.
This experiment thus proved that
1. the prism by itself produces no colours.
2. the recombination of the seven constituent colours forms white light.

Single Option Correct

1. In the glass prism

(A) Blue light is dispersed more than red light
(B) Red light is dispersed more than blue light
(C) Both red light and blue light are equally dispersed
(D) None of these

2. On entering a glass prism, sun rays are

3. At a particular minimum value of angle of deviation, the refracted ray becomes

(A) Parallel to the base of the prism
(B) Perpendicular to the base of the prism
(C) Inclined at 45 w.r.t. base of the prism
(D) None of these

4. The splitting o white light into several colours on passing through a glass prism is due to
(A) Refraction (B) Reflection (C) Interference (D) Diffraction

5. A beam of light consisting of red, green and blue colours is incident on a right-angled prism as
shown. The refractive index of the material of the prism for the above red, green and blue
wavelengths are 1.39, 1.44 and 1.47 respectively. The prism will

(A) Separate part of the red colour from the green and blue colours
(B) Separate part of the blue colour from the red and green colours.
(C) Separate all the three colours from one another
(D) Not separate even partially any colour from the other two colours.

6. Dispersion is the term used to describe

(A) The propagation of light in straight lines
(B) The splitting of a beam of light into component colours
(C) The bending of a beam of light when it strikes a mirror
(D) The change that takes place in white light after passage through red glass.

7. In the visible spectrum the colour having the shortest wavelength is

(A) Green (B) Red (C) Violet (D) Blue

8. White light is incident at an angle to the surface of a triangular piece of glass. Which color of
light deviates most from its original path after leaving the glass?
(A) Red(B) Orange (C) Green (D) Blue
9. A light ray is incident perpendicularly to one face of a 90 prism and is totally internally
reflected at the glass-air interface. If the angle of reflection is 45 , we conclude that the
refractive index

10. A given ray of light suffers minimum deviation in an equilateral prism P. Additional prisms Q
and R of identical shape and material are now added to P as shown in the figure. The ray will
suffer

(A) Greater deviation (B) Same deviation

Chapter: Magnetism
Lecture -9&10
10.1 MAGNETIC EFFECT OF CURRENT :

Hans Oersted, in 1820, first discovered that when an electric current is passed through a conducting wire,
a magnetic field is produced around it. If a compass needle is kept in the vicinity of the current carrying
wire, the needle is found to deflect in a definite direction. If the direction of current in the wire is
reversed, Then the direction of deflection of the needle is reversed.

AB is a wire lying in the north-south direction and connected to a battery through a rheostat and a tapping
key. A compass needle is kept just below the wire. When the key is open i.e. no current is passed through
the wire, the needle shows no deflection and points in the N-S direction (i.e. remains parallel to the
wire)as shown in figure(a).

(a)

When the key is pressed and current passes in the wire in the direction A to B (i.e. from south to
north and the north pole (N) of the needle deflects towards the west as figure (b). Thus a current (or
moving charge) produces a magnetic field. When the direction of current in the wire is reversed by
reversing the terminals of the batter, the north pole of the needle deflects towards the east as figure(c).

NOTE : If the compass needle is kept just above the wire, the deflection will be as shown in
figure (d) and (e) for the direction of current from A to B and from B to A respectively.

10.1 (a) Magnetic Field due to a Straight Current Carrying Wire :

When a current is passed through a conducting wire, a magnetic field is produced around it. The
direction of magnetic field due to a straight current carrying wire can be mapped by means of a
small compass needle or by iron fillings.

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Take a sheet of smooth cardboard with a hole at the centre. Place it horizontally and pass a wire
vertically through the hole, Sprinkle some iron fillings on the cardboard and pass an electric
current through the wire. Gently tap the cardboard. We find that the iron filling arrange
themselves in concentric circles around the wire as shown in figure.

If a small compass needle is kept anywhere on the board near the wire, the direction in which the
north pole of the needle points gives the direction of the magnetic the magnetic field (i.e.,
magnetic lines of force) at that point.

Card board

The magnetic lines of force form concentric circles near the wire, with their plane perpendicular
to the straight conductor and with their centers lying on its axis. if the direction of current in the wire is
reversed, the direction of lines of force is also reversed.
On increasing the strength of current in the wire, the lines of force becomes denser and iron
fillings are arranged in circles upto a larger distance from the wire, showing that the magnetic field
strength has increased.

(i) Magnitude of magnetic field produced by a straight current-carrying conductor :

The magnitude of magnetic field (or strength of magnetic field ) B produced by an infinitely long
conductor in vacuum at a distance r from it, it given by :-
 0
0
B = 2r B = Magnetic field strength = Permeability of vacuum (a constant)

I = Current (flowing in conductor) and

r = Distance from the conductor (where magnetic field is measured).

The unit of magnetic field B is tesla which is denoted by the symbol T (1 tesla is equal to 1
Newton per ampere per meter). Permeability of vacuum 0 is 4  10 𝑇. 𝑚 𝐴−1.
−7

(ii) Direction of magnetic field :

The direction of magnetic field (lines of force) produced due to flow of current can be known
by the following rules :

(A) Maxwell’s cork screw rule :

Direction of current

Direction of

Magnetic field

lines

(B) Right hand thumb rule :

If we hold the current carrying conductor in the right hand such that the thumb points in the
direction of current, the fingers encircle the wire in the direction of magnetic lines of force.

Direction of magnetic

field lines

Direction of current

(C) Ampere’s swimming rule :

Imagine a man swimming along the wire in the direction of current (such that the current enters at
his feet and leaves him at his head) facing towards a magnetic needle kept underneath the wire,
then the magnetic field produced is such that the north pole of the needle will be deflected
towards his left

Right hand thumb rule

Left hand

Direction of current

10.1 (b) Magnetic Field due to Circular Coil Carrying Current:

A piece of wire bent in the form of a ring (or coil) is passed through a horizontal cardboard C at
two points P and Q at the opposite ends of a diameter of the ring and then some iron fillings are
scattered on the cardboard. The ends of the coil are connected to a battery through a rheostat and
a key.
Ampere’s Swimming Rule
When a strong electric current is passed through the coil by closing the key and the cardboard is
gently tapped we find that the iron filing arrange themselves in a definite pattern representing the
magnetic lines of force due to the current carrying coil.
Circular coil Circular coil

current
currying

current

Magnetic

Line of

force

Direction of magnetic field is found by applying the right hand thumb rule to each section of the
coil and we find that the concentric lines of force pass through the coil in the same direction.
Furthermorethat :

(i) The magnetic lines of force are nearly circular near the wire.

(ii) Within the space enclosed by the wire, the lines of force are in the same direction.

to be practically uniform for a small space around the centre.

(iv) At the centre, the lines of force are along its axis and at right angle to the plane of the coil.

(v) The magnetic field strength is increased if the number of turns in the coil is increased or the
strength of

current in the coil is increased.

Since the magnetic lines of force through the coil point in the same direction, hence one face of
the coil acts as a large area of north polarity because it is sending out magnetic lines of force and
the other face acts as a large area of south polarity as magnetic lines of force are entering it. thus,
the coil has a magnetic field similar to a magnetised iron disc of same radius as that of the coil.

The polarity of the faces of the coil depends on the direction of current and is determined by the
clock rule. Looking at the face of the coil, if the current around the face is in an anticlockwise
direction, the face has north polarity, while if the current at that face is in the clockwise direction,
the face has south polarity. This can be tested by using a compass needle.

Anticlockwise Current Clockwise Current

(a) (b)

The magnitude of magnetic field B produced by a current-carrying circular wire at its centreis :

(i) directly proportional to the current I passing through the circular wire and (ii) inversely
proportional to the radius r of the circular wire.
1
i.e. B   and 𝐵 ∝ 𝑟

 0I
Magnetic field, B = 2r

Formula which we have given above is applicable when there is only one turn of a circular wire.
If we have circular coil having N turns of wire, then the magnetic field will become N times.
Thus, the magnetic field at the centre of a circular coil of N turns having radius r and carrying
current I is given by

Magnetic field produced by a circular coil carrying current is directly proportional to both,
number of turn (N) and current (I), but inversely proportional to its radius (r). Thus, the strength
of magnetic field produced by a current carrying circular coil can be increased by (i) increasing
the number of turns of wire in the coil, (ii) increasing the current following through the coil and
(iii) decreasing the radius of the coil.

10.1 (c) Magnetic Field due to a Solenoid Carrying Current :

If a conducting wire is wounded in the form of a cylindrical coil whose diameter is less in
comparison to the length, then this coil is called a solenoid (it looks like a helical spring).

The magnetic field lines in a solenoid, through which current is passed, are as shown in figure.

The magnetic field, thus produced, is very much similar to that of a bar magnet and one end of
the coil acts like a magnetic north pole while the other acts like a south pole.

The lines of force inside the solenoid are nearly straight and parallel to the axis of the solenoid.

A strong magnetic field can be obtained by increasing the current strength.

The magnetic field is increased if the number of turns in the solenoid of given length is
increased.

The magnetic field is also increased if soft iron core is kept along the axis of the solenoid.

Thus a current carrying solenoid behaves like a bar magnet with fixed polarities at its ends.

The strength of magnetic field produced by a current carrying solenoid depends upon :

magnetic field produced.

(ii) The strength of current in the solenoid : Larger the current passed through solenoid,
stronger will be the magnetic field produced.

(iii) The nature of “core material” used in making solenoid : The use of soft iron rod as core
in a solenoid produced the strongest magnet.

Magnetic field inside the solenoid is :

B = 0 n  [Here in is number of turns per unit length]

At the ends of the solenoid the magnetic field :

1
Bend =  0n
2

10.2 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY MAGNETS :

The degree to which magnetism is retained by a given piece of iron depends entirely upon its
constitution. Steel retains the largest amount while soft iron retains the least. Therefore pieces of
steel are employed to prepare permanent magnets, whereas soft iron is used for preparing
temporary magnets, i.e., magnets that retain their magnetism only as long as the current flows in
the magnetising coil. They lose their magnetism as soon as the current is switched off. Such
magnets are known as electromagnets.

10.2 (a) Electromagnet :

An electric current can be used for making temporary magnets known as electromagnets. As
electromagnet works on the magnetic effect of current. When current is passed through a long
coil called solenoid, a magnetic field is produced. It has been found that if a soft iron rod called
core, is placed inside a solenoid then the strength of magnetic field becomes very large because
the iron core gets magnetised by induction. This combination of a solenoid and a soft iron core is
called an electromagnet.

Electromagnets can be made in different shapes and sizes depending on the purpose for which
they are to be used.

Factors affecting the strength of an electromagnet are :

(i) The number of turns in the coil : If we increase the number of turns in the coil, the
strength of electromagnet increases.

(ii) The current flowing in the coil : If the current in the coil is increased, the strength of
electromagnet increases.

For example, the air gap between the poles of straight bar type electromagnet is quite large, so a
bar type electromagnet is not very strong. On the other hand the air gap between the poles of a U-
shaped electromagnet is small, so it is a very strong electromagnet.

Electromagnets are used in electric bells, telegraphs, telephones and several other instruments.
Since the magnetisation depends on the current flowing through the coil, it is possible to obtain
very powerful electromagnets by increasing the current.

Soft iron can be easily magnetisedby a weak magnetic field, whereas steel can be magnetised
only by strong magnetic field.

Less energy is required for magnetising soft iron. Soft iron loses its magnetism immediately,
whereas steel retains it magnetism.

10.2 (b) Difference between a Bar Magnet (or Permanent Magnet) and an Electromagnet :

S.No. Bar magnet (or permanent magnet) Electromagnet

(1) The bar magnet is a permanent magnet. An electromagnet is a temporary magnet. Its
magnetism is only for the duration for
which current passes through it, so the
magnetism of an electromagnet can be
switched on or switched off as desired.

(2) A permanent magnet produces a

comparatively weak force of attraction. An electromagnet can produce very strong
magnetic force.

The strength of a permanent magnet

(3) cannot be changed. The strength of an electromagnet can be
changed by changing the number of turns in
its coil or by changing the current passing
through it.

(4) The (north-south) polarity of permanent

of magnet is fixed and cannot be The polatiry of an electromagnet can be
changed. changed by changing the direction of
current in its coil.

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Permanent magnets are usually made of alloys such as carbon-steel, chromium-steel, cobalt-steel,
tungsten-steel, nipermag and alonico. Nipermag is an alloy of iron, nickel, aluminum and
titanium whereas ALNICO is an alloy of aluminum, nickel and cobalt. Permanent magnets of
these alloys are much more stronger than those made of ordinary steel, such strong permanent
magnets are used in microphones, loudspeakers, electric clocks, ammeters, voltmeters,
speedometers and many other devices.

10.2 (c) Methods of Demagnetising a Permanent Magnet :

(i) Magnet can be demagnetisedby :

(A) Self - demagnetisation, if the magnet is stored without using magnetic keepers.

(B) Dropping it from a height or by rough handling.

(C) Heating or hammering the magnet.

(ii) Magnet can be demagnetised by placing it within a solenoid and passing high frequency AC
through it.

Permanent Magnet Solenoid

A.C. Source
10.3 USED OF MAGNETISM IN MEDICINE :

An electric current always produces a magnetic field. Even weak ion currents that travel along the
nerve cells in our body produce magnetic fields.

When we touch something, our nerves carry an electric impulse to the muscles we need to use.
The impulse produces a temporary magnetic field. These field are very weak and are one billionth
of the earth’s magnetic field. Heart and brain are the two main organs in the human body where
the magnetic field produced is significant. The magnetic field inside the body forms the base of
obtaining the images of different body parts. This is done by using a technique called Magnetic
Resonance Images (MRI). Analysis of these images helps in medical diagnosis. Magnetism has
thus, got important uses in medicine.

10.4 MAGINETIC FORCE:

10.4 (a) Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field :

Immediately after Oersted’s discovery of electric currents producing magnetic fields and exerting
forces on magnets, Ampere suggested that magnet must also exert equal and opposite force on a
current-carrying conductor. When a current carrying conductor is kept in a magnetic field (not
parallel to it), a force acts on it. This force is created due to the interaction of magnetic field of the
current in the conductor and the external magnetic field on the conductor. As a result of this

Take a small aluminum rod AB. Suspend it horizontally by means of two connecting wires from a
stand. Now, place a strong horseshoe magnet in such a way that the rod is between the two poles
with the field directed upwards. If a current is now passed in the road from B to A, we will
observe that the rod gets displaced. This displacement is caused by the force acting on the
current-carrying rod. The magnet exerts a force on the rod directed towards the right, with the
result the rod will get deflected to the right. If we reverse the current or interchange the poles of
the magnet, the deflection of the rod will reverse, indicating thereby that the direction of the force
acting on it gets reversed. This shows that there is a relationship among the directions of the
current, the field and the motion of the conductor.

10.4 (b) Direction of Force on Current Carrying Conductor:

The direction of force obtained by the Fleming’s left hand rule.

Fleming left hand rule:

Stretch the forefinger, middle finger and the thumb of you left hand mutually perpendicular to
each other as shown in figure. It the forefinger indicates the direction of the magnetic field and
the middle finger indicates the direction of current, then the thumb will indicated the direction of
motion (i.e. force) on the conductor.

10.4 (c) Magnitude of Force :

Experimentally it is found that the magnitude of the force acting on a current carrying conductor
kept in a magnetic field in direction perpendicular to it, depends on the following factors :

(i) The force F is directly proportional to the current flowing in the conductor, i.e. F  I.

(ii) The force F is directly proportional to the intensity of magnetic field, i.e. F  B.

Combining these we get, 𝐹 ∝ 𝐼𝐵ℓ Or F=KIB 

Where K is constant whose value depends on the choice of units. In S.I. units K = 1 and the unit
of magnetic field is tesla (T). 1 tesla is equal to 1 Newton ampere-1 metre-1 or 1 Weber metre-2.

Force is directly proportional to sin  where  is the angle between current and the direction of
magnetic field. i.e. F  sin 
  
Combining all we have F = BI  sin  or F = I(  B)

Special cases :

1800 , sin  = 0  F=0

When  = 0
0
(i) or

Force on a current - carrying conductor placed parallel or anti parallel to field is zero.

If  = 90 , sin90° = 1, F = B  is the maximum force. Force experienced by the

0
(ii)
conductor is maximum when placed perpendicular to magnetic field.

(iii) if of B = 0, F = 0 i.e. the current carrying conductor placed in field free area doesn’t
experience any force.

A moving charge in a magnetic field (direction of motion not parallel to the field direction)
experiences a force called Lorentz force. Since current is due to flow of charge, therefore a
conductor carrying current will experience a force.

The force acting on a current - carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field is :

F = B 

Q Q
=
Now, if a charge Q flows in time t then the current t . So, writing t in place of I in the
above equation, we get :
BQ
F=
t
Suppose the particle carrying the charge Q travels a length  in time t. Then the velocity v of the
charged
 
particle will be equal to t . Writing v in place of t in the above equation, we get :
Force on moving charge, F = B × q × v
Where B = Magnitude of magnetic field, Q = Charge on the moving particle and v = Velocity of
the charged

Level 1

1. When a bar magnet is broken into two pieces :

(A) we will have a single pole on each piece (B) each piece will have two unlike poles

2. The magnetic field intensity produced due to a current carrying coil is maximum at:

(A) any point

(B) thecentre of the coil

(C) any point lying on the axis of the coil

(D) points lying between centre of the coil and its circumference

3. The direction of magnetic lines of field produced by passing a direct current in a conductor is :

(A) perpendicular to the conductor & coming outwards

(B) parallel to conductor

(C) surrounding the conductor and of circular nature

(D) perpendicular to the conductor & coming inwards

4. Which of the following statement is not correct about two parallel conductors carrying equal
currents in the same direction ?

(A) Each of the conductors will experience a force.

(B) The two conductors will repel each other.

(C) There are concentric lines of field around each conductor.

(D) Each of the conductors will move if not prevented from doing so.

5. Which of the following determine the direction of magnetic field due to a current carrying
conductor ?

(A) Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction. (B) Fleming’s left-hand rule.

(C) Lenz’s law. (B) Maxwell’s cork screw rule.

6. In the figure QR is a vertical conductor and the current I flows from R to Q. P is a point on the
horizontal plane and is to the south of the wire. The direction of the magnetic field at P due to the
current will be towards :

(A) upward (B) north (C) east (D) west

7. A length of wire carries steady current. It is bent first to form a circular plane coil of one turn.
The same length is now bent to give a double loop of smaller radius. The magnetic field
produced at the centre by the same current will be :

(A) a quarter of its first value (B) a half of first value

(C) four times its first value (D) unaltered

8. A wire as shown in figure carries a current I ampere. The semicircle has a radius r. The magnetic
field at the centre C will be :


 10 − 7
(A) zero (B) r Newton/ampere-metre

 
(C) r Newton/ampere-metre (D) r gauss

9. A bar magnet has been cut equally length wise and widthwise to give four equal pieces. The pole
strength of each piece as compared to the pole strength of original bar magnet is :

1 1 1
(A) Same (B) 8 (C) 4 (D) 2

10. The direction of magnetic lines of force of a bar magnet is :

(A) from south pole to north pole

(B) from north pole to south pole

(C) across the bar magnet

(D) from south pole to north pole inside the magnet and from north pole to south pole outside the
magnet.

11. The radius of a circular wire is 0.5m and the current is 10 amp. What is the magnitude of
magnetic field at the centre of the circular wire ?

(A) 12.57 × 10−6 𝑇 (B)12.57 × 105 𝑇 (C)12.57 × 10−4 𝑇 (D) 12.57 × 10−3 𝑇

(A) 8 × 10−15 𝑁 (B)104 𝑁 (C)1.6 × 10−19 (D) Zero

13. The pole faces of a permanent magnet as shown in the figure. A wire of length 4 cm, crying a
current of 10A is placed in the central region, where the magnetic field is 0.2 T. The magnitude of
the force on the wire is :
N
(A) 0.8 N (B) 0.08 N 10
A
4c
(C) 8 N (D) zero m
S
14. Which of the following shows that the earth behaves as a magnet?
(A) repulsion between like poles.
(B) attraction between like poles.
(C) existence of null points in the magnetic field of a bar magnet.
(D) nonexistence of monopoles.

15. A coil is placed in a constant magnetic field. The plane of the coil is parallel to magnetic field as
shown in figure then the flux passing through coil will be : A-area

BA
(A) BA (B) 2 (C) zero (D) infinity

16. Permanent magnets are made up of :

(A) soft iron (B) aluminum (C) Alnico (D) copper

Level 2

1. Two parallel wire carrying current in opposite direction :

(A) attract each other (B) repel each other

(C) no force act between them (D) none of them

2. Force acting on a current carrying conductor placed perpendicular to the magnetic field is :

(A) maximum (B) zero (C) zero or maximum (D) none of these

3. A wire of length 1m through which a current of 0.2 A is flowing. It is placed in a magnetic field
of 0.4T. The maximum magnetic force on the wire is.

(A) 0.8 N (B) 0.08 N (C) 8 N (D) none of these

(A) BQV (B) BV/Q (C) Zero (D) BQ/V

5. If a magnet is cut in four equal parts then joined together with quick fix, the resulting bar magnet
will behave as :

(A) Four bar magnet (B) Four normal iron bars

(C) A normal bar magnet (D) A normal iron bar

6. A wire carrying a current of 5 A is placed perpendicular to a magnetic field of 2T. The force on
each centimeter of the wire is :

(A) 0.1 N (B) 10 N (C) 100 N (D) 1 N

7. In circular coil current is flowing in anticlockwise direction, then the direction of magnetic field
produced at the centre of coil, will be :

(A) in the plane of coil

(B) perpendicular to the plane of coil

(C) in the direction of current

(D) parallel to any diameter

8. A current passes through a coil in the anticlockwise direction. The magnetic field at a point on the
axis of the coil is :

(A) parallel to the plane of the coil

(B) perpendicular to the axis of the coil

(C) along the axis towards the centre of the coil

(D) along the axis away from the centre of the coil

Level 3

1. A positively charged particle projected towards east is deflected towards north by a magnetic
field. The field may be

(a) Towards west (b) towards south (c) upward (d) downward.

2. A charged particle is whirled in a horizontal circle on a frictionless table by attaching it to a string

fixed at one point. If a magnetic field is switched on in the vertical direction, the tension in the
string
(a) will increases (b) will decrease
(c) will remain the same (d) may increase or decrease.

(a) electron (b) proton (c) He+ (d) Li++

4. Which of the following particles will describe the smallest circle when projected with the same
velocity perpendicular to a magnetic field?

(a) electron (b) proton (c) He+ (d) Li+

5. A circular loop of area 1 𝑐𝑚2 , carrying a current of 10 A, is placed in a magnetic field of 0.1 T
perpendicular to the plane of the loop. The torque on the loop due to the magnetic field is

(a) zero (b) 10−4 N-m (c) 10−2 N−m (d) 1 N−m

6. A beam consisting of protons and electrons moving at the same speed goes through a thin region
in which there is a magnetic field perpendicular to the beam. The protons and the electrons.

(a) will go undeviated (b) will be deviated by the same angle and will not separate

(c) will be deviated by different angles and hence separate

(d) will be deviated by the same angle but will separate.

7. A charged particle moves in a uniform magnetic field. The velocity of the particle at some instant
makes an acute angle with the magnetic field. The path of the particle will be

(a) a straight line (b) a circle

8. An electric current i enters and leaves a uniform circular wire of radius a through diametrically
opposite points. A charged particle q moving along the axis of the circular wire passes through its
centre at speed v. The magnetic force acting on the particle when it passes through the centre has
a magnitude

 0i  0i  0i
q q q
(a) 2a (b) 2a (c) a (d) zero.

9 A vertical wire carries a current in upward direction. An electron beam sent horizontally towards
the wire will be deflected

(a) towards right (b) towards left (c) upwards (d) downwards.

10. A current-carrying, straight wire is kept along the axis of a circular loop carrying a current. The
straight wire
(a) will exert an inward force on the circular loop
(b) will exert an outward force on the circular loop
(c) will not exert any force on the circular loop
(d) will exert a force on the circular loop parallel to itself.

(a) towards the proton beam (b) away form the proton beam (c) upwards (d) downwards.

12. A circular loop is kept in that vertical plane which contains the north-south direction. It carries a
current that is towards north at the topmost point. Let A be a point on the axis of the circle to the
east of it and B a point on this axis to the west of it. The magnet field due to the loop.

(a) it towards east at A and towards west at B (b) is towards west at A and towards east at B

13. Consider the situation shown in figure. The straight wire is fixed but the loop can move under
magnetic force. The loop will

(a) remain stationary (b) move towards the wire

14. A charged particle is moved along a magnetic field line. The magnetic force on the particle is

(a) along its velocity (b) opposite to its velocity (c) perpendicular to its velocity (d) zero.

15. A moving charge produces

(a) electric field only (b) magnetic field only (c) both of them (d) none of them.

16. A particle is projected in a plane perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field. The area bounded by
the path described by the particle is proportional to

(a) the velocity (b) the momentum (c) the kinetic energy (d) none of these

Level-1

1. (B)

+ − → + − + −

2. (B)

4. (B)
Using Fleming’s left hand rule find out the force on one of the
I I conductor using the magnetic field of another conductor.
The two conductors will attract each other.
F F

5. (D)
Direction of magnetic field due to current carrying conductor is found out using Maxwell’s
cork screw rule.
6. (C)
Using right hand thumb rule
Direction of magnetic field at point P is towards east.

7 (C)

r1
0 I
B1 =
2r1

B due to one of 2 loop

r2 0 I
2 r1 = ( 2 r2 )  2  B2 =
2r2
0 I
B2 =
2r1
r1
= r2
2
Net magnetic field due to 2 loops = 2  B2

 2 I 
= 2 0 
 2r1 
= 4 B1

8 (B)

0 I
B= (Due tosemi circle)
r 4r
C 4  10−7  I
I I =
4r
I
=  10−7 newton / amphere − metre
r
9. (A)
The pole strength of a bar magnet is independent of no. of piece it is divided into.
10. (D)

N S

11. (A)

r = 0.5 m
I = 10 Amp
10Amp 0 I 4  10−7  10
B= = = 12.57  10−6 T
0.5 2r 2  0.5

12. (D)

v = 104 m / s
B = 5T
( )
r ur
f = Q v B

f = 1.602  10−19  104  5 ( sin 0 )

f = 0N
13. (B)
I = 10 A
B = 0.2T N
l = 4cm
10
 = 90
f = BIL
S
4
f = 0.2  10  = 0.08 N
100
14. (C)
Earth behaves as a magnet because of existence of null points in magnetic field of a bar magnet
due to the presence of earth’s magnetic field.
15. (C)
A Flux passing through the coil is zero as no magnetic field line is
passing through the area of the coil.
B

16. (C)
Permanent magnet is made up of Alnico an alloy of Aluminium, Nickel and cobalt.
Level-2
1. (B)

I II
2. (A)
f = BI l sin 
Since  = 90
sin  = 1 which is maximum value of sin
hence force is also maximum.
3. (B)
l = 1m ; i = 0.2 A
B = 0.4 T
f = BI l sin 
= 0.4  0.2  1 1
= 0.08 N

4. (C)
Force acting on stationary charge

5. (C)
+ − + − + − + −
+ −

6. (A).
I = 5 A ; B = 2T ; l = 1cm = 0.01m
F = BI l sin 
F = 2  5  0.01  1
F = 0.1N

7. (B)

B Magnetic field
is perpendicular
to plane of coil

8. (D)

I Along the axis away from center of coil.

Level 3
1.(D)
+
+
+

+ Using fleming left hand rule, we can find the magnetic field
direction will be downward
+
+
+
+

B in downward
+
+
+
+

direction

2.(D)

+
f B in vertically upward direction will increase the tension in string
+
+
+
+
+

T
f
B in vertically downward direction will decrease the tension in
string.

3. (D) Li ++ will experience maximum magnetic force as charge is maximum. f = Q ( v ) B

4. (A) Magnetic force will be balanced by the centrifugal force

QVB

Q
mv 2
 QvB =
R
mv
R=
QB
mv v QB
R= w=
=
QB R m
w QB
Frequency = =
2 2 m

Q
Frequency will be minimum for Li + as   ratio is minimum for Li +
m
5. (A) Torque on the coil = B A N I sin 

= 0.1  1  10−4  1  10  sin 90

=0
6. (C) F = QvB

Electron and proton will experience a different force because of different charge or them and
hence they will deviate by different angles and hence separate.

7. (C)
The perpendicular component of velocity will provide the
magnetic force on charged particle whereas the parallel
component will remain as it is and hence the path of particle
B will be a helix with uniform pitch.

The magnetic field due to the upper half of the coil is nullified by
a the magnetic field due to lower half of the coil and hence magnetic
i
force on the charged particle becomes zero.
v

9. (C)

10. (C)

B F = B I L sin 
i
sin u  = 0
j f =0

11. (A)
N

+e
-e e− will be deflected towards proton beam because of
W E
magnetic attraction of e− towards proton beam.

12. (D)

A
B
B B

13. (B)

The attractive magnetic force due to section of wire near the

magnetic field producing wire is more than the repulsive magnetic
force due to section of wire away from the magnetic field
F repulsive
F attractive producing wire.

Since velocity is along magnetic field. Therefore

 =0  f =0
15. (C)
A moving charge produces both magnetic field and electric field.
16. (C)
mv 2
qvB =
R
mv
R=
qB
m 2 v 2 2 m  1 2 
Area =  R 2 =  =  mv 
q2 B2 qB  2 
Therefore area bounded by particle is proportional to kinetic energy

Chapter: EMI
Lecture -11&12
12.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION:

When an electric current is passed through a conductor, a magnetic field is produced around the
conductor. Faraday thought that as a magnetic field is produced by electric current, it should be
possible to produce an electric current by the magnetic field. According to him, whenever there is
a change in the magnetic lines of force associated with a conductor, an electromotive force
(e.m.f.) is set up at the ends of the conductor which lasts as long as the change is taking place.
This phenomenon is called electromagnetic induction.

12.1 (a) Faraday’s Experiments :

Wind an insulated copper wire on a wooden cylinder so as to form a solenoid coil. Connect the
two ends of the coil to the centre of galvanometer. A magnet is placed along the axis of the coil.

(i) When the magnet is stationary, there is no deflection in the galvanometer. The pointer
reads zero as shown in figure (A).

(ii) When the north pole of the magnet is brought near the coil, the current flows in the coil in
direction shown in the figure (B) and the galvanometer shows the deflection towards the
right.

(A) (B)

(E)

(iii) If we stop the motion of the magnet, the pointer of the galvanometer comes to the zero
position as shown in figure (C). Thus the current in the coil flows so long as the magnet
is moving. If the magnet is taken away from the coil, the current again flows in the coil
but in the direction opposite to that shown in figure (D) and therefore the pointer of the
galvanometer deflects towards the left side.

(iv) If south pole of the magnet is brought towards the coil, the current in the coil flow in the
direction opposite to that shown in figure (E) and so the pointer of the galvanometer
deflects towards the left.

(v) Similar deflection is observed in the galvanometer if the magnet is kept stationary and the
coil is moved.

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(1) Motion of bar magnet towards a coil
When N-pole of a bar magnet moves towards the coil, the flux associated with loop increases and an
emf is induced in it. Since the circuit of loop is closed, induced current also flows in it.
Cause of this induced current, is approach of north pole and therefore to oppose the cause, i.e., to
repel the approaching north pole, the induced current in loop is in such a direction so that the front
face of loop behaves as north pole. Therefore induced current as seen by observer O is in
anticlockwise direction. (figure (i))

v v
S N N S N

Observer Observer Induced

(i) (ii) magnetic field

In other words when N-pole of bar magnet moves towards the coil, inward magnetic lines of force
(i.e. (×)) linked with coil (as viewed from left) increases. To oppose this change some dots () must
be produced i.e. direction of induced current is anticlockwise. (figure (ii))
In this example, If the loop is free to move the cause of induced emf in the coil can also be termed
as relative motion. Therefore to oppose the cause, the relative motion between the approaching
magnet and the loop should be opposed. For this, the loop will itself start moving in the direction of
motion of the magnet.

Note : It is important to remember that whenever cause of induced emf is in relative motion, the
new motion is always in the direction of motion of the cause.
 In the above discussion, if once the coil is of Cu and once of brass and magnet
approaches the coil with same velocity in both the case, then induced current in Cu will
be greater (because of lesser resistance) and more energy conversion takes place in case
of Cu coil.

(2) The various positions of relative motion between the magnet and the coil
Position of magnet Direction of induced Behaviour of Type of Magnetic field
current face of the magnetic linked with the
coil force coil and it’s
opposed progress as
viewed from left

When the north pole of Anticlockwise direction As a north Repulsive Cross (×),
magnet approaches the coil pole force Increases

S N G

Observer

When the north pole of Clockwise direction As a south Attractive Cross (×),
magnet recedes away from the pole force Decreases
coil
S N G

Observer

When the south pole of Clockwise direction As a south Repulsive Dot () Increases
magnet approaches the coil pole force

N S G

Observer

When the south pole of Anticlockwise direction As a north Attractive Dot ()
magnet recedes away from the pole force Decreases
coil

N S G

Observer

Some Standard Cases for Questions Based on Direction.

(1) Relative motion between co-axial circular coils
(i) When a current carrying coil moves towards/away from a stationary coil

A B A B
Anticlockwis Clockwise
e

Observer G Stationary coil

Observer Stationary
G
Induced current in coil B is coil
opposite to the main current in Induced current in coil B
coil A is in the same direction
(ii) When two current carrying coils carries currents in the same direction
to and
the main current in
Moves towards each other Moves awaycoil A each other
from

A
A B B

Observe
Observer r
Induced current in both the coils assist
the main current so current through
Induced current in both the coils opposite to that of
each coil increases
main current so current through each coil decreases

Observer Observer

Induced current in coil A is clockwise and that in coil B is Induced current in coil A is anti-clockwise and that in coil
anti-clockwise i.e. in both the coils induced current flows B is clockwise i.e. in both the coils induced current flows
in the direction of main current. Hence current through in the direction opposite to main current. Hence current
both the coil increases through both the coil decreases

(2) When the inductive circuits are closed or opened

If two coils A and B (primary and secondary) are arranged as shown in the figure and if the primary
circuit is closed or opened then the direction of induced current in secondary will be as follows
(i) Current increases in coil A by pressing the key (ii) Current decreases in coil A by opening the
key
A B A B
Inverse induced Direct induced
Current Current
increasing decreasing
emf and current emf and current

B B
Observer increased Observer decreased
K Flux K Flux
increased decreased

Direction of induced current in the secondary Direction of induced current in the secondary
coil is opposite to that in the primary coil coil is same as that in the primary coil
(3) Increasing and decreasing of current in current carrying coil
(i) When current increases by pressing the key
(ii) When current decreases by opening the key
Induced current Induced current

Main Main
B K B
current + – + – K
current
Direction of induced current in the coil will be in Direction of induced current in the coil will
a direction opposite to that of main current. be same as that of the main current

Concepts

 To apply Lenz's law, you can remember RIN (when the loop lies on the plane of paper). In RIN,
Induced current
R stands for
right, I stands for increasing and N for north pole (anticlockwise). It i
means, if a loop is placed on the right side of a straight current carrying
conductor and the current i in the conductor is increasing, then induced (increasing)

current in the loop is anticlockwise ( )

Horizontal (No current induces)
 No flux cutting No EMI loop
i
Horizontal wire
field lines

From this experiment Faraday concluded that :

(i) The galvanometer shows a deflection (i.e. current flow in the coil) only when there is
relative motion between the coil and the magnet.

(ii) The direction of deflection is reversed if the direction of motion is reversed.

(iii) The value of the current in the coil (i.e. deflection of the pointer) is increased by :

(A) The rapid motion of the magnet or the coil.

(B) the use of a strong magnet.

(C) increasing the area and number of turns in the coil.

When the magnet and coil are relatively at rest, the total number of magnetic lines of force due to
the magnet passing through the coil (i.e. the magnetic flux linked with the coil) remains constant,
therefore no e.m.f. is induced in the coil and the galvanometer shows no deflection.

When there is relative motion between the coil and magnet, the magnetic flux linked with coil
changes. If the coil is moved towards the magnet, the magnetic flux through the coil increases as
shown in fig. Due to change in magnetic flux linked with the coil, an e.m.f. is induced in the coil.
This e.m.f. causes a current to flow if the circuit of the coil is closed.

motion of coil
motion of coil

Faraday formulated the following two laws of electromagnetic induction :

(i) Whenever there is a change in magnetic flux linked with a conductor, an em.f. is induced.
The induced e.m.f. lasts so long as there is a change in magnetic flux cut by the
conductor.

(ii) The magnitude of the e.m.f. induced is directly proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux cut by the conductor. If the rate of change of magnetic flux remains
uniform, a steady e.m.f. is induced. If the circuit of conductor is closed, a current flows in
the conductor due to the e.m.f. induced across its ends.

12.1 (c) Direction of Induced e.m.f. :

The direction of induced e.m.f. (and hence the direction of induced current) can be obtained by
any of the following rules :

(i) Fleming’s right hand rule (ii) Lenz’s law

(i) Fleming’s right hand rule : Stretch the thumb, middle finger and the forefinger of your
right hand mutually perpendicular to each other as shown in figure. If the forefinger
indicated the direction of the magnetic field and the thumb indicated the direction of
motion of the conductor, the middle finger will indicate the direction of induced current.

(ii) Lenz’s law : This law gives us the direction of current induced in a circuit.

According to Lenz’s law, the induced current will appear in such a direction that it opposes the
change (in magnetic flux) responsible for its production.

The law refers to induced currents, which means that it applies only to closed circuits. If the
circuit is open we would find the direction of induced e.m.f.

For example, in figure, when the magnet is moved towards the loop, a current is induced in the
loop.

The induced current produces its own magnetic field with magnetic dipole moment M oriented so
as to oppose the motion of the magnet. Thus the induced current must be anticlockwise as shown
in figure below.

Level 1

1. The device which is used for converting mechanical energy into electrical energy is called :

(A) electric motor (B) dynamo (C) transformer (D) battery

2. Lenz’s law is a consequence of the law of conservations of :

(A) energy (B) momentum (C) angular momentum (D) charge and
mass

3. The induced emf produced when a magnet is inserted into a coil does not depend upon :

(A) the number of turns in the coil (B) the resistance of the coil

4. Lenz’s law :

(A) is the same as the right palm rule

(B) determines the magnitude of an induced emf

(C) bears no relation to the law of conservation of energy

(D) is useful is deciding about the direction of an induced emf

5. When the current through a solenoid increases at a constant rate, the induced current :

(A) is a constant and in the direction of inducing current

(B) is a constant and is opposite to the direction of inducing current

(C) increases with time and is in the direction of inducing current

(D) increases with time and opposite to the direction of inducing current

6. The device which is used for converting electrical energy into mechanical energy is called :

(A) electric motor (B) dynamo (C) transformer (D)

battery

(A) a current will be induced in the coil (B) no current will be induced in the coil.

8. A copper wire ring is suspended vertically, on bringing a bar magnet towards the ring, then ring
will :

N
S
ring

(A) move towards magnet (B) move away from magnet

(C) remains stationary (D) rotate with respect to suspensions fiber

9. The frequency of alternating current (A.C.) in India is :

(A) 50 Hz (B) 100 Hz (C) 220 Hz (D) 440 Hz

10. Current is induced in a coil by electromagnetic induction when :

(A) only the coil moves in a magnetic field.
(B) only the magnet moves towards the coil.
(C) coil and the magnet move with respect to each other.

(D) none of the above.

Level 2

1. Consider the situation shown in figure if the switch is closed and after some time it is opened
again. The closed loop will show

(a) an anticlockwise current –pulse and then a clockwise current-pulse

(b) a clockwise current-pulse

(c) an anticlockwise current-pulse and then a clockwise current-pulse

(d) a clockwise current-pulse and then an anticlockwise current-pulse.

(a) an anticlockwise current –pulse and then a clockwise current-pulse

(b) a clockwise current-pulse

(c) an anticlockwise current-pulse and then a clockwise current-pulse

(d) a clockwise current-pulse and then an anticlockwise current-pulse

3. A bar magnet is released form rest along the axis of a very long, vertical copper tube. After some
time the magnet

(a) will stop in the tube (b) will move with almost content speed

(c) will move with an acceleration g (d) will oscillate.

4. Figure shows a horizontal solenoid connected to a battery and a switch. A copper ring is placed
on a frictionless track, the axis of the ring being along the axis of the solenoid. As the switch is
closed, the ring will

(a) remain stationary

(b) move towards the solenoid

(c) move away form the solenoid

(d) move towards the solenoid or away form if depending on which terminal (positive or
negative) of the battery is connected to the left end of the solenoid.

5. Consider the following statements:

(A) An emf can be induced by moving a conductor in a magnetic field.

(B) An emf can be induced by changing the magnetic field.

(a) Both A and B are true. (b) A is true but B is false.

(c) B is true but A is false. (d) Both A and B are false.

6. Two circular loops of equal radii are placed coaxially at a some separation. The first is cut and a
battery is inserted in between to drive a current in it. The current changes slightly because of the
variation in resistance with temperature. During this period, the two loops

(a) attract each other (b) repel each other (c) do not exert any force on each other

LEVEL 3
1 The variation of induced emf (E) with time (t) in a coil if a short bar magnet is moved
along its axis with a constant velocity is best represented as

S N

E E E E

(a) (b) (c) (d)

t t
t

2 Consider a metal ring kept on a horizontal plane. A bar magnet is held above the ring
with its length along the central axis of the ring. If the magnet is now dropped freely, the
acceleration of the falling magnet is (g is acceleration due to gravity)
(a) More than g
S
(b) Equal to g a
(c) Less than g N

(d) Depends on mass of magnet

3 A current carrying solenoid is approaching a conducting loop as shown in the figure. The
direction of induced current as observed by an observer on the other side of the loop will be
(a) Anticlockwise (b) Clockwise (c) East (d)West

4 Two coils P and Q are lying a little distance apart coaxially. If an anticlockwise current i is
suddenly set up in the coil P then the direction of current induced in coil Q will be
(a) Clockwise
(b) Towards north i
(c) Towards south P Q
(d) Anticlockwise Observer

5 A rectangular loop is drawn from left to right across a uniform magnetic field perpendicular into
the plane of the loop        

       
(a) The direction of current in position 1 is clockwise
       
(b) The direction of current in position 2 is clockwise 1 2     3     4
       
(c) The direction of current in position 3 is anticlockwise

6 A small loop lies outside a circuit. The key of the circuit is closed and opened alternately. The
closed loop will show
(a) Clockwise pulse followed by another clockwise pulse
(b) Anticlockwise pulse followed by another anticlockwise pulse
(c) Anticlockwise pulse followed by a clockwise pulse S
+ –
(d) Clockwise pulse followed by an anticlockwise pulse
Level 1

1. (B) Dynamo is the device used for converting mechanical energy into electrical energy.
2. (A) In Lenz’s law induced current always tends to oppose the cause which produced it. In order
to do work against opposing force are have to put extra effort. This extra effort (work) leads to
periodic change in magnetic flux, hence more current is induced. This extra effort is just
transforms into electrical energy which is law of conservation of energy.
3. (B) Induced emf in a coil depends on the number of turns in coil, magnetic moment of magnet
and speed of approach of magnet.
4. (D) Lenz’s law is useful in deciding about direction of an induced emf (current)
5. (B)

As the current through solenoid increases at constant rate the

i magnetic field will change at constant rate in the coil and hence a
constant induced current will develop in coil such that it opposes
the increase in magnetic field.

6. (A) Electric motor is the device used for converting electrical energy into mechanical energy.
7. (B) No current will be induced as there is no change of magnetic field through the circular coil.
8. (B) According to Lenz’s law when the bar magnet comes closer to coil the magnetic flux in the
coil increase thus to oppose the change the coil will tend to move away from the magnet.
9. (A) The frequency of alternating current (A.C.) in India is 50 Hz.
10. (C) when coil and magnet will move relative to each other then only there will be change in
magnetic flux and thus there will be induced current

The magnetic field will be increased in upward direction in the

loop. Since current will be induce in clockwise direction when the
switch is opened again the magnetic field will be decreasing in
upward direction in the loop. Since current will be induce in
anticlockwise direction.

When the switch is opened again the magnetic field will be

decreasing in upward direction in the loop. Since current will be
induce in anticlockwise direction.

2. (A)
The magnetic field will be increased in downward direction in the
loop. Hence, current will be induce in anticlockwise direction.
When the switch is opened again the magnetic field will be
decrease downward direction in loop. Hence, current will be
induce in clockwise direction.

3. (B)
Since tube is very long hence there is no change in
magnetic field in tube hence no induce current and the
force on magnetic will be zero and thus it will move
with constant velocity.

4. (C)

The magnetic field will increase in upward direction hence

the copper ring will move towards right in order to oppose
the increase in magnetic field.

5. (A)
The EMF can be induced both moving a conductor as well as by change in magnetic field as
there is charge in magnetic flux in both the cases.

Level 3

1 (b) As the magnet moves towards the coil, the magnetic flux increases (nonlinearly). Also
there is a change in polarity of induced emf when the magnet passes on to the other side
of the coil.
2 (c) When the magnet is allowed to fall vertically along the axis of loop with its north pole
towards the ring. The upper face of the ring will become north pole in an attempt to
oppose the approaching north pole of the magnet. Therefore the acceleration in the
magnet is less than g.

Note : If the coil is broken at any point then induced emf will be generated in it but no
induced current will flow. In this condition the coil will not oppose the motion
of magnet and the magnet will fall freely with acceleration g. (i.e. a = g)
S

N a=g

3: (b) The direction of current in the solenoid is anti-clockwise as seen by observer. On

displacing it towards the loop a current in the loop will be induced in a direction so as to
oppose the approach of solenoid. Therefore the direction of induced current as observed
by the observer will be clockwise.
v

N N S

Observer

4: (a) Since current setup in the coil P is anticlockwise which increases the dot’s linked with
coil Q hence induced current in coil Q will be clockwise.
5 (d) No current is induced in position 1, anticlockwise current is induced in position 2 because
it is a case of increase of flux, no current in position 3 as there is no change of flux,
clockwise current is produced in position 4 because it is a case of decrease of flux.
6 (d) When key is closed dots are linked with closed loop (i.e. increases from zero to a certain
value) so induced current will be clockwise when key is opened dots linked with loop
decreases (from a certain value to zero) so induced current will be anticlockwise in
direction.

Chapter: Derivatives
Lecture – 13&14
Application of differential calculus

Calculus plays a very important role in understanding/solving many concepts/problems in physics. In this
chapter, we are not going to study mathematical part of differentiation but we are going to focus on the
application part of the differential calculus in physics

FUNCTION

1. FUNCTON
Function is a rule of relationship between two variables which are assumed to be dependent and
the other independent variables, for example:
e.g. The temperatures at which water boils depends on the elevation above sea level(the boiling
point drops as you ascend). Here elevation above sea level independent & temperature is the
dependent variable
e.g. The interest paid on a cash investment depends on the length of time the investment is held.
Here time is the independent and interest is the dependent variable.
In each of the above example, value of one variables quantity (dependent variable) which we
might call 𝑦, depends on the value of another variable quantity (independent variable) which we
might call 𝑥. Since the value of 𝑦 is completely determined by the value of 𝑥, we say that y is a
function of 𝑥 andrepresent it mathematically as 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
Here f represents the function ,𝑥 is independent of variable &y is dependent variable.

All possible values of independent variable(𝑥) is called domain of function.

All possible values of dependent variable (𝑦) is called range of function.
Think of a function f as a kind of a machine that produce an output value 𝑓(𝑥) in its range
whenever we feed it an input value 𝑥 from its domain figure
When we study circles,we usually call the area A and the radius R. Since area depends on the
radius, we said that A is the function of r, 𝐴 = 𝑓(𝑟). The equation 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 is a rule that tells
how to calculate a unique (single) output value of A for each possible input value of radius r.
𝐴 = 𝑓(𝑟) = 𝜋𝑟 2 . Describe.
If = 1𝐴 = 𝜋 ; If 𝑟 = 2𝐴 = 4𝜋 ; If 𝑟 = 3𝐴 = 9𝜋
The set of all possible input values for the radius is called domain of the function.

DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
The differential coefficient or derivative of variable y with respect to variable x is defined as the
dy
instantaneous rate of change of yw.r.t. x. It is denoted by Y y = f (x)
dx
Geometrically the differential coefficient of y = f (x ) with respect to 
x at any point is equal to the slope of the tangent to the curve representing
y = f (x ) at that point
X
dy
i.e. = tan 
dx
dy
Note : ❑ Actually is a rate measurer.
dx
dy dy
❑ If is positive, it means y is increasing with increasing of x and if is negative,
dx dx
it means y is decreasing with increasing of x.
dy
❑ For small change x we use y = . x
dx

We will try to understand the meaning of 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥 by following two examples-

(i)Slope of secant and slope of tangent-

Let us assume that any function𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is plotted as shown in the above figure
We known that,
𝑌 −𝑌
Slope of secant𝐴𝐵 = 𝑋2 −𝑋1
2 1
∆𝑌 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑌
⇒ Slope of secant𝐴𝐵 = ∆𝑋
= 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑋
∆𝑌
This implies is slope of line joining two points on a curve but if we keep on decreasing the interval
∆𝑋
∆𝑋 to a limit when ∆𝑥tends to zero (𝑊𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑚∆𝑥 → 0) then this line will just curve at single
Point, known as tangent.𝑙𝑖𝑚∆𝑥 → 0 is a differential element (infinitely small element) which is written as
‘dx’

∆𝑦 𝑑𝑦
|𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 = tan 𝜃 = ∆𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 |

(ii)Average speed and instantaneous speed-

When a car/auto travels from one place to another. It does not move with constant speedthroughout.
Sometimes it moves of at a very high speed and sometimes at low speed. If we have to calculate average
speed for the whole journey we simplify divided to the distance travelled with total time
taken.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑
Ave. Speed = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
∆𝑠
=
∆𝑡
We know that it is not the speed at which our car/auto was moving all the time. At different
Instants, instantaneous speeds were different.

Instantaneous speed defined as the speed at any particular instants or average speed for𝑙𝑖𝑚∆𝑡 → 0
This implies
𝑙𝑖𝑚 ∆𝑠 𝑑𝑠
= = 𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
∆𝑡 → 0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Note; Speedometer of any vehicle always shows Instantaneous speed of that vehicle.

ds
Example: (1) Instantaneous speed v =
dt
2
dv d x
(2) Instantaneous acceleration a = =
dt dt 2
dp
(3) Force F =
dt
dW
(4) Power P =
dt

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Fundamental formulae of differentiation:
Function Differentiation
If c is some constant d
(c) = 0
dx
If y = c x where c is a constant dy d dx
= (c x ) = c =c
dx dx dx
If y = c u where c is a constant and u is a function of x dy d du
= (c u) = c
dx dx dx
If y = xn where n is a real number dy
= nx n −1
dx
If y = un where n is a real number and u is a function of x dy du
= nu n −1
dx dx
If y = u + v where u and v are the functions of x dy du dv
= +
dx dx dx
If y = f (u) and u = f (x) dy dy du
= 
dx du dx
If y = (ax + b)n dy d
= n (ax + b )n −1  (ax + b )
dx dx
Example: 1 Differentiate the following w.r.t x
(i) x 3 (ii) x (iii) ax 2 + bx + c
d
Solution: (i) (x 3 ) = 3 x 2
dx
1
d 1 −1 1 1
(ii) (x )1 / 2 = (x ) 2 = (x )−1 / 2 =
dx 2 2 2 x
d d d d
(iii) (ax 2 + bx + c) = a (x 2 ) + b (x ) + (c) = 2ax + b
dx dx dx dx

Example: Differentiate the following w.r.t. t

(i) 𝑡5
𝑑
Soln 𝑑𝑡
(𝑡 5 ) = 5 𝑡 5−1 = 5𝑡 4
5
(ii) 2𝑡
𝑑 𝑑
soln (𝑡 5 ) =2 (𝑡 5 ) = 2( 5𝑡 5−1 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= 10𝑡 4
1
(iii) 𝑡5
𝑑 1 𝑑
Soln ( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑡 5
= 𝑑𝑡 (𝑡 −5 ) = −5 𝑡 −5−1
= −5 𝑡 −6

E.g. point if 𝑦 = 𝑥 5
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
Then 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 5 ) = 5 𝑥 5−1 = 5𝑥 4

𝑑2𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑
And𝑑𝑥 2 = 𝑑𝑥 (𝑑𝑥 ) = 𝑑𝑥 (5𝑥 4 ) = 5 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 4 ) = 5(4𝑥 4−1 ) = 5(4𝑥 3 ) = 20𝑥 3

Example: A metal ring is being heated so that at any instant of time t in second, its area is given by
t
A = 3t 2 + + 2 m2 .What will be the rate of increase of area at t = 10 sec .
3
dA d t 1
Solution: Rate of increase of area = (3 t 2 + + 2) = 6 t +
dt dt 3 3

 dA  1 181 m 2
  = 6  10 + = .
 dt t =10 sec 3 3 sec

1
Example: The radius of an air bubble is increasing at the rate of cm / sec . Determine the rate of
2
increase in its volume when the radius is 1 cm.
4 3
Solution: Volume of the spherical bubble V = R
3
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. time
dV d 4  4 dR dR
=  R 3  =  .3 R 2 . = 4R 2
dt dt  3  3 dt dt
dV 1 dR 1
at R = 1cm , = 4  (1) 2  = 2 cm 3 / sec . [Given = cm / sec ]
dt 2 dt 2
Example: Find the angle of tangent drawn to the curve y = 3 x 2 − 7 x + 5 at the point (1, 1)
with the x- axis.
Solution: y = 3x 2 − 7x + 5

Questions for practice -

Q Differentiale following functions W.R.T 𝑥

1. 𝑥

Ans 1

Soln . here 𝑛 = 1
𝑑 1
(𝑥 ) = 1𝑥 1−1 = 𝑥 ° = 1
𝑑𝑥

(ii) 𝑥 1000

Ans 1000 𝑥 999

𝑑
Soln × 1000 𝑥 999 = 𝑥 999
𝑑𝑥
(iv) 𝑥 + 𝑥4 − 𝑥3 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1
5

Ans 5𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 + 0

𝑑
Soln 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 5 + 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
= 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 5 ) + 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 4 ) − 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 3 ) − 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 2 ) + 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥) + 𝑑𝑥 (1)

= 5𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 5 − 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 + 0

𝑥5 𝑥4 𝑥3 𝑥2
(V) 5
+ 4
+ 3
+ 2
+ 𝑥 + 1000
Ans= 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 1 3 2

𝑑 𝑥5 𝑥4 𝑥3 𝑥2
𝑛
𝑠𝑜𝑙 ( + + + 𝑥 + 1000)
𝑑𝑥 5 4 3 2

1 1 1 1
(5𝑥 4 ) + (4𝑥 3 ) + (3𝑥 2 ) + (2𝑥) + 1
5 4 3 2

= 𝑥4 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1

Ans −1⁄
𝑥2

𝑑 1 𝑑 −1
soln ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 −1 ) = −1𝑥 −1−1 = −1(𝑥 −2 ) = 𝑥2

1
(vii) 𝑥+𝑥

1
Ans 1 − 𝑥2

𝑑 1 𝑑 𝑑 1
Soln 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 𝑥) = 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥) + 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥)

Exercise -
1. A point moves in a straight line such that its distance from the start in time 𝑡 is equal to

1
𝑠 = 𝑡 4 − 4𝑡 3 + 16𝑡 2 .
4
(a) At what times was the point at its starting position?
(b) At what times is its velocity equal to zero?

2. A body of mass 3kg perform rectilinear motion according to formula 𝑠 = 1 + 𝑡 + 𝑡 2 ,

1
Where s is measured in centimeter & t in second. Determine the kinetic energy 𝑚𝑣 2of the body
2
5 second after its start.

3. A body moves in a straight line according to the equation𝑠 = 𝑡 3 − 4𝑡 2 − 3𝑡. Find is acceleration
when its velocity is zero.
4. The displacement x of a particle move is dimension, under the action of a constant force is related
to the time t by the equation 𝑡 = √𝑥 + 3, where x is meters & t is in second. Find the
displacements of the particle when its velocity is zero.
1 𝑑𝑠
5. Given 𝑠 = 𝑠0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 + 2 𝑔𝑡 2 where 𝑠0 , 𝑣0 and g are constants. Find 𝑑𝑡.

6. A motion of a particle in a straight line is defined by the relation 𝑥 = 𝑡 4 − 12𝑡 2 − 40 where x is

in meters and t is in sec. Determine the position x, velocity v and acceleration a of particle at =
2𝑠𝑒𝑐 .
7. A circular disc of radius 3 cm is being heated. Due to expansion, its radius increases at the rate of
0.05 cm/s. Find the rate of which its area is increasing when radius is 3.2cm.
8. An edge of a variable cube is increasing rate of 3cm/s. How fast is the volume of the cube
increasing when the edge is 10cm long?

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9. A balloon which always remains spherical on inflated is being inflated by pumping 900 cubic
centimeters of gas per second. Find the rate at which radius of balloon increases when the radius
is 15cm.
10. Sand is pouring from a pipe at the rate of 12 cm3 /s. The falling sand from a cone in a such a way
that the height of the cone is always one –sixth of the radius of the base. How fast is the height of
the sand cone increasing when the height is 4cm.
Q.1 A) 𝑡 = 0, 8 𝑠𝑒𝑐
B 𝑡 = 0,4,8 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Q.2 0.01815 J
Q.3 10 𝑚/𝑠 2
Q.4 0
Q.5𝑉0 + 𝑔𝑡
Q.6
(𝑥)𝑡=2 = −72 𝑚
(𝑉)𝑡=2 = −16 𝑚/𝑠
𝑚
(𝑎)𝑡=2 = 24 2
𝑠

Q.7
= (0.320𝜋)𝑐𝑚2 /𝑠

Q.8 900 𝑐𝑚3 /𝑠

1
Q.9 𝜋
𝑐𝑚/𝑠

1
Q.10 48𝜋 𝑐𝑚/𝑠

Sol: Q.1
1
A)𝑠 = 4 𝑡 4 − 4𝑡 3 + 16𝑡 2 = 0 =>𝑡 = 0, 8 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑑𝑠
B) 𝑉 = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 3 − 12𝑡 2 + 32𝑡
𝑉=0

𝑡 3 − 12𝑡 2 + 32𝑡 = 0

𝑡 = 0,4,8 𝑠𝑒𝑐

Sol: Q.2
𝑆 = 1 + 𝑡 + 𝑡2
𝑑𝑠
𝑉= = 1 + 2𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Velocity at t= 5 sec = 1 + 2(5) = 11 𝑐𝑚/𝑠
1
Kinetic energy at t =5 sec = 2 𝑚𝑣 2

Sol: Q.3
𝑆 = 𝑡 3 − 4𝑡 2 − 3𝑡
𝑑𝑠
𝑉= = 3𝑡 2 − 8𝑡 − 3
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
𝑎= = 6𝑡 − 8
𝑑𝑡
Velocity will be zero when V=0,
3𝑡 2 − 8𝑡 − 3 = 0
1
𝑡 = − , 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐
3
1
𝑡 = − 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐is not possible
(𝑎)𝑡=3 = 6(3) − 8 = 10 𝑚/𝑠 2
Sol: Q.4
𝑡 = √𝑥 + 3
𝑥 = (𝑡 − 3)2 = 𝑡 2 − 6𝑡 + 9
𝑑𝑥
𝑉= = 2𝑡 − 6
𝑑𝑡
Velocity is zero at t=3 sec
(𝑥)𝑡=3 = (3 − 3)2 = 0

Sol: Q.5
1
𝑆 = 𝑆0 + 𝑉0 𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 2
2
𝑑𝑆
= 0 + 𝑉0 + 𝑔𝑡
𝑑𝑡

Sol: Q.6
𝑥 = 𝑡 4 − 12𝑡 2 − 40
𝑑𝑥
𝑉= = 4𝑡 3 − 24𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉
𝑎= = 12𝑡 2 − 24
𝑑𝑡
(𝑥)𝑡=2 = −72 𝑚
(𝑉)𝑡=2 = −16 𝑚/𝑠
𝑚
(𝑎)𝑡=2 = 24 2
𝑠

Sol: Q.7
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑑𝐴 𝜋(2𝑟)𝑑𝑟
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Sol: Q.8
𝑉 = 𝑎3
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑎
= 3𝑎2 ( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉
( ) = 3(10)2 × 3 = 900 𝑐𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑑𝑡 𝑎=10𝑐𝑚

Sol: Q.9
4
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 3
3
𝑑𝑉 4 𝑑𝑟
= 𝜋(3𝑟 2 ) ( )
𝑑𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑟
900 = 4𝜋(15)2
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑟 1
= 𝑐𝑚/𝑠
𝑑𝑡 𝜋

Sol: Q.10
𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
𝑉=
3
𝑟
Given ℎ = 6 ⇒ 𝑟 = 6ℎ
𝜋(6ℎ)2 ℎ
𝑉=
3
𝑉 = 12𝜋ℎ3
𝑑𝑉 𝑑ℎ
= 12𝜋 (3ℎ2 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑ℎ
12 = 12𝜋(3(4)2 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑ℎ 1
= 𝑐𝑚/𝑠
𝑑𝑡 48𝜋

Chapter: Heat and Thermodynamics

Lecture -15&16
Temperature -

The quantity that tells us how hot or cold a body is with respect to some standards is called Temperature.

Points to remember –

1. It is a scalar physical quantity with S.I. unit Kelvin denoted by K

2. The natural flow of heat is from a body at higher temperature to a body at lower temperature.
3. Two bodies are said to be in thermal equilibrium with each other, when no heat flows from one
body to the other i.e. when both the bodies are at the same temperature.
4. The temperature of a body can be raised without limit, but it cannot be lowered after a certain
point. Theoretically lowest limiting temperature is taken to be zero of the kelvin scale.

Relation between different scales of temperature –

The centigrade (°C), Farenheite (°F), Kelvin (K), Reaumur(R), Rankine (Ra) are commonly used
temperature scales

C F − 32 K − 273 R Ra − 460
= = = =
5 9 5 4 10.6

C – Temperature in Celsius scale K – Temperaturein Kelvin scale

F – Temperature in Fahrenheit scale R – Temperature in Reaumur scale

Ra - Temperature in Rankine scale

Heat

If you touch a hot stove, energy enters your hand because the stove is warmer than your hand. When you
touch a piece of ice, on the other hand, energy passes out of your hand and into the colder ice. The
direction of energy transfer is always from a warmer body to a neighboring cooler body. The energy that
is transferred from one object to another because of a temperature difference between the objects is
called heat.

Points to remember–

1. Heat is a form of energy. It is energy in transit whenever temperature differences exist. Once it is
transferred, it becomes the internal energy of the receiving body.
2. The word "heat" is meaningful only as long as the energy is being transferred. Thus, expressions
like "heat in a body" or "heat of a body" are meaningless.

(1 calorie - The amount of heat needed to increase the temperature of 1 gm of water from14.5 to 15.5 ºC
at one atmospheric pressure is 1 calorie.)

Specific heat capacity –

The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of unit mass of a substance by 1 degree Celsius is
known as its specific heat capacity. If Q amount of heat raises the temperature of m mass of a material
by, then its specific heat capacity is given as:

 Q = msT
Q
s=
mΔT
Q = heat gained or heat lost

m = mass of the material

s= specific heat capacity of the material

∆T = change in temperature

Heat capacity-the amount of heat supplied per unit increase in temperature for a body is known as its
heat capacity.

Q
c= = ms
T
Note –

• Specific heat capacity of water-S = 4200 J/kgºC = 1000 cal/kgºC = 1 Kcal/kgºC = 1 cal/gmºC
• Specific heat of steam = half of specific heat of water = specific heat of ice (for calculation
purposes)

Phase change-

Heat supplied/removed not always increase/decrease the temperature of the material, it can change the
phase of material as well.

Heat required to change the phase or state is given by

Q = mL

Where Q = heat supplied or heat extracted

L = latent heat

Latent heat (L):

The heat supplied to a substance which changes its state at constant temperature is called latent heat of the
body.

Latent heat of Fusion (Lf ):

The heat supplied to a substance which changes it from solid to liquid state at its melting point and 1 atm
pressure is called latent heat of fusion.

The heat released by a substance while converting from liquid state to solid state at its melting point at 1
atm pressure is called latent heat of fusion

• Latent heat of fusion of ice is 80 kcal/kg

Latent heat of vaporisation (Lv ):

The heat supplied to a substance which changes it from liquid to vapour state at its boiling point and 1
atm pressure is called latent heat of vaporization.

The heat released by a substance while converting from vapour state to liquid state at its boiling point at 1
atm pressure is called latent heat of vaporization.

• Latent heat of vaporization of water is 540 kcal/kg

Note- For a solid-liquid transition, the latent heat is known as the latent heat of fusion (Lf) and for the
liquid-gas transition, it is known as the latent heat of vaporization (Lv)

Example - A bullet of mass 5 gm is moving with speed 400 m/s strikes a target and loses its energy.
Then calculate rise of temperature of bullet. Assuming all the loss in kinetic energy is
converted into heat energy of bullet if its specific heat is 500 J/kg0C.
1
Solution: kinetic energy of bullet =  5 10−3  400  400 = 400 J
2
Suppose temperature of bullet raised by T amount, then

5 10−3  500 T = 400J  T = 1600 C

Example.Find amount of heat released if 1 kg steam at 150ºC is converted into -10ºC ice.
Solution:

Totalheat released ∆Q = heat released to convert steam at 150ºC into 100ºC steam + heat released to

Example.Find amount of heat required to convert 1 kg ice at -10ºC into 1 kg steam at 150ºC.
Solution :

Totalheat required ∆Q = heat required to convert -10ºC ice into 0 ºC water + heat required to convert 0ºC
water into 100ºC water + heat required to convert 100ºC water into 100ºC steam + heat required to
convert steam at 100ºC into 150ºC steam

∆Q = m sice ∆T+ m Lf + m swater ∆T + m Lv+ m ssteam∆T

= 1×0.5×10 + 1 × 80 + 1 × 1 × 100 + 540 × 1 + 1 ×0.5×50
= 750 Kcal

Graphical representation –

Principle of Calorimetry-

When two substances at different temperatures are mixed together, then exchange of heat take
place till temperature of both substance become equal. This temperature is called as final
temperature of the mixture or equilibrium temperature.
If no heat loss to surrounding then by conservation of energy, we can say that:

Heat given by one substance = Heat taken by another substance

the heat lost by the hot object = the heat gained by the cold object

Example-

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Consider a hot substance P of mass m1, specific heat capacity s1 at temperature θ10C, mixed with a
cold substance Q of mass m2, specific heat capacity s2 at a temperature θ20C, such that they attain
a constant equilibrium temperature θ.
Heat lost by hot substance: 𝑚1 𝑠1 (𝜃1 − 𝜃) ;
Heat gained by cold substance: 𝑚2 𝑠2 (𝜃 − 𝜃2 )

According to principle of Calorimetry:

Heat lost by hot substance = Heat gained by cold substance
 m1s1 (1 −  ) = m2 s2 ( −  2 )
Example- Temperature of equal masses of three different liquids A, B and C are 100C, 150C and 200C
respectively. The temperature when A and B are mixed is 130C and when B and C are
mixed, it is 160C. What will be the temperature when A and C are mixed?
Solution: when A and B are mixed
msA (13 −10) = msB (15 −13)  3sA = 2sB

When B and C are mixed

msB (16 −15) = msC (20 −16)  sB = 4sC

Using above two equations we can say 3sA = 8sC

When A and C are mixed

msA ( −10) = msC (20 −  )
140 0
Solving above equations we get  = C.
11
First law of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics is the law of conservation of energy. It states that if a system absorbs
Heat Q and as a result the internal energy of the system changes by U and the system does a work
W, then -
Q = U + W

which is the mathematical statement of first law of thermodynamics.

Useful sign convention in thermodynamics

Quantity Sign Condition

+ When heat is supplied to a system
Q
– When heat is drawn from the system
+ When work done by the gas (expansion)
W
– When work done on the gas (compression)
+ With temperature rise, internal energy increases
U
– With temperature fall, internal energy decreases

The relation between the thermodynamic variables (P, V, T) of the system is called equation of state.
For n moles of an ideal gas, equation of state is-
PV = nRT
(This equation is known as ideal gas equation)

Thermodynamic process: The process of change of state of a system involves change of thermodynamic
variables such as pressure P, volume V and temperature T of the system. The process is known as
thermodynamic process. Some important processes are
(i) Isobaric process : Pressure remains constant

(ii) Isochoric process : Volume remains constant

(iii) Isothermal process : Temperature remain constant

(iv) Adiabatic process: No transfer of heat

(v) Cyclic and non-cyclic process: In cyclic process Initial and final states are same while in non-cyclic
process these states are different.
(vi) Reversible Process: A process which can be made to proceed in the reverse direction by variations in
its conditions so that all changes occurring in any part of the direct process are exactly reversed in the
corresponding part of the reverse process is called a reversible processes.

(vii) Irreversible Process: A process which can not be made to proceed in the reverse direction is called
an irreversible process.

Indicator diagram :Whenever the state of a gas (P, V, T) is changed, we say the gaseous system is
undergone a thermodynamic process. The graphical representation of the change in state of a gas by a
thermodynamic process is called indicator diagram.

Indicator diagrams for different processes (for ideal gas)

ISOBARIC PROCESS
V
P = constant  = constant
T

Indicator curve for isobaric process

P P V

V T T

ISOCHORIC PROCESS
P
V = constant  = constant
T

Indicator curve for isochoric process

P V P

V T T

ISOTHERMAL PROCESS

T = constant  PV = constant

Indicator curve for isothermal process

T T P dP P
=−
dV V

V P V

PV curve for isothermal process is rectangular hyperbola

CYCLIC PROCESS

In a cyclic process initial and final states are same.

For cyclic processes, work done = area enclosed in P-V diagram.If the process on P-V curve is
clockwise, then the net work is (+ve) and if the process on P-V curve is anti-clockwise then the
net work done is (-ve).

work = − ve work = + ve
P work = − ve work = + ve
P P P

V V V V

Heat Engine:

It is a device which continuously converts heat energy into the mechanical energy in a cyclic process.

Efficiency of heat engine:

work output W Q1 − Q 2 Q
= = = = 1− 2
heat input Q1 Q1 Q1

Where Q1 is the heat supplied by the source and Q2 is the heat rejected to the sink.

Carnot Engine:

It is an ideal heat engine which is based on Carnot's reversible cycle. It works in four steps viz.
Isothermal expansion, adiabatic expansion, isothermal compression and adiabatic compression. The
efficiency of a Carnot engine is given by

Q2 T
=1− =1− 2
Q1 T1

Where T1 and T2 are the temperatures of source and sink respectively.

Heat transfer

Heat always tends to flow from warmer objects to cooler objects. If several objects near one another have
different temperatures, then those that are warm become cooler, and those that are cool become warmer,
until all have a common temperature. This equalization of temperatures is brought about in three ways: by
conduction, by convection, and by radiation.

CONDUCTION

(Transfer of energy due to vibration and collision of medium particles without dislocation from their
equilibrium position)

If you hold an iron rod with one end in a flame, before long the rod becomes too hot to hold. Heat travels
through the metal by a process called conduction.

Conduction can be explained by the behavior of atoms within the material. In the iron rod example, the
flame causes the atoms at the heated end of the rod to vibrate more rapidly. These atoms vibrate against
neighboring atoms, which in turn do the same. More importantly, free electrons that can drift through the
metal are made to jostle and transfer energy by collisions with atoms and other free electrons within the
metal rod.

Heat is energy that is transferred and is a tangible thing. Cold is not; cold is simply the absence of heat.
Strictly speaking, there is no "cold" that passes through a conductor or an insulator. Only heat is
transferred. You don't insulate a home to keep the cold out; you insulate to keep the heat in. If the home
becomes colder, it is because heat flows out.

Convection -
(Mode of transfer of heat by means of migration of material particles of medium is called
convection).

Heat transfer by conduction involves the transfer of energy from atom to atom. Energy moves, but the
atoms stay put. Another means of heat transfer is by movement of the heated substance itself. Air in
contact with a hot stove ascends and warms the region above. Water heated in a boiler in the basement
rises to warm the radiators in the upper floors. This is convection, where heating occurs by currents in a
fluid.
Convection is of two types-
(1) Natural convection : This arise due to difference of densities at two places and is a consequence
of gravity because on account of gravity the hot light particles
rise up and cold heavy particles try setting down. It mostly Convection
current
occurs on heating a liquid/fluid.
(2) Forced convection : If a fluid is forced to move to take up
heat from a hot body then the convection process is called forced
convection. Fig. 15.16

Fig. 15.17
Radiation
(The process of the transfer of heat from one place to another place without heating the intervening
medium is called radiation)
Heat from the sun is able to pass through the atmosphere and warm the earth's surface. This heat does not
pass through the atmosphere by conduction, for air is one of the poorest conductors. Nor does it pass
through by convection, for convection begins only after the earth is warmed. We know also that neither
convection nor conduction is possible in the empty space between our atmosphere and the sun. Heat must
be transmitted by another process. This process is called radiation.

Any energy, including heat, that is transmitted by radiation is called radiant energy. Radiant energy is in
the form of electromagnetic waves. It includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared

All objects continually give off radiant energy in a mixture of wavelengths. Objects at low temperatures
emit long waves. Higher-temperature objects emit waves of shorter wavelengths. Objects of everyday
temperatures emit waves mostly in the long-wavelength end of the infrared region. It is waves in the
shorter-wavelength end of the infrared region that our skin experiences as heat. Thus, when we speak of
heat radiation, we are speaking of infrared radiation.

Note : Every object whose temperature is above zero Kelvin emits thermal radiation.

Colour of Heated Object

When a body is heated, all radiations having wavelengths from zero to infinity are emitted. Radiations of
longer wavelengths are predominant at lower temperature. The wavelength corresponding to maximum
emission of radiations shifts from longer wavelength to shorter wavelength as the temperature increases.
Due to this the colour of a body appears to be changing. A blue flame is at a higher temperature than a
yellow flame.
Level I

1. A centigrade and a Fahrenheit thermometer are dipped in water. The Fahrenheit thermometer
registers 140°F temperature. What is the temperature as registered by the Centigrade
thermometer
(A) 30° (B) 40° (C) 60° (D) 80°
C F − 32
Sol. (c) =  C = (140 − 32 )  C = 60 
5 9 5 9
2. A quantity of heat required to change the unit mass of a solid substance, from solid state to
liquid state, while the temperature remains constant, is known as
(A) Latent heat of vaporization (B) Sublimation
(C)Hoar frost (D) Latent heat of fusion
Sol. D Theoretical
3. How much heat energy is gained when 5 kg of water at 20°C is brought to its boiling point
(Specific heat of water = 4.2 kJ kg–1c–1)
(A) 1680 kJ (B)1700kJ (C) 1720 kJ (D)1740 kJ
Sol.(a) Q = m .c. = 5  (1000  4 .2)  (100 − 20 )

= 1680  10 3 J = 1680 kJ

4. Two liquids A and B are at 32°C and 24°C. When mixed in equal masses the temperature of the
mixture is found to be 28°C. Their specific heats are in the ratio of
(A) 3 : 2 (B)2 : 3 (C)1 : 1 (D) 4 : 3
 Ac A +  BcB
Sol. (c) Temperature of mixture  mix =
c A + cB
32  c A + 24  c B
 28 =
c A + cB
cA 1
 28 c A + 28 cB = 32 c A + 24 cB  =
cB 1

5. Compared to a burn due to water at 100°C, a burn due to steam at 100°C is

(A) More dangerous (B) Less dangerous
(C)Equally dangerous (D) None of these

Sol. (a) Steam at 100°C contains extra 540 calorie/gm energy as compare to water at 100°C. So it’s
more dangerous to burn with steam then water.

6. Which of the following parameters does not characterize the thermodynamic state of matter
(A) Volume (B)Temperature (C)Pressure (d) Work
Sol. D Theoretical

7. First law of thermodynamics is a special case of

(A)Newton's law (B) Law of conservation of energy
(C)Charle's law (D) Law of heat exchange
Sol. B Theoretical

8. In the cyclic process shown in the figure, the work done by the gas in one cycle is
(A) 28 P1V1 (B) 14 P1V1 P
7P1
(C) 18 P1 V1 (D) 9 P1 V1

P1
V
V1 4V1

6 P1  3 V1
Sol. (d) Work done = Area under curve = = 9 P1V1
2

9. Heat given to a system is 35 joules and work done by the system is 15 joules. The change in the
internal energy of the system will be
(A) – 50 J (B) 20 J (C) 30 J (D)50J
Sol. (B) Q = W + U  35 = +15 + U  U = 20J

1
10. A Carnot engine operates between 227 o C and 27 o C. Efficiency of the engine will be (A)
3
2 3 3
(B) (C) (D)
5 4 5
T2 300 2
Sol. (b)  = 1 − =1− =
T1 500 5

11. A carnot engine has the same efficiency between 800K to 500 K and x K to 600 K. The value of x
is -
(A) 1000 K (B) 960 K (C) 846 K (D) 754 K
Sol. (b) In first case, (1 ) = 1 − 500 =
3
800 8
600
and in second case, (2 ) = 1 −
x
3 600
Since 1 = 2 , therefore =1−
8 x

Or 600 3 5
=1− = or x = 600  8 = 960 K
x 8 8 5

12) How many grams of a liquid of specific heat 0.2 at a temperature 40°C must be mixed with
100 gm of a liquid of specific heat of 0.5 at a temperature 20°C, so that the final temperature of the
mixture becomes 32°C
(A) 175 gm (B) 300 g (C)295gm (D)375 g
m1c11 + m 2 c 2 2
Sol. (d) Temperature of mixture  =
m1c1 + m 2 2

 32 = m 1  0.2  40 + 100  0.5  20

 m 1 = 375 gm
m 1  0.2 + 100  0 .5

13) P – T curve of a thermodynamic process is as shown

A B process is –
(a) Isothermal process
(b) Isobaric process
(c) Isochoric process
(d) Can’t say any thing

14) The corresponding PV curve for the above process is

Sol: (C) V of m is constant and pressure is Increasing

15) A cyclic process ABC is shown in figure

(a) AB = isothermal processes

(b) BC = isochoric process
(c) CA = isochoric process
(d) None of the above
Sol 15. (d)
AB = isochoric process, CA = isobaric process, BC = can’t say anything because nature of curve is not
given. We cannot assume any BC process to be isothermal unless it is specified in the question that BC
curve is rectangular hyperbola.

Level II

Temperature (°C)
200
150
100
50
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (Minute)

(A) 500 cal,50°C (B)1000 cal, 100°C (C) 1500 cal, 200°C (D) 200°C

Sol. (C)Since specific heat = 0.6 kcal/gm °C = 0.6 cal/gm°C

From graph it is clear that in a minute, the temperature is raised from 0°C to 50°C.
 Heat required for a minute = 50  0.6  50 = 1500 cal.
Also from graph, Boiling point of wax is 200°C.

2. Two substances A and B of equal mass m are heated at uniform rate of 6 cal s–1 under similar
conditions. A graph between temperature and time is shown in figure. Ratio of heat absorbed
H A / H B by them for complete fusion is

(A) 9 (B) 4 (C) 8 (D) 5

4 9 5 8

100
Temperature °C
Sol. (C) From given curve, A
80
Melting point for A = 60 C 60
40 B
and melting point for B = 20 C
20
Time taken by A for fusion = (6 − 2) = 4 minute
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time taken by B for fusion = (6 .5 − 4 ) = 2 .5 minute
HA 6  4  60 8
Then = = .
H B 6  2 . 5  60 5

3. Heat required to convert one gram of ice at 0°C into steam at 100°C is (given,Lsteam = 536 cal/gm)

(A) 100 calorie (B) 0.01 kilocalorie (C) 716 calorie (D)1 kilocalorie

Sol. (C) Conversion of ice (0°C) into steam (100°C) is as follows

ice
(Q1 = mLi)
0°C
Water at 0°C
(Q2 = mcW)

(Q3 = mLV)
Steam at 100°C Water at100°C

4. The P-V diagram shows seven curved paths (connected by vertical paths) that can be followed by a gas.
Which two of them should be parts of a closed cycle if the net work done by the gas is to be at its
maximum value P a
b
(A) ac (B) cg c
d
(C) af (D) cd e
f
Sol. (C) Area enclosed between a andf is maximum. g
V
So work done in closed cycles follows a and f is maximum

5. An ideal gas heat engine operates in a Carnot's cycle between 227 o C and 127 o C . It absorbs 6 ×
104J at high temperature. The amount of heat converted into work is ....
(A) 4.8  10 4 J (B) 3.5  10 4 J (C) 1.6  10 4 J (D) 1.2  10 4 J
T2 400 1 W 1 W
Sol. (d)  = 1 − =1− =  =  =
T1 500 5 Q 5 Q

 W = Q = 6  10 4 = 1.2  10 4 J
5 5

6. Suppose ideal gas equation follows VP3 = constant. Initial temperature and volume of the gas are
T and V respectively. If gas expand to 27V then its temperature will become -

(A) T (B) 9T (C)27 T (D) T/9

nRT
Sol.[B] VP3 = constant , P =
V

T3
V = constant  T 3  V 2
V3
7. Pressure versus temperature graphs of an ideal gas are as shown in figure. Choose the wrong statement -
P P
P

T T T
(i) (ii) (iii)

(A) Density of gas is increasing in graph (i) (B)Density of gas is decreasing in graph (ii)

(C) Density of gas is constant in graph (iii) (D) None of these

Sol.[D]
Level II
𝑝𝑣 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑚
𝑝𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇
𝑀
𝑚 𝑅𝑇
𝑝=( )
𝑣 𝑚

8. In pressure-volume diagram given below, the isochoric, isothermal, and isobaric parts
respectively, are-
(BC and DA curves are rectangular hyperbolas)
(A)BA, ADDC (B) DC, CB, BA (C) AB, BC, CD (D)CD, DA, AB
P A B

D
V

Sol.[D] Process CD is isochoric as volume is constant, Process DA is isothermal as temperature

constant and process AB is isobaric as pressure is constant.

9) Pressure versus temperature graph of an ideal gas is as shown in figure. Density of the gas at
point A is 0 . Density at B will be –
3 3 P
(A) 0 (B) 0 B
4 2 3P0
4
(C)  0 (D) 2 0 P0 A
3
Sol .[B] T
Sol T0 2T0
𝑷 𝑹𝑻
We know that 𝑷𝟎 = 𝟎
𝒎
𝑷𝟏 𝑹 (𝟐𝑻𝟎 )
𝟑𝑷𝟎 =
𝒎
𝟑
From equation (1) & (2) 𝑷𝟏 = 𝟐 𝑷𝟎

10. AB and CD are two isobaric processes which are carried at pressures 𝑝1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝2 respectively
(a) 𝒑𝟏 > 𝒑𝟐 (b) 𝒑𝟐 > 𝒑𝟏
(c) 𝒑𝟏 = 𝒑𝟐 (d) 𝒑𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒑𝟐 can not be comport

Sol. (b) AB and CD are isobaric processes 𝑉 & 𝑇

𝑛𝑅
Or 𝑉 = ( ) 𝑇
𝑝
𝑛𝑅
= slope of line =
𝑝
1
= slope of 𝑝
∴ (𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒)𝐴𝐵 > (𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒)𝐶𝐷
𝒑𝟐 > 𝒑𝟏

CHEMISTRY
Lecture-wise Schedule

Lecture Number Content to be covered Page number

Lecture 1 & 2 Chemical Bonding: Ionic, Metallic Bonding 132

Lecture 3 & 4 Chemical Bonding: Covalent Bond, Coordinate 138
Covalent Bond, Valence Bond Theory
Lecture 5 & 6 Hybridization 151
Lecture 7 & 8 VSEPR 158
Lecture 9 & 10 All Intermolecular Forces 164
Lecture 11 & 12 Basic Nomenclature of Organic Compounds 170
Lecture 13 & 14 Structural Isomerism 188

Topics for self-study

Lecture 15 & 16 Stereo Isomerism only Geometrical Isomerism 197
and Revision
Lecture 17 Solubility and Electrolysis
Lecture 18 Redox Reactions

Lecture 1 & 2

CHAPTER: CHEMICAL BONDING

Introduction

Chemical Bond is the physical process responsible for the attractive interactions between
atoms and molecules, and that which confers stability to diatomic and polyatomic
chemical compounds. The explanation of the attractive forces is a complex area that is
described by the laws of quantum electrodynamics. In general, strong chemical bonding is
associated with the sharing or transfer of electrons between the participating atoms.

The study on the “nature of forces that hold or bind atoms together to form a molecule” is
required to gain knowledge of the following

i) To know about how atoms of same element form different compounds combining with
different elements.

ii) To know why particular shapes are adopted by molecules.

iii) To understand the specific properties of molecules or ions and the relation between the
specific type of bonding in the molecules.

KOSSEL-LEWIS APPROACH TO CHEMICAL BONDING

In 1916, W.Kossel and G.N.Lewis, separately developed theories of chemical bonding in

order to understand why atoms combined to form molecules. Lewis introduced simple
symbols to denote the electron present in the outer orbit of atom, these electrons are
known as valence electrons. These symbols are known as electron dot symbols and the
structure of compound is known as Lewis dot structure.
H
H C H
The electron dot structure of Methane is given as H The number of dots around the
symbol equal to number of electrons.

IONIC BOND OR ELECTROVALENT BOND

An ion is an atom or group of atoms which has acquired charge due to the loss or gain of
one or more electrons. When an atom gains an electron to form a negative ion (anion), it
will increase in size. On the other hand, when an atom loses an electron to give positive
ion (cation), it will contract. The electron lost or gained is always from the outermost
shell.
When two atoms, one of which can lose one or more electrons to attain a noble gas
configuration and the other can receive these electrons and thereby acquire a noble gas
configuration, they are said to be bonded by an ionic bond. Since the loss and gain of
electrons by atoms results in the formation of ions, ionic bond is formed when two ions

interact with each other and are thus held together by electrostatic attraction. The
formation of potassium chloride (KCl), is illustrated below.
+
K (1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s1 ) ⎯loses
⎯⎯→ K (1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 )
1 electron

Cl (1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 ) ⎯⎯⎯

gains
→Cl− (1s2 2s 2 2p6 3s 2 3p6 )
1 electron (Ar configuration)

From the above illustrations, it is evident that the formation of an ionic compound is
related to the ease of formation of the cations (positively charged) and anions (negatively
charged) from the neutral atom, which depends on two main factors:
i) Ionization energy: Lower the value of ionization energy of an atom, greater will be the
ease of formation of the cation from it. As I.E is inversely proportional to size of the
species involved.
ii) Electron affinity: Higher the electron affinity of an atom, greater the ease of formation of
the anion from it.
Lattice Energy
When one mole of an ionic solid is formed from its constituent gaseous ions, the energy
released is called the lattice energy.
Formation of Ions with Higher Charges: Formation of a cation with unit positive
charge is easy if the first ionization energy is low as in the case of alkali metals. Alkaline
earth metals ionize in two successive steps.

Mg →Mg+ + e–

Mg+ → Mg2+ + e–
But energy needed to ionize alkaline earth metals are higher than alkali metals.

However, dipositive ions like Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+ and Ba2+ are quite common. Formation
of a tripositive ion like Al3+ requires much more energy (I.E = 5138 kJ) which is not
available easily. Successive ionization energies of aluminium are:
Al ⎯⎯→
E1
Al+ + e − E
1 = 577kJ

Al+ ⎯⎯
E2
→ Al2+ + e− E
2 = 1816 kJ

Al2+ ⎯⎯
E3
→ Al3+ + e− E3 = 2745kJ

It is on this account that most of aluminium compounds are covalent. In solution,

however, aluminium is known to give hydrated ions [Al.6H2O]3+. This is possible
because of the high heat of hydration of Al3+. The energy liberated during hydration of
ions is enough for ionization. Or compensates the energy requirement.

Similarly, anions with unit negative charge (e.g. Cl–, Br–, I–) are very common. This is
because the electron affinity of these atoms is positive and quite high. Formation of anions
carrying two units of negative charge (e.g. S2–, O2–) is not so easy as their electron
affinities are negative i.e., energy is needed to add second electron. Formation of anions
carrying three units of negative charge (e.g. N3–, P3–) is almost rare.
Characteristics of Electrovalent Compounds
Melting and Boiling Point: Due to the strong electrostatic force between the ions in a
crystal of an electrovalent compound. The energy needed to overcome these forces and
break down the crystal lattice. Hence such compounds possess high melting and boiling
points.
Electrical Conductivity: When an electrovalent compound is molten or dissolved in a
solvent of high dielectric constant e.g., water, the binding forces in the crystal lattice
disappear and the component ions become mobile. Under the influence of applied
electrical field, the ions get charged and thus act as charge carrier of the current. Hence
their molten forms or solutions conduct electricity.
Solubility: Ionic compounds are soluble in polar solvents like water because of molecules
of the polar solvent interact strongly with the ions of the crystal and the solvation energy is
enough to overcome the attraction between the ions in the crystal lattice. Dissolution is
also favored by the high dielectric constant of the solvents such as water, since this
weakens the interionic attractions in the resulting solutions.
Nonpolar solvents like benzene and carbon tetrachloride do not solvate the ions as their
dielectric constants are low. Ionic compounds are, therefore insoluble in nonpolar
solvents.
Ionic compounds like sulphates and phosphates of barium and strontium are insoluble in
water (because lattice energy is greater than hydration energy). This can be attributed to
the high lattice energies of these compounds due to polyvalent nature of both the cation
and the anion. In these cases, hydration of ions fails to liberate enough energy to offset the
lattice energy.
Illustration:

Which one is correct for ionic bond

(A) it is non-directional

(B) it is formed by the elements with same electronegativity

(C) it is formed by overlapping of orbitals

(D) Both (A) and (C) are correct

Ans : a

Solution: Ionic bond is non-directionalas it involves no orbital overlap.

The electrostatic interaction between two oppositely charged spheres which are formed by
complete electron transfer from an electro positive species to an electro negative
species is ionicbond.

Illustration: which one having highest hydration energy

(A) Na+ (B) Li+ (C) Cs + (D) K+

Ans :(B) Li+ in has highest hydration energy due to small size and high charge density or high
charge per unit area.

METALLIC BOND:
The force that binds a metal ion to a number of electrons with in its sphere of influence is
known as metallic bond.
Electron - Sea Theory (Drude - Lorentz theory)
Valency electrons are weakly bound to the kernel in metals. The valency electrons are
completely delocalized and frequently exchanged between the atoms. The valence
electrons belong to all the atoms, they move freely from one kernel to the other. Valence
electrons form a poor or sea of electrons.
The consequences of metallic bond are
1. Metallic lustre: When light falls on metal surface, electrons get excited. When they
return to the original state, emission of visible light takes place. This is called metallic
lustre.
2. Electrical conductivity: In the presence of external field the free electrons in metal
move towards a specific direction
3. Thermal conductivity: On heating the free electrons acquire energy and start moving
in zigzag way transferring heat energy in all the directions.
4. Due to strong bond energy one layer of atoms slide over the other without serious
disturbance at any stage on applying force.
5. Elasticity: The property of a substance which can resist a deformation and recover to its
original form after the removal of force. This is the result of metallic bond.
Practice Questions for Lecture 1 & 2 :
QUESTIONS WITH * CAN HAVE MORE THAN ONE OPTION CORRECT

IONIC BOND
Q.1 The combination of atoms take place so that
(A) They can gain two electrons in the outermost shell
(B) They get eight electrons in the outermost shell
(C) They acquire stability by lowering of energy
(D) They get eighteen electrons in the outermost shell.
Q.2 An ionic bond is most likely to be formed when :
(A) the ionization energy of A is high and the electron affinity of B is low
(B) the ionization energy of A is low and the electron affinity of B is high
(C) the ionization energy of A and the electron affinity of B is high
(D) the ionization energy of A and the electron affinity of B is low

Q.3 Which of the following compounds of elements in group IV is expected to be most ionic
?

(A)PbCl2 (B) PbCl4 (C) CCl4 (D) SiCl4

Q.4 The compound which contains ionic as well as covalent bonds is

(A) C2H4Cl2 (B) CH3I (C) KCN (D) H2O2

Q.5 The hydration of ionic compounds involves :

(A) Evolution of heat (B) Weakening of attractive forces
(C) Dissolution into ions (D) All of these

Q.6 In which of the following species the bonds are Non-directional ?

(A)NCl3 (B)RbCl (C)BeCl2 (D)BCl3

Q.7 Which has the lowest anion to cation size ratio :

(A) LiF (B) NaF (C) CsI (D) CsF

*Q.8 Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct regarding ionic compounds?
(A) They are good conductors at room temperature in aqueous solution.
(B) They are generally soluble in polar solvents.
(C) They consist of ions.
(D) They generally have high melting and boiling points.

*Q.9 Which of the following compounds contain/s both ionic and covalent bonds?
(A) NH4Cl (B) KCN (C) CuSO4 (D) NaOH

Q.10 Among the following isostructural compounds, identify the compound, which has the
highest Lattice energy
(A)LiF (B) LiCl (C) NaCl (D) MgO

Q.11 A bond formed between two like atoms cannot be

(A) ionic (B) covalent (C) coordinate (D) metallic

Q.12 Which of the following, when dissolved in water forms a solution, which is
Non-conductivity?
(A) Green Vitriol (FeSO4.7H2O) (B) Indian salt Petre (KNO3)
(C) Alcohol (C2H5OH) (D) Potash alum (K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3 24H2O).

*Q.13 Most ionic compounds have :

(A) high melting points and low boiling points
(B) high melting points and nondirectional bonds
(C) high solubilities in polar solvents and low solubilities in nonpolar solvents
(D) three-dimensional network structures, and are good conductors of electricity in the
molten state

Q.14 An electrovalent compound does not exhibit space isomerism because of

(A) Presence of oppositely charged ions
(B) High melting points
(C) Non-directional nature of the bond
(D) Crystalline nature

*Q.15 Which of the following have an exception in electron configuration ?

(A) Cu (B) Fe (C) Cr (D) Sc

Q.16 Which of the following contains (electrovalent) and non-polar (covalent) bonds?
(A) CH4 (B) H2O2 (C) NH4Cl (D) HCN

Q.17 An ionic solid is a poor conductor of electricity because

(A) ions do not conduct electricity
(B) the charge on the ions is uniformly distributed
(C) ions occupy fixed positions in solids
(D) ions have uniform fields of influence

Q.18 In a metallic crystal

(A) the valence electrons remain within the fields of influence of their own kernels
(B) the valence electrons constitute a sea of mobile electrons
(C) the valence electrons are localized between the two kernels
(D) both the kernels as well as the electrons move rapidly

Q.19 Which of the following is required for the formation of an ionic bond?
(A) The total energy of the resulting molecule should be less than the total energy of the
reactants.
(B) An electron from the more electronegative element should be transferred to the less
electronegative element.
(C) The lattice energy of the resultant molecule should be as low as possible.
(D) The ionic potentials of the reactants should be identical.

Q.20 The cohesive energy of an ionic crystal is the energy

(A) liberated during the formation of the crystal from individual neutral atoms
(B) absorbed during the formation of the crystal from individual neutral atoms
(C) liberated during the formation of positive ions
(D) absorbed during the formation of negative ions

Answer Key for Lecture 1 & 2 :

Q.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans C B A C D B D ABCD ABCD D
Q.No 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans A C BCD C AC C C B A A

Lecture 3 & 4

Covalent Bond (By Mutual Sharing of Electrons)

The covalent bond is formed when two atoms achieve stability by the sharing of an
electron pair, each contributing one electron to the electron pair.
The arrangement of electrons in a covalent molecule is often shown by a Lewis structure
in which only valence shells (outer shells) are depicted. For sake of clarity, the electrons
on different atoms are denoted by dots and crosses.
Polarity of Bonds: A covalent bond is set up by sharing of electrons between two atoms.
It is further classified as polar or nonpolar depending upon the fact whether the electron
pair is shared unequally between the atoms or shared equally. For eg., the covalent bonds
in H2 and Cl2 are called nonpolar as the electron pair is equally shared between the two
atoms.
H H Cl Cl + −
Hydrogen molecule Chlorine molecule
(Both formed by equal sharing of H F
electrons between the atoms, i.e., by
non-polar bonds)
d

In the case of hydrogen fluoride, the bond is polar as the electron pair is unequally shared.
Fluorine has a greater attraction for electrons or has higher electronegativity than
hydrogen and the shared pair of electrons is nearer to the fluorine atom than hydrogen
atom. The hydrogen end of the molecule, therefore, appears positive with respect to
fluorine.
Bond polarities affect both physical and chemical properties of compounds containing
polar bond. The polarity of a bond determines the kind of reaction that can take place at
that bond and even affects the reactivity at nearby bonds. The polarity of bonds can lead to
polarity of molecules and affect melting point, boiling point and solubility

Characteristics of Covalent Compounds

Melting Point and Boiling Point: In covalent compounds, except those consisting of
giant network, the molecules are less powerfully attracted to each other, as a result of
which their melting points and boiling points are relatively low compared to ionic
compounds, e.g.,
SiCl 4 (b.p. = 33K) and NaCl (b.p. = 1713K)
(Covalentcompound) (ionic compound)

Conductivity: Covalent substances (whether of the “molecular lattice” or “giant

molecule” type) do not conduct electricity in the fused state since there are no free
electrons or ions to carry the current. However, substances like graphite which consists of
separate layers conduct electricity because the electrons have a passage in between the two
flat layers.
Solubility: The characteristic solubility of covalent compounds in nonpolar solvents such
as benzene and carbon tetrachloride can be described to the similar covalent nature of the
molecules of solute and solvent (i.e., like dissolves like). Covalent compounds in solution
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react more slowly as compared with the ionic compounds which react instantaneously in
solution. The solubility of covalent compounds is, however, very much dependent upon
the size of the molecule. So covalent substances having giant network are insoluble in
virtually all solvents due to the big size of the unit.
Fajan’s Rules
When two oppositely charged ions approach each other closely, the positively charged ion
attracts the outermost electrons of the anion and repel its positively charged nucleus. This
results in the distortion or polarization of the anion followed by some sharing of electrons
between the two ions, i.e., the bond becomes partly covalent in character.
The magnitude of polarization depends upon following factors:
i) Size of the cation: Polarization of the anion increases as the size of the cation
decreases i.e., the electrovalent compounds having smaller cations show more
of the covalent nature. For eg., in
the case of halides of alkaline earth metals, the covalent character decreases as we move
down the group. Hence melting point increases in the order of
BeCl2<MgCl2<CaCl2<SrCl2<BaCl2

ii) Size of anion: The larger the size of the anion, more easily it will be polarized by the
cation i.e., as the size of the anion increases for a given cation, the covalent character
increases. For eg., in the case of halides of calcium, the covalent character increases from
F– anion to I– anion i.e.
CaF  CaCl  CaBr  CaI
⎯⎯⎯
2
⎯ ⎯⎯
2
⎯⎯⎯
2
⎯⎯
⎯2
→
increasing covalentcharacter

Similarly, in case of trihalides of aluminium, the covalent character increases with

increase in size of halide anion i.e. from left to right in the diagram….
AlF3 AlCl3 AlBr 3 AlI3
Covalent character increases as the
size of the halide ion increases

iii) Charge on Either of the ions: As the charge on the cation increases, its tendency to
polarize the anion increases. This brings more and more covalent nature in the
electrovalent compound. Whereas with the increasing charge of anion, its ability to get
polarized, by the cation, also increases.
For eg., in the case of NaCl, MgCl2 and AlCl3 the polarization increases, thereby covalent
character becomes more and more as the charge on the cation increases.
Similarly, lead forms two chlorides PbCl2 and PbCl4 having charges +2 and +4
respectively. PbCl4 shows covalent nature. Similarly among NaCl, Na2S, Na3P, the
charge of the anions are increasing, therefore the increasing order of covalent character.
NaCl< Na2S < Na3P

iv) Nature of the cation: Cations with 18 electrons (s2p6d10) in outermost shell polarize
an anion more strongly than cations of 8 electrons (s2p6) type. The d electrons of the 18
electron shell screen the nuclear charge of the cation less effectively than the s and p
electrons of the 18-electron shell. Hence the 18-electron cations behave as if they had a
greater charge. Copper (I) and Silver (I) halides are more covalent in nature compared
with the corresponding sodium and potassium halides although charge on the ions is the
same and the sizes of the corresponding ions are similar. This illustrates the effect of 18-
electron configuration of Cu+ (4s0 3d10) and Ag+ (4s2, p6, d10) ions.

Illustration:

The decomposition temperature of Li2CO3 is less than that of Na2CO3. Explain.

Solution:

As Li+ ion is smaller than Na+ ion, thus small cation (Li+) will favour more covalent
character in Li2CO3 and hence it has lower decomposition temperature than that of
Na2CO3.

Dipole Moment: It is a vector quantity and is defined as the product of the magnitude of
charge on any of the atom and the distance between the atoms. It is represented by .
Magnitude of dipole moment

The unit = 10–18 (esu) cm (D) is used in practice. In SI units charge q is measured in
coulombs (C) and the distance, r in metre, m

1C = 2.998 × 109esu and 1 m = 102 cm

\ 1 Cm = 2.998 × 109 × 102 = 2.998 × 1011 (esu) cm

Therefore in SI system, the unit of dipole moment is coulomb metre
2.998  1011 1
= 2.998  10 29 D 1D = = 3.336 10 −30 Cm
\ 1 Cm = 10 −18 or 2.998 10 29

Dipole moment is a vector quantity and is often indicated by an arrow parallel to the line
joining the point of charge and pointing towards the negative end e.g., .
% Ionic character of a covalent bond =
Experimental dipole moment
100
Theoretical dipole moment assuming100% ionic character

In general a polar bond is established between two atoms of different radii and different
electronegativities while positive centres (nuclei) of different magnitudes combine to share
an electron pair. Greater the values of the dipole moment, greater is the polarity of the
bond.

The following points may be borne in mind regarding dipole moments:

i) In case a molecule contains two or more polar bonds, its dipole moment is obtained by
the vectorial addition of the dipole moments of the constituent bonds.

ii) A symmetrical molecule is nonpolar even though it contains polar bonds.

For eg., carbon dioxide, methane and carbon tetrachloride, being symmetrical molecules,
have zero dipole moments.

Dipole moment of methyl chloride is a vectorial addition of dipole moments of three C –

H bonds and one C – Cl bond.
H Cl Cl

H F C C C

H H Cl Cl H
 = 1 .75 d H

H Cl H
 = 0D  = 0D  = 1 .86 D

Hydrogen Methane Carbon Methyl

fluoride tetrachloride chloride
Dipole moments of some molecules

Dipole moment gives valuable information about the structure of molecules. For eg.,
carbon dioxide is assigned a linear structure since its dipole moment is zero.
We have seen that in a polar covalent bond between two atoms (say A and B), there is a
partial separation of charge. This bond is, therefore, said to have a partial ionic character.
Greater the difference of electronegativity between A and B, greater is the degree of ionic
character (or polarity measured by dipole moment of AB) of the bond. Pauling gave a
decently accurate rule by which the nature of the bond can be predicted. According to this
rule, “If the difference on the electronegativity scale between the two atoms is 1.7, the
bond is 50% ionic in character. When the difference is greater than 1.7, the bond is
correspondingly more ionic”.
Bond Strength and Bond Length
The average distance between two nuclei of the bonded atoms measured in angstroms.
Bond energy or bond strength in the amount of energy required to break one mole of
covalent bonds in gas phase. Greater the bond energy of a bond more stronger the bond
and more stable the bond.

Bond length  1 / Bond strength ; Bond length  1 / Bond Energy

Bond energy increases as the no. of bonds increase between the atoms.

Bond Energies C−C  C = C  C  C

Bond Lengths C  C  C = C  C−C

Bond Energies C −N  C = N  C  N

Bond Lengths C  N  C = N  C −N

Bond energy increases as the contribution of p-orbitals increases in hybrid orbitals

sp–sp<sp2 - sp2<sp3 - sp3 (Bond Lengths)

sp–sp>sp2 - sp2>sp3 - sp3 (Bond Energies)

Bond angle

The angle between two bonds sharing a common atom is known as the bond angle. Bond
angle depends on the geometry of the molecule. For eg. the bond angle in tetrahedral
geometry is 109028’ while bond angle in planar geometry is 1200 . Bond angle also
depends on the electronegativity of atoms bonded. For eg. the geometry of NH3 and NF3
is same but bond angle of NH3 is greater than NF3 because F has higher electronegativity
than H. The electron pair is attracted more towards F in NF3 i.e. the bond pairs of
electrons are away from N. The distance between bond pairs is more. Hence repulsion
between bond pairs in NF3 is less than NH3. As a result, the bond angle decreases to
102.4°. Whereas in NH3 it decreases to 107.3° only.

N N
H H F F
H F
107.3° 102.4°

Coordinate Bond
It is a special type of covalent bond in which both the shared electrons are contributed by
one atom only. It may be defined as “a covalent bond in which both electrons of the
shared pair are contributed by one of the two atoms”. Such a bond is also called as
dative bond. A coordinate or a dative bond is established between two such atoms, one of
which has a complete octet and possesses a pair of valence electrons while the other is
short of a pair of electrons.
xx xx
A + B xx A B x or A B
xx xx x

This bond is represented by an arrow (→) pointing towards acceptor atom.

The atom which contributes electron pair is called the donor whilethe atom which accepts
it is called acceptor.
The compound consisting of the coordinate bond is termed coordinate compound. Some
eg.s of coordinate bond formation are given below:

i) Formation of ammonium ion: Hydrogen ion (H+) has no electrons and thus accepts a
lone pair donated by nitrogen.
H H
+
H N + H H N H

H H

ii) Formation of CO: Carbon has four valency electrons and oxygen has six. They
combine to form two double bond and a coordinate bond to achieve their octet.
xx
C + xxOxx C Oxx
Acceptor Donor

Characteristics of Coordinate Compounds: The properties of coordinate compounds are

intermediate between the properties of electrovalent compounds and covalent compounds.
The main properties are described below:
i) Melting and Boiling Points: Their melting and boiling points are higher than purely
covalent compounds and lower than ionic compounds.
ii) Solubility: These are sparingly soluble in polar solvents like water but readily soluble
in nonpolar (organic) solvents.
iii) Conductivity: Like covalent compounds, these are also bad conductors of electricity.
The solutions or fused mass do not allow the passage of electricity.
Which of the following compound contains both ionic as well as covalent bonds only .
(A) NaCl (B) NaOH (C) CH4 (D) NH4Cl

Ans: (B)NaOH contains an ionic bond between Na+ and OH- and a covalent bond between O
and H
VALENCE BOND THEORY
This theory was proposed by Linus Pauling, who was awarded the Noble Prize for
chemistry 1954. Atoms with unpaired electrons tend to combine with other atoms which
also have unpaired electrons. In this way the unpaired electrons are paired up, and the
atoms involved, all attain a stable electronic arrangement. This is usually a full shell of
electrons (i.e. a noble gas configuration). Two electrons shared between two atoms
constitute a bond. The number of bonds formed by an atom is usually the same as the
number of unpaired electrons in the ground state, i.e. the lowest energy state. However, in
some cases the atom may form more bonds than this. This occurs by excitation of the atom
(i.e. providing it with energy) when electrons which were paired in the ground state are
unpaired and promoted into suitable empty orbitals. This increases the number of unpaired
electrons and hence it the number of bonds which can be formed.
A covalent bond results from the pairing of electrons (one from each atom). The spins of
the two electrons must be opposite (antiparallel) because of the Pauli exclusion principle
that no two electrons in one atom can have all four quantum numbers the same.
1. In HF, H has a singly occupied s-orbital that overlaps with a singly filled 2p orbital on
F.
2. In H2O, the O atom has two singly filled 2p orbitals, each of which overlaps with a
single occupied s-orbital from two H atoms.
3. In NH3, there are three singly occupied p orbitals on N which overlap with s orbitals
from three H atoms.
4. In CH4the C atom in its ground state has the electronic configuration 1s2, 2s2, 2p2 , and
only has two unpaired electrons, and so can form only two bonds. If the C atom is
excited, then the 2s electrons may be unpaired, giving 1s2, 2s1,2p3 ,, . There are now
four unpaired electrons which overlap with singly occupied s orbitals on four H atoms.

2p
2s 2px 2py 2pz
Electronic structure of
carbon atom - groun state

1s 2s 2p
Carbon atom - excited
state

Carbon atom having

gained four electrons
from H atoms in CH4
molecule. sp3 hybridisation

CH4 molecule uses its three p-orbitals px, py and pz, which are mutually at right angles to
each other, and the s orbital is spherically symmetrical. So, they form tetrahedral structure.

CH4 H – C – H = 109°28

Sigma and Pi Bonds (s and p Bonds)

A covalent bond is formed by the overlapping of atomic orbitals. Covalent bonds formed
are of two types depending upon the way the orbitals overlap each other.
1. Sigma bond (s bond):bond formed by the overlapping of two half-filled atomic orbitals
along their axis is known as sigma bond. s bond is a strong bond because overlapping
in it takes place to large extent. The hybrid orbitals always from  bond.

Molecular axis
a) s – s overlapping

b) s – p overlapping
head on
overlap
pz pz  M.O.
c) p – p overlapping
p-p overlap

2. Pi bond (p bond): The bond formed by the lateral overlapping of half-filled atomic
orbitals is known as pi bond. The sidewise overlapping takes place to less extent.
Therefore, p bond formed is a weak bond. p bond overlapping takes place only at the sides
of two lobes. A p bond is formed when a s bond already exists between the combining
atoms.

p p p-p overlapping  M.O.

Eg.:
In A – B molecule the bond formed is s bond.

In A B, molecule there are one  and one  bonds



In A B, molecule there are one  and two  bonds


Thus, all the single bonds are  bonds. Double bond has one  and one  bond. Triple
bond has one s and two p bonds.

Practice Questions for lecture 3 & 4 :

Q.1 The bond in the formation of fluorine molecule will be

(A) Due to s – s overlapping (B) Due to s – p overlapping

(C) Due to p – p overlapping (D) Due to p – s overlapping

Q.2 Which type if overlapping results in the formation of a  bond

(A) Axial overlapping of s – s orbitals

(B)Lateral overlapping of p – p orbital

(C) Axial overlapping of p – p orbitals

(D) Lateral overlapping of s – p orbital

Q.3 In a double bond involving two atoms, there is a sharing of ____ electrons between them

(A) 2 electrons (B) 1 electron (C) 4 electron (D) 1 electron

Q.4 Strongest bond is

(A) C – C (B) C = C

(C) C  C (D) All are equally strong

Q.5 Strongest bond formed, when atomic orbitals have

(A) Maximum overlap (B) Minimum overlap

(C) No overlapping (D) None of them

Q.6 Number of sigma bonds in P4O10 is

(A) 6 (B) 7 (C) 17 (D) 16

Q.7 What is the ratio of number of  bonds to  bonds in benzene?

(A) 1 : 1 (B) 1 : 2 (C) 2 : 1 (D) 4 :1

Q.8 In a SO2 molecule the 6 electrons of sulphur are present in

(A) Two  and two  (B) Two  and one 

Q.9 Which of the following has more than 1  bond

− 2− −3
(A) NO3 (B) CO3 (C) PO4 (D) SO3

Q.10 In N2 molecule, the atoms are bonded by

(A) one  , two  (B) ) one  , one 

(C) ) Two  , one  (D) ) Three  bonds

Q.11 The electronic configuration of four element are given in brackets

L(1s2, 2s22p1); M (1s2, 2s22p5)

Q (1s 2 , 2s 2 2 p 6 , 3s1 ) ; R (1s 2 , 2s 2 2 P 2 )

The element that would most readily form a diatomic molecule is

(A) Q (B) M (C) R (D) L

Q.12 The electron pair which forms a bond between two similar non- metallic atoms will be

(A) Dissimilarly shared between the two atoms

(B) Completely transferred from one atom to other

(C) In a similar spin condition

(D) Equally shared in between the two atoms

Q.13 Which type of bond cannot be formed between similar non metallic atoms

(A) Ionic (B) Covalent (C)Vanderwaal’s (D) Metallic

Q.14 Which one is an example of an electron deficient compound

(A) ICI (B) NH3 (C) BCl3 (D) PCl3

Q.15 Which among the following elements has the highest tendency to form covalent
compounds

(A) Ba (B) Be (C) Mg (D) Ca

Q.16 Ionic and covalent bonds are present in

(A) CCl4 (B) CaCl2 (C) NH4Cl (D) H2O

Q.17 If a molecule X2 has a triple bond, then X will have the electronic configuration

(A) 1s22s22p5 (B) 1s22s22p3 (C) 1s22s1 (D) 1s22s22p1

Q.18 Which of the following compounds does not follow the octet rule for electron
distribution

(A) PCl5 (B) PCl3 (C) H2O (D) PH3

Q.19 The number of electrons shared between two atoms in an N2 molecule is

(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 6

Q.20 The covalent compound HCl has some ionic character because

(Hint : As we go away from F in any direction the value of eletronegativity decreases )

(A) The electronegativity of hydrogen is greater than that of chlorine by a significant

amount

(B) The electronegativity of hydrogen is equal to that of chlorine

(C) The electronegativity of chlorine is greater than that of hydrogen by a significant

amount

(D) Hydrogen and chlorine are gases

RESONANCE

*Q.21 Resonating structures of a molecule should have:

(A) non identical sigma & pi bonds (B) identical arrangement of atoms
(C) nearly the same energy content (D) the same number of paired electrons

*Q.22 Which of the following conditions apply to resonating structures ?

(A) The contributing structures should have similar energies

(B) The contributing structures should be represented such that unlike formal charges
reside on atoms that are far apart
(C) The more electropositive element should preferably have positive formal charge and
the more electronegative element have negative formal charge
(D) The contributing structures must have the same number of unpaired electrons

*Q.23 N2O has a linear, unsymmetrical structure that may be thought of as a hybrid of two
resonance forms. If a resonance form must have a satisfactory Lewis structure, which of
the five structures shown below are the resonance forms of N2O ?
— + –
+ ••
•
– + ••
•N = N = O•• •• •• •• ••
•
•N  N − O••
•
= O••
(A) • N = N
•• •• • ••
(B) (C) • N− N  O•• (D) •
•N = N − O•• (E)

*Q.24 Resonance occurs due to the

(A) delocalization of a lone pair of electrons (B) delocalization of sigma electrons
(C) delocalization of pi electrons (D) migration of protons

CO-ORDINATE BOND

Q.25 NH3and BF3 combine readily because of the formation of :

(A) a covalent bond (B) a hydrogen bond (C) a coordinate bond (D) an ionic bond

Q.26 Which of the following species contain covalent coordinate bond :

(A) N2 (B) CO (C) NH4Cl (D) CO2

*Q.27 Which of the following molecules does not have coordinate bonds?
(A) CH3Cl (B) CO (C) NH4+ (D)NH3

LEWIS STRUCTURE

Q.28 Which of the following Lewis diagrams is(are) incorrect ?

+
 H 
Cl  | 
H − N − H  H H
•• •• Cl C Cl  |  | |
Na − O − C l ••  H  [ S]2- H − N− N− H
(A) •• ••
(B) Cl (C) 2 (D) • • • •

Q.29 The possible structure(s) of monothiocarbonate ion is :

C C S S

S S C C
O O O O O O O O
(A) (B) (C) (D)

Q.30 The valency of sulphur in sulphuric acid is :

(A) 2 (B) 8 (C) 4 (D) 6

Q.31 The total number of valence electrons in 56g of FERROUS ion are :
(A) 2.2 NA (B) 4.2 NA (C)0NA (D) 3.2 NA

*Q.32 No bond exists in which of the following compounds having SAME structures ?
(A)CO32- (B)NO3- (C)Al2O3 (D)C2H6

*Q.33 Pick out among the following species isoelectronic with :

(A) N 3− (B) (CNO ) − (C) (NCN )
2− −
(D) NO2

*Q.34 Which of the following have a three dimensional network structure ?

(A) SiO2 (B) Diamond (C) P4 (D) CCl4

COVALENT BOND
Q.35 A sigma bond may be formed by the overlap of 2 atomic orbitals of atoms A and B. If the
bond is formed along as the x-axis, which of the following overlaps is acceptable ?
(A) Px orbital of A and Py orbital of B (B) py orbital of A and pz orbital of B
(C) pz orbital of A and px orbital of B (D) px orbital of A and s orbital of B

Q.36 The maximum covalency is equal to

(A) the number of unpaired p-electrons
(B) the number of paired d-electrons
(C) the number of unpaired s and p-electrons
(D) the actual number of s and p-electrons in the outermost shell.

Q.37 How many bonded electron pairs are present in IF7 molecule :
(A) 6 (B) 7 (C) 5 (D) 8

Q.38 PCl5 exists but NCl5 does not because :

(A) Nitrogen has no vacant 2d-orbitals (B) is unstable
(C) Nitrogen atom is much smaller than P (D) Nitrogen is highly inert

Q.39 Which of the following has/have a strong covalent bond?

(A) Cl-F (B) F-F (C) C-Cl (D) C-F

*Q.40 Which of the following statements is/are true?

(A) Covalent bonds are directional
(B) Ionic bonds are non-directional
(C) A polar bond is formed between two atoms which have the same electronegativity
value.
(D) The presence of polar bonds in a polyatomic molecule suggests that it has zero
dipole moment

*Q.41 The octet rule is not obeyed in :

(A) CO2 (B) BCl3 (C) PCl5 (D) SiF4

*Q.42 Which of the following two substances are expected to be more covalent :
(A) BeCl2 (B) SnCl4 (C) ZnS (D) ZnCl2

*Q.43 To which of the following species octet rule is not applicable :

(A) BrF5 (B) SF6 (C) 7
IF (D)CO

Q.44 Which of the following species are hypervalent?

1. ClO4–, 2. BF3, 3. SO42– , 4. CO32–
(A) 1, 2, 3 (B) 1, 3 (C) 3, 4 (D) 1, 2

Q.45 The types of bond present in N2O5 are

(A) only covalent (B) only ionic
(C) ionic and covalent (D) covalent & coordinate

Answer Key for Lecture 3 & 4:

Q.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans C B C C A D D C D A
Q.No 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans B D B C B C B A D C
Q.No 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans BCD ABCD AE AC C A AD A D D
Q.No 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans C AB ABC AB D D B A D AB
Q.No 41 42 43 44 45
Ans BC AB ABC B D

Lecture 5 & 6

HYBRIDIZATION :
It is the mathematically fabricated concept that is introduced to explain the
geometry/shapes of the covalent molecules of polyatomic ions containing covalent bonds.
It is a process of intermixing of atomic orbitals with small difference in energy and
belonging to the same atom, at the time of bonding to give another set of orbitals with
equivalent shapes and energies.

sp3 Hybridization: In ground state, the electronic configuration of carbon is 1s2, 2s2,
2p2. It is proposed that from 2s orbital, being quite near in energy to 2p orbitals, one
electron may be promoted to the vacant 2pz orbital thus obtaining the excited atom. At this
stage the carbon atom undoubtedly has four half-filled orbitals and can form four bonds.
In the excited atom, all the four valence shell orbitals may mix up to give four identical
sp3 hybrid orbitals. Each of these four sp3 orbital possesses one electron and overlaps
with 1s orbitals of four H atoms thus forming four equivalent bonds in methane molecule.
Due to the tetrahedral disposition of sp3 hybrid orbitals, the orbital are inclined at an angle
of 109° 28’. Thus all the H– C– H angles are equal to 109° 28’

2p 2p
Promotion sp3
Energy

of an electron Hybridisation

2s 2s
Ground State Excited State Hybridised State

H
H

109.5°
C
H H
H H
H H

Shape and formation of methane molecule

sp2 Hybridization: When three out of the four valence orbitals of carbon atom in excited
state hybridize, we have three sp2 hybrid orbitals lying in a plane and inclined at an angle
of 120°. If 2s and2p, orbitals of the excited carbon atom are hybridized, the new orbitals
lie in the xy plane while the fourth pure 2pz orbitals lies at right angles to the hybridized
orbitals with its two lobes disposed above and below the plane of hybrid orbitals. Two

such carbon atoms are involved in the formation of alkenes (compounds having double
bonds). In the formation of ethene two carbon atoms (in sp2 hybridization state) form one
sigma bond by ‘head-on’ overlap of two sp2 orbitals contributed one each by the two
atoms. The remaining two sp2 orbitals of each carbon form  bonds with H atoms. The
unhybridized 2p, orbitals of the two carbon atoms undergo a side-wise overlap forming a p
bond. Thus the carbon to carbon double bond in ethene is made of one  bond and one 
bond. Since the energy of a  bond is less than that of a  bond, the two bonds constituting
the ethene molecule are not identical in strength. The molecule is a planar one.

Pure p-orbital

2p 2p
Promotion sp2
Energy

of an electron Hybridisation
sp2 hybrid
orbitals

2s 2s
Ground State Excited State

pz pz
 
H H H
H
  
sp2 2 C C sp 2 2
sp sp
 H sp 2 sp 2  H H
 H

Orbital model of ethane molecule

Different types of hybridization depend upon the type of atomic orbitals, which are used
for intermixing.

Types of hybridization and spatial orientation of hybrid orbitals: The

geometry and shapes of various species on the basis of VSEPR theory along with hybrid state of
central atom is given below in tabular form.

Orientation
Types of atomic
Hybridization of hybrid Examples
orbitals used
orbitals

1. one s + one p-orbital sp Linear BeF2 , BeCl 2 , C 2 H 2 , HgCl 2

Trigonal
2. one s + two p-orbitals sp 2 planar BF3 , C 2 H 4 , NO3− , CO32−
one s + three p-
3.
orbitals sp 3 Tetrahedral CH 4 , CCl4 , SiF4 , NH+4 , SO 24− , ClO −4
Trigonal
4. one s + three p + d sp 3 d bipyramidal
PF5 , PCl5

one s + three p + two

5.
d
sp 3 d 2 Octahedral SF5 , [CrF6 ]3− , IF5
one s + three p+three Pentagonal
6.
d sp 3 d 3 Bipyramidal
IF7

Square Only in complexes like

7. One d + one s + two p dsp 2
[ Ni(CN) 4 ) 2− , [PtCl 4 ]2− etc.
planar
Note: i) Orbitals participating in hybridization must have only small difference in their
energies.
ii) Both half-filled and completely filled orbitals can get involved in hybridization.
iii) The number of hybrid orbitals is equal to the number of orbitals participating in
hybridization.
iv) Hybrid orbital form more stronger bonds than pure atomic orbitals.
v) Same atom can assume different hybrid states under different situations.
vi) Hybrid orbitals form sigma bonds.
Method of predicting the Hybrid state of the central atom in covalent molecules of
polyatomic ions:
The hybrid state of the central atom in similar covalent molecule or polyatomic ion can be
predicted by using the generalized formula as described below:

Simple Molecule Polyatomic Anion Poyatomic Cation

1 1 1
X = [V + G ] X = [V + G + a ] X = [ V + G − c]
2 2 2

In the above formulae,

a = Magnitude of charge on anion

c = Magnitude of charge on cation
Calculate the value of X and decide the hybrid state of central atom as follows :
X 2 3 4 5 6 7

Hybrid state sp
sp 2 sp 3 sp 3 d sp 3 d 2 sp 3 d 3

PF5 COCl2
NH +4 ClO −4

X =12 [5 + 5] X =12 [2 + 4] X =12 [4 + 5 − 1] X =12 [0 + 7 + 1]

=5 =3 =4 =4

Hybrid state of P is 2 3 Hybrid state of Cl is

Hybrid state of C is sp Hybrid state of N is sp
3
sp d sp 3

NO3− IF5 CO2 XeF4

X =12 [0 + 5 + 1] X =12 [5 + 7] X =12 [0 + 4] X =12 [4 + 8]

=3 =6 =2 =6

sp
sp 2 sp 3 d 2 sp 3 d 2

PCl 6− PH3 SF3+ SF4

X =12 [6 + 5 + 1] X =12 [3 + 5] X =12 [3 + 6 − 1] X =12 [4 + 6]

=6 =4 =4 =5

Hybrid state Hybrid state Hybrid state Hybrid state

sp 3 d 2 sp 3 sp 3 sp 3 d

O O
Ques: EtherR R and water H H have same hybridization at oxygen. What
angle would you expect for them.

Solution: In H2O bond angle is less than 109°28 due to lone pair and bond pair repulsion.
But in ether, due to strong mutual repulsion between two alkyl groups bond angle
becomes greater than 109°28.

In following which central atom has different hybridization than other Cl 2O, OF2, H2O,
SO2.

Solution: SO2; because it has sp2 hybridization other three have sp3 hybridization.

Practice Questions for lecture 5 & 6 : Hybridization

Q.1 Which molecule is not linear

(A) BeF2 (B) BeH2 (C) O2 (D) H2O

Q.2 An sp3 hybridized orbital contains

1 1 2 3
(A) S − character (B) S − character (C) S − character (D) S − character
4 2 3 4

Q.3 Which of the following statements is not correct

(A) Hybridization is the mixing of atomic orbitals

(B)sp2 hybrid orbitals are formed from two p atomic orbital and one s atomic orbitals

(D) sp3d hybrid orbitals are all at 90° to one another

Q.4 In which of the following the central atom does not use sp3 hybrid orbitals in its bonding
− − −
(A) BeF3 (B) OH 3 (C) NH 2 (C) NF3

Q.5 The hybridization in OF2 is

(A) sp (B) sp2 (C) sp3 (D) sp3d

Q.6 The C-H bond distance is the longest in

(A) C2H2 (B)C2H4 (C) C2H4Br2 (D) All have same

Q.7 Which one amongst the following possesses an sp hybridized carbon in its structure

(A) CH2 = C(Cl ) − CH = CH2 (C) CH 2 = CH2

(C) CH2 = C = CH2 (D) CH2 = CH − CH = CH 2

Q.8 In XeF4 hybridization is

(A) sp3d2 (B) sp3 (C) sp3d (D) sp3d3

Q.9 As the p- character increases, the bond angle in hybrid orbitals formed by s and atomic
orbitals

(A) Decreases (B) Increases

(C) Doubles (D) Remains unchanged

Q.10 Which of the following is isoelectronic as well as has same structure as that of N2O

(A) N3H (B) H2O (C) NO2 (D) CO2

Q.11The strength of bonds by s − s, p − p, s − p overlap is in the order :

(A) s−s  s− p  p− p (B) s − s  p − p  s − p
(C)
s− ps−s p− p (D) p − p  s − s  s − p
1 2 3

Q.12 In the following compound C H 2 = C H − C CH 2 − C  CH , the C2 − C3 bond is of the type :

(A) sp − sp (B) sp − sp (C) sp − sp (D) sp − sp
2 3 3 3 2 3

Q.13 Which of the following has a geometry different from the other three species (having the
same geometry)?
− 2− +
(A) BF4 (B) SO4 (C) XeF4 (D) PH 4

Q.14 Maximum bond energy is in :

(A) F2 (B) N2 (C)
O2 (D) equal
− +
Q.15 Among the following species, identify the isostructural pairs : NF3 , NO3 , BF3 , H 3O , HN3
− + −
(A) [ NF3 , NO3 ] and [BF3 , H 3O ] (B) [ NF3 , HN3 ] and [ NO3 , BF3 ]
+
] and [ NO3− , BF3 ] +
(C) [ NF3 , H3O (D) [ NF3 , H 3O ] and [ HN3 , BF3 ]

Q.16 Number and type of bonds between two carbon atoms in CaC2are :
(A) one sigma () and one pi () bond (B) one  and two  bonds
(C) one and one and a half  bond (D) one  bond

Q.17 In bond is undergoes heterolytic fission, the hybridization of two resulting carbon
atoms is/are
2 3 2
(A) both sp3 (B) both sp2 (C) sp , sp (D) sp, sp

Q18. In bond is undergoes homolytic fission, the hybridization of two resulting carbon atoms
is/are
2 3 2
(A) both sp3 (B) both sp2 (C) sp , sp (D) sp, sp

Q19. How many sigma and pi bonds are present in tetracyanoethylene ?

(A) Nine  and nine  (B) Five  and nine 

(C) Nine  and seven  (D) Eight  and eight 

Q20. Phosphorus pentachloride, PCl5, dissociates in the vapour phase according to the equation

+
PCl5(g) PC l 4 + Cl–

+
The hybridisaton of P in PCl5 is sp3d. What is the hybridization of P in PC l 4 ion?

(A) sp3 (B) sp3d

(C) sp3d2 (D) dsp2

Answer Key for Lecture 5 and 6

Q.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans D A D A C C C A A D
Q.No 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans A D C B C B C B A A

Lecture 7 & 8

VALENCE SHELL ELECTRON PAIR REPULSION (VSEPR) THEORY

In 1957 Gillespie and Nyhlom gave this theory to predict and explain molecular shapes
and bond angles more exactly. The theory was developed extensively by Gillespie as the
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory. This may be summarized as:
1. The shape of the molecule is determined by repulsions between all of the electron pairs
present in the valence shell.
2. A lone pair of electrons takes up more space round the central atom than a bond pair,
since the lone pair is attracted to one nucleus whilst the bond pair is shared by two
nuclei. It follows that repulsion between two lone pairs is greater than repulsion
between a lone pair and a bond pair, which in turn is greater than the repulsion between
two bond pairs. Thus the presence of lone pairs on the central atom causes slight
distortion of the bond angles from the ideal shape. If the angle between a lone pair, the
central atom and a bond pair is increased, it follows that the actual bond angles between
the atoms must be decreased. The order of repulsion between lone pairs and bond pairs
of electrons follows the order as:
Lone pair – lone pair repulsion > lone pair – bond pair repulsion > bond pair – bond pair
repulsion.
3. The magnitude of repulsions between bonding pairs of electrons depends on the
electronegativity difference between the central atom and the other atoms.
4. Double bonds cause more repulsion than single bonds, and triple bonds cause more
repulsion than a double bond.
Effect of Lone Pairs: Molecules with four electron pairs in their outer shell are based on a
tetrahedron. In CH4 there are four bonding pairs of electrons in the outer shell of the C
atom, and the structure is a regular tetrahedron with bond angle H – C – H of 109°28’. In
NH3 and N atom has four electron pairs in the outer shell, made up of three bond pairs and
one lone pair. Because of the lone pair, the bond angle H – N – H is reduced from the
theoretical tetrahedral angle of 109°28’ to 107°28’. In H2O the O atom has four electron
pairs in the outer shell. The shape of the H2O molecule is based on a tetrahedron with two
corners occupied by bond pairs and the other two corners occupied by lone pairs. The
presence of two lone pairs reduces the bond angle further to 104°27’.
In a similar way, SF6 has six bond pairs in the outer shell and is a regular octahedron with
bond angles of exactly 90°. In BrF5, the Br also has six outer pairs of electrons, made up
of five bond pairs and one lone pair. The lone pair reduces the bond angles to 84°30’.
Whilst it might be expected that two lone pairs would distort the bond angles in an
octahedral as in XeF4 but it is not so. Actual bond angle is 90°, reason being that the lone
pairs are trans to each other in the octahedron, and hence the atoms have a regular square
planar arrangement.
Molecules with five pairs of electrons are all based on a trigonalbipyramidal. Lone pairs
distort the structures as before. The lone pairs always occupy the equatorial positions (in

atriangle), rather than the axial positions (up and down). Thus in I3– ion, the central I
atom has five electron pairs in the outer shell, made of two bond pairs and three lone pairs.
The lone pairs occupy all three equatorial positions and the three atoms occupy the top,
middle, and bottom positions in the trigonalbipyramidal, thus giving a linear arrangement
with a bond angle of exactly 180°.
Effect of Electronegativity: NF3 and NH3 both have structures based on a tetrahedron with
one corner occupied by a lone pair. The high electronegativity of F push the bonding
electrons further away from N than in NH3. Hence the lone pair in NF3 causes a greater
distortion from tetrahedral and gives a F – N – F bond angle of 102°28’, compared with
107°46’ in NH3. The same effect is found in H2O (bond angle 104°28’) and F2O (bond
angle 102°).
The effects of bonding and lone pairs on bond angles

Orbitals on Number of Number of

Shape Bond angle
central atom bond pairs lone pairs

BeCl2 2 Linear 2 0 180°

BF3 3 Plane triangle 3 0 120°

CH4 4 Tetrahedral 4 0 109°28

NH3 4 Pyramidal 3 1 107°48
NF3 4 Pyramidal 3 1 102°30
H2O 4 Bent (V-shape) 2 2 104°27
F2O 4 Bent (V-shape) 2 2 102°

PCl5 5 Trigonal bipyramid 5 0 120° and 90°

SF4 5 Trigonal bipyramid 4 1 101°36 and 86°33
ClF3 5 T-shape 3 2 87°40
XeF2 5 Linear 2 3 180°

SF6 6 Octahedral 6 0 90°

BrF5 6 Square pyramidal 5 1 84°30
XeF4 6 Square planar 4 2 90°

Some examples using the VSEPR Theory

Phosphorus pentachloridePCl5:

Gaseous PCl5 is covalent. (The electronic structure P is Cl

1s22s22p63s23p3). All five outer electrons are used to form bonds

to the five Cl atoms. In the PCl5 molecule the valence shell of the Cl Cl
P atom contains five electron pairs: hence the structure is a trigonal P
bipyramidal. There are no lone pairs, so the structure is not
distorted. However, a trigonal bipyramid is not a completely Cl
regular structure, since some bond angels are 90° and others 120°.
Symmetrical structures are usually more stable than asymmetrical
ones. Cl
Structure of PCl5 molecule

Chlorine trifluoride ClF3: The chlorine atom is at the centre of the molecule and
determines its shape. The electronic configuration of Cl is 1s22s22p63s23p5. Three
electrons form bonds to F, and four electrons do not take part in bonding. Thus in ClF3,
the Cl atom has five electron pairs in the outer shell, hence the structure is a trigonal
bipyramid. There are three bond pairs and two lone pairs.
It was noted previously that a trigonal bipyramid is not a regular shape since the bond
angles are not all the same. It therefore follows that all the corners are not equivalent.
Lone pair occupy two of the corners, and F atoms occupy the other three corners. Three
different arrangements are theoretically possible, as shown in figure below.
The most stable structure will be the one of lowest energy, that is the one with the
minimum repulsion between the five orbitals. The great repulsion occurs between two
lone pairs. Lone pair bond pair repulsions are next strongest, and bond pair-bond pair
repulsions are weakest. Groups at 90° repel each other strongly, whilst groups 120° apart
repel each other much less.
F F

F F F F
Cl Cl Cl

F F

F
I II III
Chlorine trifluoride molecule

Structure I is the most symmetrical, but has six 90° repulsions between lone pairs and
atoms. Structure II has one 90° repulsion between two lone pairs, plus three 90° repulsions
between lone pairs and atoms. These factors indicate that structure III is the most
probable. The observed bond angles are 80°40, which is close to the theoretical 90°. This
confirms that the correct structure is III, and the slight distortion from 90° is caused by the
presence of the two lone pairs.

As a rule, if lone pairs occur in a trigonalbipyramid they will be located in the equatorial
position (round the middle) rather than the axial positions (top and bottom), since this
arrangement minimizes repulsive forces.

Sulphur hexafluoride SF6: The electronic structure of S is 1s22s22p63s23p6. All six of

the outer electrons are used to form bonds with the F atoms. Thus in SF6, the S has six
electron pairs in the outer shell: hence the structure is octahedral. There are no lone pairs,
F
F F

F F

so the structure is completely regular with bond angles of 90°. F

Practice Questions for lecture 7 & 8 :

Q.1 The geometry of the molecule with sp3d2 hybridized central atom is

(A) Square planar (B) Trigonal bipyramidal

(C) Octahedral (D) Square pyramidal

Q.2 The smallest bond angle is found in

(A) IF7 (B) CH4 (C) BeF2 (D) BF3

Q.3 The shapes of BCl3, PCl3 and ICl3 molecules are all

(A) Trigonal planar (B) Pyramidal

(C) T-shaped (D) All above are incorrect

Q.4 The structure of PF5 molecule is

(A) Tetrahedral (B) Trigonal bipyramidal

(C) Square planar (D) Pentagonal bipyramidal

Q.5 The geometry of Sulphur trioxide gaseous molecule is

(A) Tetrahedral (B) Trigonal planar

(C) Pyramidal (D) Square planar

Q.6 Among the following compounds which is planar

(A) Methane (B) CH2Cl2 (C) Benzene (D) Isobutene

Q.7 Which molecule is linear

(A) NO2 (B) ClO2 (C) CO2 (D) H2S

Q.8 Which of the following molecules has trigonal planar geometry

(A) PF3 (B) PCl3 (C) NH3 (D) BF3

Q.9 Compound formed by sp3 hybridization with one one lone pair will have structure

(A) Planar (B) Pyramidal

(C) Angular (D) Trigonal bipyramidal

Q.10 Shape of XeF4 molecule is

(A) Linear (B) Pyramidal

(C) Tetrahedral (D) Square planar

Q.11 Molecular species of SF4, CF4 and XeF4 are

(A) the same, with 2, 0 and 1 lone pairs of electrons respectively.
(B) the same, with 1, 1 and 1 lone pairs of electrons respectively.
(C) different, with 0, 1 and 2 lone pairs of electrons respectively.
(D) different, with 1, 0 and 2 lone pairs of electrons respectively.

Q.12 Angle between two hybridized orbital is 105o and hence the percentage of s-character in
the hybridized orbital would be in the range

(A) 23–24% (B) 20–21%

(C) 19–20% (D) 21–22%

+
− −
Q.13 There are four species CO2, N 3 , N O2 and I 3 . Which of the following statement is
correct about these species?

(A) All are linear and having sp hybridization of central atoms

− −
(B) All are linear but only CO2 and N 3 and I 3 have sp hybridization on their central
atom.
+
−
(C) All are linear but only CO2, N 3 and N O2 have sp hybridization on their central
atom.
+
− −
(D) CO2, N 3 , N O2 are linear but I 3 is not

Q.14 In the dichromate dianion:

(A) 4 Cr–O bonds are equivalent (B) 6 Cr—O bonds are equivalent

Q.15 Match List I (species) with List II (Hybridisation) and select the correct answer using the
codes given below

List – I List – II

A. BCl3 a. sp3

B. NH3 b. sp3 d2

C. PCl5 c. sp2

D. XeF4 d. sp3d

Codes
A B C D
(A) c a d b
(C) a c d b
(C) a b d c
(D) c a b d

Answer Key for Lecture 7 & 8 :

Q.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ans C A D B B C C D B D

Q.No 11 12 13 14 15

Ans D A C B A

Lecture 9 & 10

THEORY OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES : Hydrogen Bonding

In 1920, Latimer and Rodebush introduced the idea of “hydrogen bond” to explain the nature of
association in liquid state of substance like water, hydrogen fluoride, ammonia, formic acid etc.
In a hydrogen compound, when hydrogen is bonded to highly electronegative atom (such as F,
O, N) by a covalent bond, the electron pair is attracted towards electronegative atom so strongly
that a dipole results i.e., one end carries a positive charge (H-end) and other end carries a
negative charge (X-end).

− + − +
X H or X H

Electro-negative atom

If a number of such molecules are brought nearer to each other, the positive end of one molecule
and negative end of the other molecule will attract eachother and weak electrostatic force will
develop. Thus, these molecules will associate together to form a cluster of molecules.
𝛿− 𝛿+ 𝛿− 𝛿+ 𝛿− 𝛿+ 𝛿− 𝛿+ 𝛿− 𝛿+
𝑋 −𝐻⋯𝑋 −𝐻⋯𝑋 −𝐻⋯𝑋 −𝐻⋯𝑋−𝐻

The attractive force that binds hydrogen atom of one molecule with electronegative atom of the
other molecule of the same or different substance is known as hydrogen bond.

Hydrogen bonding is of two types:

a) Intermolecular hydrogen bonding: This type of bonding results between the positive
and negative ends of different molecules of the same or different substances.

Example

i) Ammonia

+ + + + +
H H H H H
+
− − − − − 
N H N H N H N H N H

H H H H H
+ + + + +

ii) Water

+ + + +
H H H H
− − − −
O H O H O H O H

iii) Acetic acid

O H O
H3C CH3
O H O

This type of hydrogen bonding increases the boiling point of the compound and also its
solubility in water. The increase in boiling point is due to association of several
molecules of the compound.

b) Intramolecular hydrogen bonding: This type of bonding results between hydrogen and
an electronegative element both present in the same molecule. This type of bonding is
generally present in organic compounds. Examples are o-nitro-phenol, o-hydroxy
benzoic acid, etc.
O - O -
H H
O O
N

O O
o-Nitrophenol o-Hydroxy benzoic acid

This type of bonding decreases the boiling point of the compound. The solubility of the
compound also decreases. Hence compound becomes more volatile.

Properties Explained by Hydrogen Bonding

a) Strength of certain acids and bases can be explained by hydrogen bonding.

b) Solubility: An organic substance is said to be insoluble in water if it does not form

hydrogen bonding with water. The organic compound like alkanes, alkenes, ethers, etc.,
are insoluble in water as they do not form hydrogen bonding with water, while alcohols
and acids are soluble because they readily form hydrogen bonds with water.

i) Melting and boiling points of hydrides of N, O and F.If the melting points and
boiling points of the hydrides of the elements of IVA, VA, VIA and VIIA groups are
plotted against the molecular weights of these hydrides, we shall get the plots as
shown in figure (A) and (B).

From these plots it may be seen that although in case of SbH3, AsH3, PH3 (VA group
elements hydrides), H2Te, H2Se, H2S (VI A group elements hydrides) and HI, HBr,
HCl (VIII group elements hydrides) there is a progressive decrease in their mp’s and
b.p’s with the decrease in their molecular weights, the mp’s and b.p’s of NH3, H2O
and HF hydrides suddenly increase with a further decrease of their molecular
weights. The sudden increase in mp’s and bp’s in these hydrides is due to the inter-
molecular H-bonding in between H and F in case of HF, in between H and O in case
of H2O and in between H and N in case of NH3 respectively. The existence of H-
bonding in these molecules gives polymerized molecules (NH3)n. Thusmp’s and bp’s
of these molecules are suddenly raised.

Having no power to form H-bonds, the simple carbon family hydrides (SnH4, GeH4,
SiH4 and CH4) show a decrease in their bp’s and mp’s with the decrease in their
molecular weights.

100 100
H2 O

HF
Melting points (°C) increasing H 2 Se

Boiling points (°C) increasing

H2O
VIA
0 0
H 2 Se H 2 Se SbH 3
VIA NH 3 H2S VA
H 2 Se VIIIA VIIIA
HI
H2 S HI
NH 3 VA HCl
HBr SbH 3 HBr
HCl IVA
-100 HF -100 SnH 4
PH3 GeH 4
AsH 3
PH3 SnH 4 SnH 4
IVA
GeH 4
CH 4 SnH 4 CH 4

-200 -200
Molecular weight increasing Molecular weight increasing
(a) (b)

ii) Ice has less density than water.The explanation of this fact is as follows: In the
crystal structure of ice, the O-atom is surrounded by four H-atoms. Two H-atoms are
linked to O-atom by covalent bonds as shown (by normal covalent bond) and the
remaining two H-atoms are linked to O-atom by two H-bonds shown by dotted lines.
Thus in ice every water molecule is associated with four other water molecules by H-
bonding in a tetrahedral fashion. Ice has an open cage like structure with a large
empty space due to the existence of H-bonds. As ice melts at 0°C, a number of H-
bonds are broken down and the space between water molecules decreases so that
water molecules move closer together. The density of water increases, from 0° to
4°C, and at 4°C it is maximum. Above 4°C the increase in kinetic energy of the
molecules is enough to cause the molecules to begin to disperse and the result is that
the density decrease with increasing temperature.

H H

2.76Å 1.80Å

-
H Open cage-like tetrahedral crystal structure
of ice. Circles indicate oxygen atoms.
0.96Å
0.96Å
Bonds represented by solid line are normal
wa ter molecule covalent bonds while those represented by
dotted lines are hydrogen bonds.
H
H H

H H
H

Practice questions for lecture 9 & 10 :

Q.1 In time following which bond will be responsible for maximum strength of hydrogen
bond

(A) O – H (B) N – H (C) S – H (D) F – H

Q.2 In the following which has highest boiling point

(A) HI (B) HF (C) HBr (D) HCl

Q.3 The reason for exceptionally high boiling point of water is

(A) Its high specific heat

(B) Its high dielectric constant

(C) Low ionization of water molecules

(D) Hydrogen bonding between molecules of water

Q.4 Which concept best explains that o- nitrophenol is more volatile than p - nitrophenol

(A) Resonance (B) Hyperconjugation

(C) Hydrogen bonding (D) Steric hindrance

Q.5 Which of the following compounds can form hydrogen bond is strongest in

(A) CH4 (B) NaCl (C) CHCl3 (D) H2O

Q.6 The hydrogen bond is strongest in (good question get it discussed in the lecture)

(A) Water (B) Ammonia (C) HF (D) Acetic acid

Q.7 For and , the correct order of increasing extent of hydrogen bonding is :
(A) H 2O  HF  H 2O2  H 2 S (B) H 2O  HF  H 2 S  H 2O2
(C) HF  H 2O  H 2O2  H 2 S (D) H 2O2  H 2O  HF  H 2 S

Q.8 Ethanol and dimethyl ether form a pair of functional isomers. The boiling point of
ethanol is higher than that of dimethyl ether due to

(A) Hydrogen bonding in ethanol

(B) Hydrogen bonding in dimethyl ether

(C) CH3 group in ethanol

(D) CH3 group in dimethyl ether

Q.9 Which of the following hydrogen bonds are strongest in vapour phase

(A) HF - - - - HF (B) HF- - - - (HCl)

(C) HCl - - - HCl (D) HCl - - - HF

Q.10 Select the compound from the following which dissolves in water

(A) CCl4 (B) CS2 (C) CHCl3 (D) C2H5OH

Q.11 Orthonitrophenol is steam volatile but paranitrophenol is not because

(A) orthonitrophenol has intramolecular hydrogen bonding while paranitrophenol has
intermolecular hydrogen bonding.
(B) both ortho and paranitrophenol have intramolecular hydrogen bonding.
(C) orthonitrophenol has intermolecular hydrogen bonding and paranitrophenol has
intramolecular hydrogen bonding.
(D) Van der Waals forces are dominant in orthonitrophenol.
Q.12 In which of the following structures is the energy requirement maximum for the
formation of a hydrogen bond?

(A) F—H----F (B) F—H----O (C) O—H----O (D) O—H----

Q. 13 Hydrogen bonding is exhibited by

(A) all substances containing H atoms

(B) molecules in which hydrogen is bonded to F, O or N

(D) all substances containing H and O atoms

Q. 14 When two ice cubes are pressed together, they join to form one cube. Which of the
following forces helps hold them together?

(A) Hydrogen bond formation (B) Van der Waals forces

(C) Covalent attraction (D) Dipole interaction

Q.15 The maximum possible number of hydrogen bonds in which a water molecule can
participate is

(A) four (B) three (C) two (D) one

Q. 16 The shape of a molecule which has 2 bond pairs and two lone pair is :
(A) Octahedral (B) Bent (C) Triangular planar (D) Tetrahedral

Q. 17 Arrange the following in order of decreasing boiling point :

(I) n-Butane (II) n-Butanol (III) n-Butyl chloride (IV) Isobutane
(A) IV  III  II  I (B) IV  II  III  I (C) I  II  III  IV (D) II  III  I  IV

Q.18 Intermolecular hydrogen bonding increases the enthalpy of vaporization of a liquid due
to

(A) decrease in the attraction between molecules

(B) increase in the attraction between molecules

(C) decrease in the molar mass of unassociated liquid molecules

(D) increase in the molar mass of hydrogen-bonded molecules

Q.19 The following molecules have the same molecular weight. Which of them has the
highest boiling point?

(A) CH3CH2CO2H (B) CH3CH2CH2CH2OH

(C) CH3CH2 – O – CH2CH3 (D) CH3CH2COCH3

Q. 20 Intramolecular hydrogen bonds occur in

(A) chlorophenol (B) salicylic acid (ortho hydroxy benzoic acid)

(C) acetone (D) paranitrophenol

ANSWER KEY LECTURE 9 & 10:

Q.NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

ANS D B D C D C C A A D

Q.NO 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

ANS A B B A A B D B A B

Lecture 11 & 12

CHAPTER:

NOMENCLATURE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS:

Nomenclature means the assignment of names to organic compounds. There are two
main systems of nomenclature of organic compounds –

• Trivial system

• IUPAC system (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry)

1 (A) Basic Rules of Nomenclature or Compounds in IUPAC System :

For naming simple aliphatic compounds, the normal saturated hydrocarbons have been
considered as the parent compounds and the other compounds as their derivatives
obtained by the replacement of one or more hydrogen atoms with various functional
groups.
Each systematic name has first two or all three of the following parts:

(i) Word root: The basic unit is a series of word rot which indicate linear or continuous
number of carbon atoms.

(ii) Secondary suffix:Suffixes added after the primary suffix to indicate the presence of
a specific/particularfunctional group in the carbon chain are known as secondary
suffixes.

1 (B) Name of Straight Chain Hydrocarbons

The name of straight chain hydrocarbon may be divided into two parts
(i) Word root (ii) Primary suffix

(i) Word roots for carbon chain lengths :

Chain Word Chain Word

length root length root
C1 Meth- C8 Hex –
C2 Eth – C7 Hept –
C3 Prop – C8 Oct –
C4 But – C9 Non –
C5 Pent - C10 Dec -

(ii) Primary suffix :

Class of Primary General

compounds suffix name

C-C - ane Alkane

Saturated

C=C - ene Alkene

Unsaturated

( −C  C−) - yne Alkyne

Unsaturated

Eg.s :

Molecular Word Primary IUPAC

formular root suffix Name
CH4 Meth – - ane Methane
CH3-CH3 Eth – - ane Ethane
CH3CH2CH3 Prop – - ane Propane
CH3CH2CH2 But – - ane Butane
CH3 Eth – - ane Ethene
CH2 = CH2 Prop – - ane Propene
CH3 –CH = Prop - - yne Propyne
CH2
1 (C) NamesCH -C
of 3Branched Chain Hydrocarbon :
CH
The carbon atoms in branched chain hydrocarbons are present as side chain. These side
chain carbon atoms constitute the alkyl group or alkyl radicals. An alkyl group is
obtained from an alkane by removal of a hydrogen. General formula of an alkyl group =
CnH2n+1
An Alkyl group is represented by R. For eg.

H
H

H−C −H −H
⎯⎯⎯→ H−C−
(i)

H H
Methane Methyl

H H
H H

H−C −C −H −H
⎯⎯⎯→ H−C−C−
(ii)

H H H H
Ethane Ethyl

H H H

H − C − C − C − -H

H H H
n − propylor
(1 − Pr opyl)
H H H
H H H

H−C −C −C −H
-H H −C −C −C −H
(ii) =

H H H H H
Pr opane
iso propyl or (2 − Pr opyl )

1 (D) A Branched Chain Hydrocarbon is Named Using the Following General IUPAC
Rules

Rule 1 : Longest chain rule : Select the longest possible continuous chain of carbon
atoms. If some
multiple bond is present, the chain selected must contain the multiple bond.

(i) The number of carbon atoms in the selected chain determines the word root.

(ii) Saturation or unsaturation determines the primary suffix (P. suffix(.

(iii) Alkyl substituents are indicated by prefixes .

Prefix : Methyl
e.g. word root : pent P.
suffix : ane

eg.
Prefixes : Methyl
Word root : Hept
P. Suffix : ane

eg. Prefix : Methyl Word

root : But P. Suffix :
ene

eg. Prefixes : Ethyl, Methyl

word root : Pent P. Suffix
: ane

Rule 2 : Lowest number Rule : The chain selected in numbered in terms of arabic
numerals and the position of the alkyl groups are indicated by the number of the carbon
atom to which alkyl group is attached.

(i) The numbering is done in such a way that the substituents carbon atom has the lowest
possible number.

(ii) If some multiple bond is present in the chain, the carbon atoms involved in the
multiple bond should get lowest possible numbers.
1 2 3 4
eg. CH 3 − CH - CH 2 − CH 3
|
CH 3
4 3 2 1
CH 3 − CH - CH 2 − CH 3
|
CH 3
2 – Methyl butane 3 – Methyl butane
(Correct) (Wrong)

1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1
eg. CH 3 − CH - CH 2 − CH 2 − CH 3 CH 3 − CH - CH 2 − CH 2 − CH 3
| |
CH 3 CH 3
2- Methylpentane 4- Methylpentane
(Correct) (Wrong)

4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
eg. CH 3 − CH - CH = CH 2 CH 3 − CH - CH = CH 2
| |
CH 3 CH 3
3 – Methylbut – 1 – yne 2 – Methylbut – 3 – ene
(Correct) (Wrong)

e.g. CH 3 CH 3
4 | 4 |
CH 3 − 3 CH − 2 C 1 CH CH 3 − 2 CH − 3 C  4CH
3 – Methylbut – 1 – yne 2 – Metylbut- 3 - yne

(Correct) (Wrong)

The name of the compound, in general, is written in the following sequence. (Position of
substituents) - (prefixes) (word root) (p - suffix)

Rule : 3 Use of prefixed di, tri etc. : If the compound contains more than one similar
alkyl groups, their positions are indicated separately and an appropriate numerical prefix,
di, tri, etc., is attached to the name of the substituents. The positions of the subsistent are
separated by commas.
CH 3
CH 3 CH 3 5 4 3| 2 1
eg. CH 3 − CH 2 − C − CH − CH 3
1 2| 3| 4 5
CH 3 − CH − CH − CH 2 − CH 3 | |
CH 3 CH 3
1, 3 – Dimethylpentane 2,3,3 –
Trimethylpentane

Rule 4 : Alphabetical arrangement of prefixes : If there are different alkyl substituents

present in the compound their names are written in the alphabetical order. However, the
numerical prefixes such as di, tri etc. are not considered for the alphabetical order.
CH 3
For eg : 1 2 3| 4 5
CH 3 − CH − C − CH 2 − CH 3
| |
CH 3 CH 3

3 – Ethyl – 2, 3 - dimethylpentane

Rule 5 : Naming of different alkyl substituents at the equivalent positions :

If two alkly substituents are present at the equivalent position then numbering of the
chain is done is such a way that the alkyl group which comes first in alphabetical order
gets the lower position.
CH 3 C 2 H 3
eg.
6 5 4| 3| 2 1
CH 3 − CH 2 − CH − CH − CH 2 − CH 3

3 – Ethyl – 4 – methylhexane

1 (e) Some More Eg. :

C 2H3
6 5 4| 3 2 1
(i) CH 3 − CH 2 − C − CH 2 − CH − CH
| |
CH 3 CH 3

Word root : Hex

Primary suffix : ane
Substituents : two methyl & one ethyl groups

IUPAC name : 4- Ethyl - 2,4 - dimethylhexane

CH 3
1 2| 3
(ii) CH 3 − C − CH 3
|
CH 3
Word root : Prop
P. Suffix : ane
Substituents : to methyl groups

IUPAC name : 2,2- Dimethylpropane

3 4
CH 3 − CH − CH 3
|
(iii) CH 3 − C = CH 2
2 1
Word root : But
P. Suffix : ene
Substituents : two methyl groups
IUPAC name : 2, 3 – Dimethylbut - 1 - ene
6 5 4 3 2 1
CH 3 − CH 2 − CH − C  C − CH 3
iv) |
CH 3

4 – Methylhex – 2 - yne

2 FUNCTIONAL GROUP :

2 (A) Introduction :An atom or group of atoms in an organic compound or molecule that is
responsible for the compound’s characteristic reactions and determines its properties is known
as functional group. An organic compound generally consists of two parts -

(i) Hydrocarbon radical (ii) Functional group

H H

For eg. H − C − C − OH

H H

Hydrocarbon radical Functional group

Functional group is the most reactive part of the molecule.

• Functional group determines the chemical properties of an organic compound.
• Hydrocarbon radical determines the physical properties of the organic compound.

2 (B) Main Functional Groups :

(i) Hydroxyl group (-OH) : All organic compounds containing - OH group are known
as alcohols.
For e.g. Methanol (CH3OH), Ethanol (CH3 - CH2 - OH) etc.

(ii) Aldehyde group (-CHO) :All organic compounds containing CHO group are
known as aldehydes.
For e.g. Methanol (HCHO), Ethanol (CH3CHO) etc.

(iii) Ketone group (-CO-) :All organic compounds containing -CO- group are known as
ketones.
For e.g. 2- Propanone (CH3COH3), 2-Butanone (CH3COCH2CH3) etc.

(iv) Carboxyl group ( -COOH) : All organic acids contain carboxyl group. Hence they
are also called carboxylic acids.

For e.g. CH3COOH (Ethanoic acid)

CH3CH2COOH (Propanoic acid)

(v) Halogen group (x= F, CI, Br, I) :All organic compounds containing - X(F, CI, Br or
I) group are known as halides.

For e.g.Chloromethane (CH3Cl), Bromomethane (CH3Br) etc.

2 (C) Nomenclature of Compounds Containing Functional Group :

In case come functional group (other than C = C and C  C) is present, it is indicated by

adding secondary suffix after the primary suffix. The terminal ‘e’ of the primary suffix is

removed if it is followed by a suffix beginning with ‘a’, ‘e’, ‘i’, ‘o’, ‘u’. Some groups
like - F, - CI, - Br and - I are considered as substituents and are indicated by the prefixes.
o
Some groups like – CHO, - COOH, and - OH are considered as functional groups
−C −

and are indicated by suffixes.

S
Functi General IUPA
Class Prefix uffi
onal Group Formula C Name
x
O
O
-
Carbo R − C − OH Alkan
Carboxy oic
xylic acid − C − OH oic acid
acid
(R = CnH2n +1 )

O
O A
lkyl
R − C − O − R' Carbalk Alkyl
Ester (r;)
− C − OR oxy alkanoate
–
(R  R' )
oate

Aldeh R- Formyl - Alkana

- CHO
yde CHO or oxo al l
R − C −R
−C−
Keton - Alkana
oxo
e O one l
O

Alcoh Hydrox - Alkan

-OH R – OH
ol y ol ol

Alken -
C =C CnH2n - Alkene
es ene

Alky CC -
CnH2n-2 - Alkene
nes yne
-X
Halid Haloal
(X = F, R–X Halo -
es kane
CI, Br, I)

2 (D) Naming of an Organic Compound Containing Functional Group :

Step 1 :Select the longest continuous chain of the carbon atoms as parent chain. The
selected chain must include the carbon atom involved in the functional groups like -
COOH, - CHO etc., or those which carry the functional groups like - OH, - CI etc.
Step 2 :The presence of carbon - carbon multiple bond decides the primary suffix.
Step 3 :The secondary suffix is decided by the functional group.

Step 4 : The carbon atoms of the parent chain are numbered in such a way so that the
carbon atom of the functional group gets the lowest possible number. In case the
functional group does not have the carbon atom, then the carbon atom of the parent chain
attached to the functional group should get the lowest possible number.

Step 5 :The name of the compound is written as -

Prefixes - word root - primary suffix - secondary suffix

The number of carbon atoms in the parent chain decides the word root.

Common Deriv IUP

Compound Strucutre
name ed name AC
H

Methyl
1 Carbi Met H−C −O −H
CH3 – OH alcohol or
inol hanol H
Wood spirit
H H

Meth
2 CH3 – CH2 Ethyl Etha H−C −C −O −H
yl
– OH alcohol nol H H
carbinol
H H H

1-
3 CH3 – CH2 n-Propyl Ethyl H−C −C −C −O −H
Propano
– CH2 – OH alcohol carbinol H H H
l
H H

CH3 − CH − OH H−C− C −O −H
| Dimet 2-
4 CH3
Isopropyl
hyl Propano H H−C −H
alcohol
carbinol l H

H H H H

CH3 – CH2 n- H−C−C −C −C −O −H

5 n-Butyl 1-
– CH2 – CH2 - Propyl
alcohol Butanol H H H H
OH carbinol
O
Met
6 Formic
HCOOH - hanoic H− C −O −H
acid
acid
H O

- Etha H − − C − C − OH
7 Acetic
CH3 COOH noic
acid
acid H

H H O

- Prop
8 CH3 – CH2 Propionic H−C −C − C −O −H
anoic
– COOH acid
acid H H

H H H O
-
9 CH3 – CH2 Butyric Buta H − C − C − C − C − OH
– CH2 – COOH acid noic
H H H

acid

H H H H O

1 CH3 – CH2 - Peta H − − C − C − C − C − C − OH

Valeric
0 – CH2 – CH2 – noic
acid H H H H
COOH acid

2 (e) Some More Eg. :

2 3 4 5
CH3 − CH − CH2 − CH2 − CH − CH3
(i) |
1| 6 7
CH2 − OH CH2 − CH3
Longest chain contains carbon : 7
Word root : Hept
primary suffix : ane
Functional group : - OH
Secondary suffix : - ol
IUPAC Name : 2,5 - Dimethylheptan -1 - ol

(ii) O
5 4 3 2 1||
CH 3 − CH 2 − CH = CH − C − OH

Word root : Pent

Primary suffix : ene

Secondary suffix : -oic acid

Position of double bond : 2nd

IUPAC name : Pent - 2 - en - 1 - oic acid

1 2 3 4
CH 3 − CH − CH 2 − CH 3
(iii) |
CI

Word root : But

Primary suffix : ane

Prefix : chloro

IUPAC name : 2 - Chlorobutane

Practice questions for lecture 11 & 12 :

1. Name of the compound given below is

(A) 3-Methyl-4-ethyloctane (B) 2,3-Diethylheptane

2. The IUPAC name of the given compound is

(A) 4, 5-Dimethyl-4-octene (B) 4,5-Dimethyl-5-octene
(C) 3,4-Dimethyl-5-octene (D) 2,3-Dipropyl-2-butene

3. IUPAC name of the given compound

CH 3
|
CH 3 ⎯ (CH 2 ) 4 ⎯ CH ⎯ C ⎯ CH 2 ⎯ CH 2 ⎯ CH 3
| |
CH 3 CH 2 ⎯ CH 3 is
(A) 4-Ethyl-4, 5-dimethyldecane (B) 3,4-Dimethyl-3-n-propylane
(C) 6, 7-Dimethyl-7-n-propynone (D) 6,7-Dimethyl-7-ethyldecane

4. The IUPAC name of is

(A) 5-methylheptane (B) 3-methylheptane

(C) 1-methyl-1-ethylpentane (D) 2-ethyl hexane

5. Identify the 2° alcohol.

(D) (Me)3 -C-OH

CH 3
|
H 3C − (CH 2 ) 4 − CH − C − CH 2 − CH 3
| |
6. The IUPAC name of the compound CH 3 (CH 2 ) 2 − CH 3 is :

(A) 3, 4-dimethyl-3-x propyl nonane (B) 4-ethyl-4, 5-dimethyl decane

7. The IUPAC name of the compound having the formula is :

(A) 3, 3, 3-trimethyl-1-propene (B) 1, 1, 1-trimethyl-2-propene

(C) 3, 3-dimethyl-1-butene (D) 2, 2 -dimethyl-3-butene
8. Which of the following compound is wrongly named?
CH 3CH 2CH 2CHCOOH
|
(A) Cl ; 2-Chloro pentanoic acid
CH 3C  CCHCOOH
|
CH 3
(B) ; 2-Methyl hex-3-enoic acid
(C) CH3CH2CH=CHCOCH3 ; Hex-3-en-2-one
CH 3 − CHCH 2CH 2CHO
|
CH 3
(D) ; 4-Methyl pentanal

9. IUPAC name of the compound is :

(A) 5-methyl-4-isopropyl-6, 6-diethyloctane
(B) 3, 3-dimethyl-3-ethyl-5-isopropyloctane
(C) 3, 3-diethyl-4-methyl-5 (1, 1-dimethyl) octane
(D) 3, 3-diethyl-4-methyl-5 (1-methylethyl) octane

10. Pyrrole belongs to which class of organic compounds ?

(A) Aliphatic (B) Aromatic (C) Heterocyclic (D) Alicyclic

11. Which of the following is cumulated diene?

(A) 1, 3-Pentadiene (B) 1, 4-Pentadiene
(C) 2,3-Pentadiene (D) 1,5-Hexadiene.

12. IUPAC name of 4-isopropyl-m-xylene is -

(A) 1-isopropyl-2-4-dimethylbenzene (B) 4-isopropyl-m-xylene
(C) 1-ixopropyl-3, 5-dimethylbenzen (D) 4-isopropyl-3, 5-dimethylbenzene

13. The IUPAC name of the compound , CH2 = CH – CH(CH3)2 is :

(A) 1, 1-dimethy 2-propene (B) 3-methyl 1-butene
(C) 2-vinyl propane (D) 1-isopropyl ethylene

14. The compound which has one isopropyl group is

(A) 2, 2, 3, 3-tetramethylpentane (B) 2, 2-dimethyl pentane
(C) 2, 2, 3-trimethyl pentane (D) 2- methylpentane

15. The structure shown

(A) 1°, 2° and 3° carbon atoms (B)1° and 2° carbon atoms only

More than one group ☺

CH 3CHCH 2 C(CH 3 ) 2
| |
1. The IUPAC name for OH OH is
(A) 1,1-Dimethyl-1, 3-butanediol (B) 4-Methylpentane-2,4-diol
(C) 2-Methyl-2,4-pentanediol (D) 1,3,3-Trimethylpropane-1,3-diol

OH Br
| |
CH 3 − CH − CH 2 − CH 2 − CH − CHO
2. The correct name for the compound

(A) 2-Bromo-5-hydroxyhexan-1-al (B) 1-Bromohydroxypentan-4-al

(C) 2-Hydroxy-5-bromohexan-6-al (D)None of the above
3. Which of the following compound has wrong IUPAC name ?
(A) CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – COO – CH2CH3 Ethyl butanoate
CH 3 − CH − CH 2 − CHO
|
CH 3
(B) 3-Methylbutanal
CH 3 − CH − CH − CH 3
| |
OH CH 3
(C) 2-Methyl-3-butanol
O
||
CH 3 − CH − C − CH 2 − CH 3
|
(D) CH 3 2-Ethyl-3-pentanone

CH 3
|
CH 3 − C − CH 2 − CH − CH 3
| |
4. IUPAC name of (CH 3 ) CN is
(A) 2-Cyano-3-methylhexane (B) 2,4, 4-Trimethylpentanenitrile
(C) 2,2-Dimethyl-4-cyanopentane (D) 2-Cyano-3-methylhexane

5. The IUPAC name of the given compound

(A) 3-Ethyl-1-cyclobuten-2-ol (B) 4-Ethyl-2-cyclobuten-1-ol

6. The IUPAC name of the given structure –

is :
(A) 4-Keto-3-bromo-2-iodopentanoic acid (B) 2-Iodo-3-bromo-4-keto pentanoic acid
(C) 3-Bromo-2-iodo-4-ketopentanoic acid (D) 4-Carboxy-3-bromo-4-iodopentanoic
acid

7. 3-Phenylpropenoic acid is IUPAC name of which of the compound ?

(A) Cinnamic acid (B)Mendaleic acid (C)Pyruvic acid (D) Citric acid

8. Correct IUPAC name of the following compounds is:

(A) 4 – (1, 1 – dimethylethyl) – 5 ethyloctane

(B) 4 – ethyl – 4 – (1, 1 – dimethylethyl) octane

(C) 5 – (1, 1 – dimethylethyl) – 4 – ethyloctane

(D) 4 – ethyl – 5 – (1, 1 – dimethylethyl) octane

9. IUPAC name of acraldehyde ( )is :

(A) 2-Propenal (B)Propenyl aldehyde (C) 2-Butenal (D)Propenal

10. The IUPAC name of the given structure H is

(A) 2,2-Dimethylbutane (B)Isohexane
(C) 2,3-Dimethylbutane (D)Diisohexane

11. The IUPAC name of the given structure K is

(A) Tertiary butane (B) 2, 2-Dimethyl propane
(C) Neopentane (D)Neobutane

12. The name of the given structure

(A) 2,4-Dimethyl-3-hexanone (B) 2,6-Dimethyl-5-heptanone

13. The IUPAC name of the compound is :

(A) 3-Hydroxy-3-methylpentanal (B) 4-Hydroxy-2-methylpentanal

CH 2 − CH − COOH
| |
14. The IUPAC name of the given compound NH 2 OH is

(A) 3-Amino-2-hydroxy propanoic acid (B) 2-Hydroxy-3-aminopropanoic acid

(C) 2-Hydroxy-1-aminopropanoic acid (C) 2-Hydroxy-3-aminopropanoic acid

NC − CH − CH 2 − CH 3
|
15. IUPAC name of the given compound CN is

(A) 2-Ethylpropane-1,3-dinitrile (B) 1,2-Dicyanopropane

16. The IUPAC name of the compound is

(A) 2-Formylpentanal (B) 2-Methylpentanedial
(C) 2,4-Diformyl butane (D) 1,3-Diformyl butane

17. The correct IUPAC name of the following compounds.

(A) 4-ethyl – 4, 5 – dimethyl decane (B) 3 – 4 methyl – 3 – propyl noname

(C) 3 – 4 methyl – 4 – propyl noname (D) None of these

18. Write the IUPAC name of the following :

19. Write the structure of :

(i) 1-(2-methyl cyclo hexyl) -4- nitrobenzene
(ii) 7- (3-Formyl cyclopentyl-) heptanal
(iii) ethyl (2-oxocyclohexane)-1-carboxylate

20. 1, 1-dimethyl -2- isopropenyl cyclopentane

2, 5-dimethyl, 1,1-(cyclopentanedicarboxylic acid)

trans-1, 1-dichloro-2-ethyl-3-methyl cyclo propane

2-amino-5-bromo-3-nitrobenzoic acid

ANSWER KEY:

LEVEL I

Q.NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

ANS D A A B A B C B D BC

Q.NO 11 12 13 14 15

ANS C A B D C

LEVEL II

Q.NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

ANS C A CD B B C A D A C

Q.NO 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

ANS B C B A D B A

Q18.

Q19.

Q20.

Lecture 13 & 14

CHAPTER: ISOMERISM
In the study of organic chemistry, we come across many cases when two or more compounds
are made of equal number of like atoms. A molecular formula does not tell the nature of organic
compound; sometimes several organic compounds may have same molecular formula. These
compounds possess the same molecular formula but differ from each other in physical or
chemical properties, are called isomers and the phenomenon is termed isomerism (Greek, isos =
equal; meros = parts). Since isomers have the same molecular formula, the difference in their
properties must be due to different modes of the combination or arrangement of atoms within
the molecule. Broadly speaking, isomerism is of two types.
i) Structural Isomerism
ii) Stereoisomerism
i) Structural isomerism: When the isomerism is simply due to difference in the
arrangement of atoms within the molecule without any reference to space, the
phenomenon is termed structural isomerism. In other words, while they have same
molecular formulas they possess different structural formulas. This type of isomerism
which arises from difference in the structure of molecules, includes:
a) Chain or Nuclear Isomerism;
b) Positional Isomerism
c) Functional Isomerism
d) Metamerism and
e) Tautomerism
ii) Stereoisomerism: When isomerism is caused by the different arrangements of atoms or
groups in space, the phenomenon is called Stereoisomerism (Greek, Stereos = occupying
space). The stereoisomers have the same structural formulas but differ in the spatial
arrangement of atoms or groups in the molecule. In other words, stereoisomerism is
exhibited by such compounds which have identical molecular structure but different
configurations.
Stereoisomerism is of two types :
a) Geometrical or cis-trans isomerism ; and
b) Optical Isomerism.
Thus various types of isomerism could be summarized as follows.

ISOMERISM

STRUCTURAL STEREOISOMERISM
ISOMERISM

GEOMETRICAL OPTICAL
ISOMERISM ISOMERISM

FUNCTIONAL POSITIONAL CHAIN METAMERISM TAUTOMERISM

ISOMERISM ISOMERISM ISOMERISM

Chain or Nuclear Isomerism

This type of isomerism arises from the difference in the structure of carbon chain which forms
the nucleus of the molecule. It is, therefore, named as chain,nuclear isomerism or Skeletal
isomerism. For eg., there are known two butanes which have the same molecular formula
(C4H10) but differ in the structure of the carbon chains in their molecules.

CH3–CH2–CH2–CH3 H3C–CH(CH3)–CH3

n-butane isobutane

While n-butane has a continuous chain of four carbon atoms, isobutane has a branched chain.
These chain isomers have somewhat different physical and chemical properties, n-butane
boiling at -0.5o and isobutane at -10.2o. This kind of isomerism is also shown by other classes of
compounds. Thus n-butyl alcohol and isobutyl alcohol having the same molecular formula
C4H9OH are chain isomers.

CH3–CH2–CH2–CH2OH CH3–CH (CH3)–CH2OH

n-butyl alcohol |isobutyl alcohol

It may be understood clearly that the molecules of chain isomers differ only in respect of the
linking of the carbon atoms in the alkanes or in the alkyl radicals present in other compounds.
Illustration : How many chain isomers does butene have?

Solution: CH3—CH2—CH2=CH2 CH3—C=CH2

n-Butylene (1-Butene)
CH3
Isobutylene (2-Methylpropene)

Illustration : How many chain isomers does propyl benzene have?

Solution: CH3

CH2CH2CH3 CH—CH3

n-Propylbenzene Isopropylbenzene

Illustration: Give the possible chain isomers for ethyl benzene.

Solution: CH2CH3 CH3

CH3

Ethylbenzene Xylene (o,m,p)

Positional Isomerism
It is the type of isomerism in which the compounds possessing same molecular formula differ in
their properties due to the difference in their properties due to difference in the position of
either the functional group or the multiple bond or the branched chain attached to the main
carbon chain. For e.g., n-propyl alcohol and isopropyl alcohol are the positional isomers.
OH
|
CH3–CH2–CH2–OH CH3–CH–CH3
n-propyl alcohol isopropyl alcohol
Butenealso has two positional isomers:
CH2=CH–CH2–CH3 CH3–CH=CH–CH3
1-butene 2-butene
1-Chlorobutane and 3-Chlorobutane are also the positional isomers:

CH3 − CH2 − CH2 − CH2Cl CH3CH2 − CHCl − CH3

1−Chlorobu tan e 2−Chlorobu tan e

Methylpentane too has two positional isomers:

CH3—CH2—CH2—CH—CH3 CH3—CH2—CH—CH2—CH3

CH3 CH3
2-Methylpentane 3-Methylpentane

In the aromatic series, the di-substitution products of benzene also exhibit positional isomerism
due to different relative positions occupied by the two substituents on the benzene ring. Thus
xylene, C6H4(CH3)2, exists in the following three forms which are positional isomers.
CH3 CH3 CH3
CH3

CH3
CH3
o-Xylene m-Xylene p-Xylene

Functional Isomerism
When any two compounds have the same molecular formula but possess different functional
groups, they are called functional isomers and the phenomenon is termed functional
isomerism. In other words, substances with the same molecular formula but belonging to
different classes of compounds exhibit functional isomerism. Thus,
1. Diethyl ether and butyl alcohol both have the molecular formula C4H6O, but contain
different functional groups.
C2H5–O–C2H5 C4H9–OH

diethyl ether butyl alcohol

The functional group in diethyl ether is (–O–), while is butyl alcohol it is (–OH).

2. Acetone and propionaldehyde both with the molecular formula C3H6O are functional
isomers.

CH3–CO–CH3 CH3–CH2–CHO

acetone acetaldehyde

In acetone the functional group is (–CO–), while in acetaldehyde it is (–CHO).

3. Cyanides are isomeric with isocyanides:

RCN RNC
Alkyl cyanide Alkyl isocyanide

4. Carboxylic acids are isomeric with esters.

CH3CH2COOH CH3COOCH 3
Pr opanoic acid Methyl ethanoate

5. Nitroalkanes are isomeric with alkyl nitrites:

O
R—N R—O—N=O
Alkyl nitrite
O
Nitroalkane

6. Sometimes a double bond containing compound may be isomeric with a triple bond
containing compound. This also is called as functional isomerism. Thus, butyne is
isomeric with butadiene (molecular formula C4H6).

CH3 − CH2C  CH CH2 = CH − CH = CH2

1−Butyne 1,3−Butadiene

7. Unsaturated alcohols are isomeric with aldehydes. Thus,

CH2 = CH − OH CH3CHO
Vinyl alcohol Acetaldehyde

8. Unsaturated alcohols containing three or more carbon atoms are isomeric to aldehydes as
well as ketones:

CH2 = CH − CH2OH CH3CH2CHO CH3COCH3

Allyl alcohol Pr opionaldehyde Acetone

9. Aromatic alcohols may be isomeric with phenols:

CH2OH CH3
OH

Benzyl alcohol o-Cresol

10. Primary, secondary and tertiary amines of same molecular formula are also the
functional isomers.
CH3CH2CH2NH 2 CH3 − NH − C2H5
n − propy lam in e (1o ) la m in e (2o )
Ethy lm ethy

CH3—N—CH3

CH3
Trimethylamine(3°)

11. Alkenes are isomeric with cycloalkanes:

CH3CH2CH=CH2
Butene CH3
Cyclobutane
Methylcyclopropane

Such isomers in which one is cyclic and other is open chain, are called ring-chain isomers.
Alkynes and alkadienes are isomeric with cycloalkenes.

CH3CH2CCH CH2=CH—CH=CH2
1-Butyne 1,3-Butadiene
Cyclobutene

Metamerism
This type of isomerism is due to the unequal distribution of carbon atoms on either side of the
functional group in the molecule of compounds belonging to the same class. For eg., methyl
propyl ether and diethyl ether both have the same molecular formula.
CH3–O–C3H7 C2H5–O–C2H5
methyl propyl ether diethyl ether
in methyl propyl ether the chain is 1 and 3, while in diethyl ether it is 2 and 2. This isomerism
known as Metamerism is shown by members of classes such as ethers, and amines where the
central functional group is flanked by two chains. The individual isomers are known as
Metamers.
Eg.s:

C2H5—N—C2H5 C3H7—N—CH3 C4H9—N—CH3

C2H5 C2H5 CH3

Triethylamine Ethylmethylpropylamine Butyldimethylamine

Practice Questions for Lecture 13 & 14:

Q.1 An organic compound has molecular formula C9H18. It’s all carbon atoms are
sp3hybrized and its all hydrogen atoms are identical. Its structural formula can be

Q.2 Which of the following is not an isomer of CH3 – CH2CHO?

Q.3 Which of the following is a pair of metamers?

Q.4 Which of the following is not the correct relationship?

(A) (i) and (ii) are functional isomers (B) (ii) and (iv) are metamers

Q.5 Acyclic functional isomers of H3C – COOH including itself are

(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 5

Q.6 The number of structural isomers for C5H10are

(A) 8 (B) 6 (C) 9 (D) 10

Q.7 The number of acyclic structural isomers of C3H5Cl are:

(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4

Q.8 The number of cyclic ketones of molecular formula C3H4O are:

(A) 2 (B) 1 (C) 3 (D) 4

Q.9 The number of cyclic structural isomers of molecular formula C3H4Cl2 are:

(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4

Q.10 The number of structural isomers of for C4H9Cl are

(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4

Q.11. Propanone and Propanal are :

(A) geometrical isomers (B) chain isomers
(C) functional isomers (D) position isomers.
Q.12. Which of the following is not an isomer of 1-butyne ?
(A) but-2-yne (B) buta-1, 3-diene
(C) but-2-ene (D) methyl cyclopropene
Q.13. Which of the following in not a cyclic isomer of C4H7OH ?
(A) Cyclobutanol (B) cyclopropyl methanol
(C) 1-methyl cyclopropanol (D) none of these
Q.14. The total number of isomers of C4H11N would be :
(A) 4 (B) 8 (C) 5 (D) 10
Q.15. In which of the following molecules carbon does not involve sp3 hybridised C atom.
(A) CH2Cl2 (B) CO2 (C) CH2F2 (D) CF2Cl2
Q.16. A compound with molecular formula C8H14, contains 12 secondary and 2 tertiary H
atoms . The compound is :

(A) (B) (C) (D)

Q.17. The total number of structural isomers possible for structure C3H6 are :
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4
Q.18. How many geminal dihalides with different formula are possible for C3H6Cl2 ?
(A) only one (B) two (C) three (D) four
Q.19. The compounds (CH3)3N and CH3CH2CH2NH2 represent :
(A) chain isomerism (B) position isomerism
(C) functional isomerism (D)all of the above
Q.20. The number of isomeric aldehydes and ketones with formula C5H10O are :
(A) 7 (B) 6 (C) 5 (D) 8

Ans Key Lecture 13 and 14 :

Q.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ans B A B C C D C B B D
Q.No 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Ans C C D B B C B B C A

Lecture 15 & 16

Stereoisomerism
The isomers which differ only in the orientation of atoms in space are known as
stereoisomerism. It’s of two types.
a) Geometrical isomerism: Isomers which possess the same molecular and structural
formula but differ in arrangement of atoms or groups in space around the double bonds,
are known as geometrical isomers and the phenomenon is known as geometrical
isomerism. Geometrical isomerism is show by the compounds having the structure.

X X
C=C
Y Y
i) Cis – trans isomerism: When similar groups are on the same side it is cis and it same
groups are on the opposite side it is trans isomerism.

HOOC COOH HOOC H

C=C C=C
H H H COOH
(Maleic acid) Fumeric acid
(cis fom)
(trans fom)

ii) Syn - anti

CH3 CH3
H H
C C
N N
OH (aldoxime) OH
(Syn) (anti)

C6H5—N C6H5—N

C6H5—N N— C6H5

(Syn) (anti)

Syn anti isomerism is not possible in ketoxime since only one from is possible two
—CH3 groups are at one C.

CH3
CH3
C
N
OH

iii) In cyclic compounds:

OH OH

OH OH
Cis trans

Differentiating properties of cis-trans isomerism

i) Dipolemoment : Usually dipole moment of cis is larger than the trans-isomer.

H Cl H Cl

C C

C C
H Cl Cl H
 = 1.84D =0

ii) Melting point: The steric repulsion of the group (same) makes the cis isomer less stable
than the trans isomers hence trans form has higher melting point than cis.

Practice Questions for Lecture 15 & 16

Level I
Q 1. Isomers have essentially identical :

(A) structural formula (B) chemical properties

(C) physical properties (D) molecular formula

Q 2. The isomerism observed in alkanes is :

(A) metamerism (B) chain isomerism

(C) position isomerism (D) geometrical isomerism

Q 3. Total number of isomeric alcohols with formula C4H10O are :

(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4

Q 4. An alkane forms isomers if minimum number of C-atom is :

(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4

Q 5. The molecular formula of a saturated compound is C2H4Cl2. The formula permits the
existence of two:

(A) functional isomers (B) position isomers

(C) optical isomers (D) cis-trans isomers

Q 6. Which of the following pairs show isomerism ?

(A) CH4 and C2H6 (B) CHCl3 and CCl4

(C) CH3CH2OH and CH3OCH3 (D) NaCl and NaOH

Q 7. Which of the following is not isomeric with diethyl ether ?

(A) Methyl n-propyl ether (B) Butan-1-o1

(C) 2-methyl propan-2-o1 (D) Butan-2-one

Q 8. Compounds with following formula will show:

(A) position and functional isomerism (B) chain and positional isomerism

Q 9. Which of the following are functional isomers?

(A) CH3CH2Cl and CH3CH2Br (B) CH3CHBr2 and CH2Br. CH2Br

(C) C2H5OC2H5 and CH3OC3H7 (D) CH3CH2CHO and

Q 10. But-1-ene and cyclobutane exhibit:

(A) ring chain isomerism (B) position isomerism

(C) tautomerism (D) functional isomerism

Q 11. Which pair of carbon skeleton is an example of isomerism?

(A) (B)

Q 12. Which of the following is not an isomer of but-1-yne ?

(A) but-2-yne (B) buta-1-3-diene

(C) methyl cyclopropene (D) but-2-ene

Q 13. C7H8O show how many isomers:

(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 5

Q 14. The isomers of formula C2H2Br2 are:

(A) 4 (B) 3 (C) 6 (D) 2

Q 15. Maximum number of Isomers that an alkene can have with the molecular formula C4H8
is:

(A) 5 (B) 4 (C) 3 (D) 2

Q 16. Which of the following isomerism is not found in alkenes?

(A) Metamerism (B) Geometrical isomerism

(C) Position isomerism (D) Chain isomerism

Q 17. The type of isomerism found in urea molecule is:

(A) chain (B) position (C) tautomerism (D) none of these

Q 18. The compounds R—NO2 and R—ONO are :

(A) geometrical isomers (B) functional isomers

(C) metamers (D) optical isomers

Q 19. Only 2 monochloroderivatives (isomeric) are possible for :

(A) n-butane (B) 2, 4-dimethyl pentane

(C) benzene (D) none of these

Q 20. Molecular formula C5H12O will show:

(A) position (B) optical isomerism

(C) functional isomerism (D) all of these

Level II :
1. The compounds 𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐶2 𝐻5 and 𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝐻3 are

(A) Chain isomers (B) Geometrical isomers

(C) metamers (D) Conformational isomers

2. 𝐶7 𝐻7 𝐶𝑙 shows how many benzenoid aromatic isomers?

(A) 4 (B) 3 (C) 5 (D) 6

3. How many minimum no. of C-atoms are required for position & geometrical isomerism
in alkene?

(A) 4, 3 (B) 4, 4 (C) 3, 4 (D) 3, 3

4. For many structural formula are possible when one of the hydrogen is replaced by a
chlorine atom in anthracene?

(A) 3 (B) 7 (C) 4 (D) 6

5. The number of isomers of dibromo derivative of an alkene (molecular mass 186 g mol-1)
is

(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 6

6. How many primary amines are possible for the formula 𝐶4 𝐻11 𝑁?

(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 5

7. Phenol and benzyl alcohol are

(A) Functional isomers (B) Homologous

(C) Position isomers (D) None of these

8. Which of the following statements is true for a pair of diastereomers?

(A) They will have identical physical properties

(B) They will have specific rotations of opposite sign

(C) They will have identical chemical properties (e.g. reactivity)

(D) They will have different physical properties

9. Stereoisomers differ from each other in what respect?

(A) Composition (B) Constitution

(C) Configuration (D) steric hindrance

10. The above compounds differ in

(A) Configuration (B) Conformation (C) Structure (D) Chirality

11. Which among the following will not show chain isomerism ?

(A) C3H8 (B) C4H10 (C) C5H12O (D) C5H10O

12. Which of the following, compounds displays geometrical isomerism?

(A)𝐶𝐻2 = 𝐶𝐻𝐵𝑟 (B)𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐶𝐵𝑟2 (C)𝐶𝑙𝐶𝐻 = 𝐶𝐻𝐵𝑟 (D)𝐵𝑟2 𝐶 = 𝐶𝐶𝑙2

13. Sum of stereoisomer in the given compound (A) and (B) are:

(A) 3 (B) 4 (C) 5 (D) 6

14. Minimum C atoms required for a compound to show geometrical isomerism

(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) None of these

15. Number of geometrical isomer of given compound will be:

(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 5

Level I : Answer Key :)

1. d 2. b 3. d 4. d 5. b 6. c 7. d
8. b 9. d 10. a 11. a 12. d 13. d 14. b
15. b 16. a 17. c 18. b 19. a 20. d

Level II :
1. Sol. (C)

R & R’ are different so these are metamers

2. Sol. (A)

3. Sol. For positional isomerism in alkene 4C-atom required

For geometrical isomerism in alkene also 4C – atom required

4. Sol.

5. Sol.

Molar mass of 𝐵𝑟 = 80 [dibromo Derivative]

Br = 80

160 Molar mass = 186

(B)𝐶2 𝐻2 = 12 × 2 + 2 = 26

186 = 160 + x

𝑥 = 186 − 160 = 26 ⇒ 𝐶2 𝐻2

6. Sol.

7. Sol.

8. Sol.

Physical properties like M.P., B.P. solubility are different for diastereomers.

9. Sol. (C)

Stereoisomers differ from each other in configuration

10. Sol.

11. Ans : A C3H8 is propane....cannot show chain isomerism.

12. Sol.

13. Sol.

14. Sol.

Any compound which show G.I. no C atom required

Eq.

15. Sol.

SOLUBILITY AND ELECTROLYSIS

1. Solubility

1.1. Solutions: A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances is known as solution. The
substance that is present in smaller quantity in the solution is the solute and that present
in larger quantity is the solvent.

Solute + solvent → Solution

Types of solutions: It is possible to have different types of solutions from the three
states of matter i.e., all three states of matter are soluble in one another.

Solvent Solute Eg.

Liquid Solid Solution of common salt in water
Liquid Liquid Alcohol in water
Liquid Gas Solution of CO2 in water – soda water
Solid Solid Brass – alloy of copper and zinc
Sovereign – alloy of gold and copper
Gas Gas Air

Thus there can be many types of solutions such as solutions of solids in liquids other
than water (i.e., non-aqueous solutions).

E.g., Dirt and grease in clothes dissolve in petrol (this is the basis for dry-cleaning of
clothes); air is a solution of many gases – nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water
vapour, etc. Alloys are solutions; solutions of one metal in another;eg., brass – solution
of zinc and copper. Soda water and chlorine water are eg.s of solutions of a gas in a
liquid.

Dilute solution: A solution in which the amount of solute is quite small compared to the
amount of solvent is called a dilute solution.

1.2. Saturated, unsaturated and supersaturated solutions: It is observed that a given

quantity of a solvent cannot dissolve an unlimited quantity of the solute.

said to be unsaturated. Hence, an unsaturated solution is a solution which can

dissolve more of the solute at a given temperature.

(B) Saturated solution: If the temperature is kept constant and more and more and
more of salt is added to the solution and stirred, a stage will soon be reached when
no more of the salt will dissolve. It is observed that some of the salt settles at the
bottom. The solution is then said to be saturated. Hence, a saturated solution is a
solution which contains as much solute as it can dissolve at a particular
temperature in the presence of undissolved solute.

(C) Supersaturated solution: Normally, when a saturated solution at a higher

temperature is cooled to a lower temperature the excess solute that cannot be held
in solution is deposited. Sometimes, however, the substance is not thrown out.
Such a solution is said to be supersaturated (i.e. it is more than saturated).
Supersaturated solutions are unstable. Addition of a small crystal of the solute
(seeding) or even mere shaking will cause deposition of the extra solute from the
solution.

i.g. When crystals of hypo (Na2S2O3. 5H2O) are carefully heated, they dissolve in the
water of hydration forming a saturated solution. But when this solution is cooled,
hype is not deposited. Hence, the solution is supersaturated. However, when a
small crystal of hypo is added to this solution or when the solution is shaken, the
crystals get deposited.

1.3. Solubility

It is the weight in grams of substance which will dissolve in 100 g. of the solvent to give
a saturated solution at a particular temperature.

Factors which influence solubility:

1. Solubility depends upon the nature of the solute and solvent.

e.g. sodium chloride dissolves in water but Sulphur is insoluble in water, it is soluble
only in carbondisulphide.

2. Solubility depends on temperature: The higher the temperature the greater is the
solubility. But there are some exceptions. Substance such as Ca (OH)2 have lower
solubility at higher temperatures. In the case of solutions of gases in liquids also
there is decrease in solubility with increase in temperature.

3. Solubility also depends on pressure particularly when gases are dissolved in a

solvent.

e.g. the solubility of CO2 in water increases with increase in pressure.

1.4. Determination of solubility at room temperature

Principle: A saturated solution of the substance (say sodium chloride) in water is first
prepared. A known quantity of the solution is evaporated to dryness and from the weight
of the residue; the amount of solute in 10 grams of water is calculated.

Procedure

(A) Preparation of saturated solution of common salt at room temperature.

About 50 ml of distilled water is taken in a clean beaker. The common salt is

powdered and added in small quantities to the water with frequent stirring till no
more of the salt dissolves. This is indicated by some quantity of salt remaining
undissolved at the bottom. The supernatant liquid is a saturated solution of
common salt.

(B) Bout 20 ml of the saturated solution is filtered into a dry and weighed china dish
(w1g). The dish is weighed with the solution (w2g). It is then placed over a water
bath and evaporated (without spurting) to dryness. When quite dry, the dish with
the residue (the solute) is heated strongly over a sand bath to remove the last traces
of water. The dish is cooled and weighed. To ensure complete removal of water,
the process of heating, cooling and weighing is repeated till the last two weights
are the same (w3g). from the readings the solubility of common salt at room
temperature is calculated.

Readings and calculations: Laboratory temperature 30°C.

Weight of china dish = w1 g

Weight of china dish + saturated solution = w2 g
Weight of china dish + solute = w3 g
 weight of solute = (w3 – w1) g
 weight of water in saturated solution = (w2 – w3) g
 (w2 – w3) g of water are saturated by (w3 – w1) g of solute
w 3 – w1
 100 g of water saturated by 100gms=S
w2 – w3
 the solubility of the solid in water at 30°C is S g.

1.5. Solubility Curves: Saturated solutions of the substance at different temperatures are
prepared by using hot water funnels to maintain the temperature during filtration and the
solubilities at different temperatures are determined. The solubility curve is the graph
obtained by plotting the solubility against temperature. Figure 1 gives the solubility
curves of some substances in water. Solubility curves show

Temperature (°C)
Fig. 1

1. the change in the solubility of a substance with temperature

2. the different effects of temperature on solubility of different substances

(A) in most cases the change is gradual.

(B) in some cases (e.g. KNO3), there is rapid increase.

(C) in cases like NaCl there is very little variation.

(D) in cases like Na2SO4. 10H2O there are two curves, indicating transition of the
crystalline state. The point at which the two curves meet is the transition
temperature. For Na2SO4. 10H2O it is 32.5°C and at his temperature the
crystalline hydrate loses its water of hydration and becomes the anhydrous
salt Na2SO4.

(e) in a few cases [e.g. Ca(OH)2] the solubility decreases with increase in
temperature.

3. The amount of the substance that can be deposited by cooling its saturated solution
at a known higher temperature to a lower temperature can be known.

Eg. 1: A china dish weighs 53.6 g and 43.12 g with a saturated solution and solute respectively.
If the weight of the empty china dish is 39.4g. calculate the solubility of the substance at room
temperature.

 weight of solute alone (43.12 – 39.4) = 3.72 g

 weight of water in saturated solution (53.6 – 43.12) = 10.48 g
 10.48 g of water are saturated by 3.72 g of solid
3.72 100
 100 g of water saturated by = 35.5 gms
10.48
 the solubility of the solid at the room temperature is 35.5 g.

1.6. Strengths of solutions: Expression of concentrations of solutions.

Concentration of a solution means the amount of solute present in a definite weight or

volume of solution. There are various methods of expressing concentrations of solutions.
Some of them are

(i) Percentage of strength: It is the number of grams of solute present in 100 g of the
solution. E.g. a 10% solution of glucose in water contains 10 g of glucose is 100 g
of solution

(ii) Strength in Molarity (M): A solution containing 1 gram molecular weight of the
solute dissolved in 1 litre of the solution is called a molar (M) solution.

Molarity is thus the number of moles of solute present in 1 litre of the solution.
W weight in grams per litre
Number of moles = =
M gram molecular wight

i.g. 1 M solution of sodium hydroxide (Molecular weight 40) will contain 40 g of

NaOH in 1 litre of the solution.

(iii) Strength in Molality (m): A solution containing 1 g molecular weight of the

solute dissolved in 1000 g of the solvent is called molal (m) solution.

Eg. 1: Let W2 g of solute of molecular weight m2 be dissolved in W1 g of solvent.

W
Then W1 g of solvent contains 2 moles of solute
M2
W2 1000
 1000 g of solvent contains  = moles = m
M2 W1
 molality of the solution = m

(iv) Strength in Normality (N): A solution containing 1 g equivalent weight of the

Eg. 2: What is the molarity of a solution of H2SO4 which contains 0.98 g of H2SO4 in 500 mL.
of solution?

Solution: Molecular weight of H2SO4 = 98

98 g of H2SO4 dissolved in 1000 mL of solution gives 1 M solution
M
 0.98 g of H2SO4 dissolved in 1000 mL of  0.98 = 0.01M
98
0.011000
 0.98 g of H2SO4 dissolved in 5000 mL. of = 0.02M
500

Eg.3: The molarity of a solution of NaOH is 0.0125 M. What is the weight of NaOH in 4000
ml of the solution?

Solution: Molecular weight of NaOH = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40

weightingramsper litre
Molarity =
grammolecular weight
 weight in g in 1000 ml = Molarity  molecular weight
= 0.0125  40 = 0.5 g
 weight of NaOH in 400 ml = 400 = 0.2 g

Eg.4: A Solution of acetic acid (molecular weight 60) containing 80.8 g of the acid per litre of
solution has a density of 1.0097 g/ml. Calculate the molality of the solution.

Solution
Weight of 1000 ml of solution = Volume  Density
= 1000  1.0097
= 1009.7 g
Weight of acetic acid in the solution = 80.8 g
 weigh of water in the solution = (1009.7 – 80.8) = 928.9 g

80.8
The number of moles of acetic acid in 928.9 g of water = = 1.34
60
1.34
 the number of moles o acetic acid in 1000 g of water = 1000 = 1.443
928.9
Molality of acetic acid solution = 1.443 m

2. ELECTROLYSIS

2.1. Electric Current and Substances: Substances behave differently towards electric
current; some allow the current to pass through them while some do not. Substances
which allow the passage of current are called conductors; those which do not allow the
passage of current are non-conductors or insulators. Conductors are classified as
(i) Metallic conductors
(ii) Electrolytic conductors

(i) Metallic conductors: They do not undergo any change when current passes
through them except that they get warmed up during the flow of current. The flow
of current in metallic conductors is through electrons. Most metals are good
conductors of electricity. E.g. lighting of electric bulb

(ii) Electrolytic conductors or Electrolytes: They are aqueous solutions or

substances in the fused state which allow the passage of current. They undergo
chemical change and get decomposed. These substances are called electrolytes.
E.g. electrolysis of water produces hydrogen and oxygen.

2.2. Electrolysis: The process of decomposition of an electrolyte into its component ions by
the passage of current through the electrolyte is called electrolysis. The vessel in which
electrolysis takes place is called the electrolytic cell. The points at which the current
enters and leaves the solution are called the electrodes; anode is the positive electrode
and cathode is the negative electrode. During electrolysis, the electrolyte decomposes
into its ions.

BA → B+ + A-
Electrolyte positively charged ion – cation negatively charged ion –anion

The positive ion (cation) moves towards the cathode where it gets its positive charge
neutralized by the negative charge on the cathode and appears as neutral atom. Similarly,
the negative ion (anion) moves towards the anode and gets discharged at the electrode as
the neutral atom or radical.

E.g. the products of electrolysis of a solution of sodium chloride are sodium at the
cathode and chlorine at the anode.

In some cases the products of electrolysis may react further with water or with the
electrode and give rise to secondary reactions.

2.3. Theory of Ionization: Postulates of Arrhenius theory of Electrolytic Dissociation.

1. Acids, bases and salts in aqueous solution yield two types of charged particles
called ions – cation (positive) and anion (negative).

2. When an electrolyte is put into water, it dissociates to greater or smaller extent into
its component ions. At any given temperature, the undissociated molecules of the
electrolyte are in equilibrium with the ions.

3. Dilution increases ionization and at infinite dilution almost all electrolytes are
completely ionized.

5. The properties of the electrolytes in solution are the properties of the ions.

E.g. acid properties are due to H+ ions; basic properties due to OH- ions and blue
colour of copper sulphate solution is due to Cu2+ ions, etc.

2.4. Strong and Weak Electrolytes: All electrolytes do not conduct electricity to the same
extent.
E.g. 0.1 M HCl has a very high conductance whereas,
0.1 M acetic acid has a relatively low conductance.

It may therefore be inferred that there are more ions in 0.1 M HCl than in 0.1 M acetic
acid. HCl is said to be a strong electrolyte, while acetic acid is a weak electrolyte. When
HCl is dissolved in water, the following reaction takes place:

HCl + H2O → H3O+ + Cl-

Hydronium ion Chloride ion

The reaction is reversible but almost all the HCl molecules are converted into hydronium
and chloride ions. Hence, HCl is a strong electrolyte.

When acetic acid is dissolved in water, hydronium and acetate ions are produced:
CH3COOH + H2O → H3O+ + CH3COO-

H3O+ and CH3 COO- recombine to give back acetic and water. The forward reaction i.e.
formation of hydronium ion and acetate ion proceeds to a very small extent producing
only a very few ions. Hence, a solution of acetic acid is a weak electrolyte.

Strong Electrolytes Weak electrolytes

1. Ionisation Ionize to a large extent (ie.) Ionize only to a small extent
almost completely ionized) in aqueous solution
2. Conductance Have high conductance Have low conductance
3. Eg.s Mineral (strong) acids HCl,
H2SO4 and NHO3. Strong Organic (weak) acids oxalic,
bases NaOH, KOH and all acetic, etc. weak bases
salts NH4OH, Na2CO3 and water

2.5. Degree of Ionisationor Degree of Dissociation (  ): It is the fraction of 1 mole of an

electrolyte that has dissociated under the given conditions. Strong electrolytes have a
high degree of ionsation e.g. 0.1 M HCl may have  = 0.99 (i.e. it is 99% dissociated).
Weak electrolytes have a low degree of ionization E.g. 0.1M acetic acid solution may
have  = 0.02 (i.e. it is only about 2% dissociated).

X-ray studies of crystals have revealed that salts contain ions even in the solid state.
When a salt is placed in water, the inter-ionic attractive forces are weakened and the ions

get separated. They are now free to move and they conduct electricity. (it is to be noted
that in the solid state the ions are not mobile and so they do not conduct electricity.)

Ac
 = where Ac is the conductance of the solution at a
A
Particular concentration ‘c’ and A  is the conductance
At infinite dilution i.e. when all the molecules are dissociated.
Number of ions in solution
=
Total number of ions produced by complete dissociation

This is true only for weak electrolytes. In the case of strong electrolytes which are almost
completely ionized in aqueous solution, this ratio is called conductance ratio.

Factors which affect the value of  : The value of degree of ionization  depends
upon
1. The nature of solute, 2. The nature of solvent. 3. Temperature and 4. Dilution.

2.6. Applications of Electrolysis:

1. In the extraction of metals such as sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium by

the electrolysis of their fused chlorides; and of aluminium by the electrolysis of
pure Al2O3 dissolved in molten cryolite.

2. In the refining of metals such as copper and silver; the impure metal is made the
anode and a thin strip of the pure metal forms the cathode. Generally the electrolyte
is an acidic solution of a salt of the metal; e.g. in the electrolytic refining of copper,
the electrolyte is CuSO4 + dilute H2SO4. On passing a current the impure metal at
the anode dissolves and very pure metal is deposited on the cathode.

3. In electroplating; the deposition of metals by electrolysis is of great technical

importance. Electro-deposition may be done for decorative purposes such as silver-
plating of tableware; for engineering purposes as in chromium plating on the
surface of special tools.

Printing surfaces for books and textiles are prepared by copper plating.

4. In the manufacture of certain compounds like NaOH, KOH, KClO3, etc.

Objective Questions

Choose the correct answer for each of the following.

1. The molality of a solution is moles of solute per

(A)litre of solution (B) mole of solvent
(C)litre of solvent (D) kilogram of solvent

2. A solution is prepared by dissolving 0.500 mole of Glauber’s salt (sodium sulphate

decahydrate), Na2SO4. 10H2O in 910 g water. The water of hydration becomes part
of the solvent. In terms of the Na2SO4, the solution has the concentration
(A) 0.50 M (B) 0.50 m
(C) 0.55 M (D) 0.55 m

3. If 0.10 mole of naphthalene is dissolved in 100 g of benzene (C6H6), the molality is

(A) 0.100 (B) 0.90
(C) 1.00 (D) 1.28

4. If 0.100 mole of carbon tetrachloride CCl4, is dissolved in 200 g of benzene C6H6,

the molality is
(A) 0.500 (B) 0.900
(C) 1.00 (D) 1.50

5. When 0.100 mole of glucose, a non-electrolyte whose M.W. = 180.2 and density =
1.56 g/cc, is dissolved in 100 g of water (kf = 1.86°C/molal), the molality of the
solution is
(A) 1.86 m (B) 1.00 m
(C) 0.500 m (D) 0.186 m

6. A solution is prepared by dissolving 0.500 mole of Al2(SO4)3). 18H2O in 838 g of

water. The of hydration becomes part of the solvent. In terms of the anhydrous salt
(Al2 (SO4)3), the solution has the concentration
(A) 0.500 m (B) 0.600 m
(C) 0.500 M (D) 0.600 M

7. Which of the following affect the solubility of gases in solvents except

(A) nature of the gas (B) pressure of the gas
(C) temperature (D) atmospheric pressure

8. The solubility of a gas in a liquid can always be increased by

(A) increasing the pressure of the gas above the solvent
(B) increasing the temperature of the solvent
(C) decreasing the temperature o the solvent
(D) decreasing the temperature of the gas above the solvent

9. If the dissolution of an ionic solid in water is endothermic, then it can be concluded

that
(A) the solubility of the solid will increases with increasing temperature
(B) the solution process release heat
(C) the hydration energy exceeds the lattice energy
(D) the solubility of the solid is independent of the temperature

10. Which of the following solutions would be expected to be the poorest conductor of
an electric current at room temperature?
(A) 1.0 M CH3COOH (B) 0.01 M CH3COOH
(C) 0.01 M C12H22O11 (D) 0.01 M NaCl

11. Gaseous hydrogen chloride is added to water and methylbenzene. The electrical
conductivity of HCl in water is much greater than HCl in methylbenzene. This is
primarily due to the fact that
(A) water is intrinsically a conducting solvent
(B) water is a better proton-acceptor than methylbenzene
(C) HCl has a higher solubility in water than in methylbenzene
(D) water is a better proton-donor than methylbenzene

12. Which of the following ions would be expected to have the largest heat of
hydration?
(A) Na+ (B) Al3+
2-
(C) S (D) Ba2+

13. Which of the following aqueous solutions is the best conductor of an electric
current at room temperature?
(A) 0.1 M sucrose (B) 0.1 M acetic acid
(C) 0.1 M ammonium carbonate (D) 0.1 M sodium chloride

14. Molality is expressed as

(A) grams/litre (B)litres/mole
(C) moles/litre (D) moles/1000 gms

15. Which of the following s an electrolyte?

(A) Benzene (B) Urea
(C) Acetic acid (D) Carbon tetrachloride

16. Te solubility decreases with increase in temperature in the case of

(A)KCl (B) Ca(OH)2
(C) NaCl (D) KNO3

18. Which of the following is not a god conductor of electricity?

(A) NaCl (solid) (B) NaCl (fused)
(C) NaCl (aqueous solution) (D) Copper

19. Solubility is not dependent on

(A) temperature (B)colour of the solute
(C) state of subdivision of solute (D) nature of solvent

20. Solubility of carbon dioxide in water ……….. with increase of temperature and
…………… with increase of pressure.
(A) increases; increases (B) increases ; decreases
(C) decreases; decreases (D) decreases; increases

21. Which of the following is not a strong electrolyte?

(A) NaOH (B) KOH
(C) NH4OH (D) HNO3

22. Which of the following is a non-electrolyte?

(A) Sodium chloride (B) Barium chloride
(C) Ferric chloride (D) Carbon tetrachloride

23. When the concentration of a solution is expressed in moles per litre the strength is
(A) percentage strength (B) molality
(C) molarity (D) normality

II. Fill in the blanks suitably:

24. The degree of dissociation of an electrolyte ……….. with increase in dilution.

25. Acidic solutions contain ………… ions.

26. The number of moles of solute in 1000 grams of solvent is termed as …….. of the
solution.

27. The formation of a salt by the reaction between an acid and a base is known as
………….. .

28. The solubility of sodium hydroxide ……. And that of calcium hydroxide ………
with decrease in temperature.

III. State whether the following statements are True or False:

29. A solution of glucose inn water conducts electricity.

30. A supersaturated solution is stable in the presence of excess solute.

31. Liberating carbon dioxide when reacted with metallic carbonates is a common
property of acids.

32. A 50% solution of alcohol in water is as much a solution of water in alcohol as it is

a solution of alcohol in water.

33. No change can be observed when a saturated solution at 70°C is cooled to 30°C.

Types of Reactions : Redox

Chemical reactions involve transfer of electrons from one chemical substance to another. These
electron – transfer reactions are termed as oxidation-reduction or redox-reactions.
Redox reactions play an important role in our daily life. These reactions are accompanied by
energy changes in the form of heat, light, electricity etc. Generation of electricity in batteries
and many industrial processes such as production of caustic soda, KMnO 4 , extraction of metals
like sodium, iron and Aluminium are common eg.s of redox reactions.
2.1 Molecular and Ionic equations.
(1) Molecular equations : When the reactants and products involved in a chemical change are
written in molecular forms in the chemical equation, it is termed as molecular equation.
Eg.s : (i) MnO 2 + 4 HCl → MnCl 2 + 2 H 2 O + Cl2
(ii) 2 FeCl3 + SnCl 2 → 2 FeCl2 + SnCl 4
In above eg.s, the reactants and products have been written in molecular forms, thus
the equation is termed as molecular equation.
(2) Ionic equations: When the reactants and products involved in a chemical change
are ionic compounds, these will be present in the form of ions in the solution. The
chemical change is written in ionic forms in chemical equation, it is termed as ionic
equation.
+ −
Eg.s : (i) MnO 2 + 4 H + 4 Cl → Mn 2+ + 2Cl − + 2 H 2 O + Cl 2
(ii) 2 Fe 3+ + 6Cl − + Sn 2+ + 2Cl − → 2 Fe 2+ + 4 Cl − + Sn 4 + + 4 Cl −
In above eg.s, the reactants and products have been written in ionic forms, thus the
equation is termed as ionic equation.
(3) Spectator ions:In ionic equations, the ions which do not undergo any change
and equal in number in both reactants and products are termed spectator ions and are not
included in the final balanced equations.
Eg.: Zn + 2 H + + 2Cl − → Zn 2 + + H 2 + 2Cl − (Ionic equation)
Zn + 2 H + → Zn2 + + H 2 (Final ionic equation)
In above eg., the Cl − ions are the spectator ions and hence are not included in the
final ionic balanced equation.
(4) Rules for writing ionic equations
(i) All soluble ionic compounds involved in a chemical change are expressed in
ionic symbols and covalent substances are written in molecular form. H2O, NH3 , NO2 ,
NO, SO2, CO, CO2, etc., are expressed in molecular form.
(ii) The ionic compound which is highly insoluble is expressed in molecular form.
(iii) The ions which are common and equal in number on both sides, i.e., spectator ions, are
cancelled.
(iv) Besides the atoms, the ionic charges must also be balanced on both the sides.
The rules can be explained by following eg.s,
Eg.:Write the ionic equation for the reaction of sodium bicarbonate with sulphuric
acid, The molecular equation for the chemical change is,
NaHCO3 + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + H2O + CO2
NaHCO3, H2SO4 and Na2SO4 are ionic compounds, so these are written in ionic forms.
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Na+ + HCO 3− + 2 H + + SO 42 − → 2 Na + + SO 42− + H 2 O + CO 2

Na + and SO 42 − ions are spectator ions; hence these shall not appear in the final equation.
HCO 3− + 2 H + → H 2 O + CO 2
−
To make equal charges on both sides, HCO 3 should have a coefficient 2.
2 HCO 3− + 2 H + → H 2 O + CO 2
In order to balance the hydrogen and carbon on both sides, the molecules of H2O and CO2
should have a coefficient 2 respectively.
2 HCO 3− + 2 H + = 2 H 2 O + 2CO 2
− +
or HCO 3 + H = H 2 O + CO 2
This is the balanced ionic equation.
Conversion of ionic equation in molecular form can be explained by following eg.,
Eg.: Write the following ionic equation in the molecular form if the reactants are chlorides.
2Fe3++Sn2+ → 2Fe2++Sn4+
For writing the reactants in molecular forms, the requisite number of chloride ions are
added.
2Fe3+ + 6Cl − → Sn2+ + 2Cl − or 2FeCl3 + SnCl2
−
Similarly 8 Cl ions are added on R.H.S. to neutralize the charges.
2Fe2+ + 4Cl − → Sn4+ + 4Cl − or 2FeCl2 + SnCl4

Thus, the balanced molecular equation is, 2FeCl3+SnCl2 → 2FeCl2 + SnCl4

5.2 Oxidation-reduction and Redox reactions.

(1) Oxidation:Oxidation is a process which involves; addition of oxygen, removal of
hydrogen, addition of non-metal, removal of metal, Increase in +ve valency, loss of
electrons and increase in oxidation number.
(i) Addition of oxygen
(A) 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO (Oxidation of magnesium)
(B)S + O2 → SO2 (Oxidation of sulphur)
(C) 2CO + O2 → 2CO2 (Oxidation of carbon monoxide)
(D)Na2SO3+H2O2 → Na2SO4+H2O (Oxidation of sodium sulphite)
(ii) Removal of hydrogen
(A)H2S + Cl2 → 2HCl + S (Oxidation of hydrogen sulphide)
(B) 4HI + O2 → 2H2O + 2I2 (Oxidation of hydrogen iodide)
Cu / 300 o C
(C)C2H5OH ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯→ CH3CHO + H2 (Oxidation of ethanol)
(D) 4HCl + MnO2 → MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2 (Oxidation of hydrogen chloride)
(iii) Addition of an electronegative element or addition of Non-metal
(A)Fe + S → FeS (Oxidation of iron)
(B)SnCl2 + Cl2 → SnCl4 (Oxidation of stannous
chloride)
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(C) 2Fe + 3F2 → 2FeF3 (Oxidation of iron)

(iv) Removal of an electropositive element or removal of metal
(A) 2KI + H2O2 → 2KOH + I2 (Oxidation of potassium iodide)
(B) 2K2MnO4 + Cl2 → 2KCl + 2KMnO4 (Oxidation of potassium manganate)
(C) 2KI + Cl2 → 2KCl + I2 (Oxidation of potassium iodide)
(v) Increase in +ve valency and Decrease in – ve valency

Increase in +ve valency

–4, –3, –2, –1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4
Decrease in –ve valency

2+
(A) Fe → Fe 3 + + e − (+vevalency increases)
2+
(B) Sn → Sn 4 + + 2e − (+ve valency increases)
4−
(C) [Fe (CN )6 ] → [Fe(CN )6 ]3− + e − (–ve valency decreases)
(D) MnO 42 − → MnO 4− + e − (–ve valency decreases)
(vi) Loss of electrons(also known as de-electronation)
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4
M M M M M M M M M

+e– +e– +e– +e– –e– –e– –e– –e–

Loss of electrons

(A) H 0 → H + + e − (Formation of proton)

0
(B) H 2 → H 2+ +e −
(De-electronation of hydrogen)
(C) Fe 2+ → Fe 3 + + e − (De-electronation of Fe 2 + )
2+
(D) Mg → Mg + 2e − (De-electronation of Magnesium)
2− − − 2−
(e) MnO 4 → MnO 4 + e (De-electronation of MnO 4 )
− −
(f) 2Cl → Cl 2 + 2e (De-electronation of chloride ion)
3+ −
(g) 2 Fe → 2 Fe + 6 e
0
(De-electronation of iron)
(vii) Increase in oxidation number
2+
(A) Mg → Mg
0
(From 0 to +2)

(B) Fe + 2 (CN )6 
4−

→ Fe + 3 (CN )6 
3−
(From +2 to +3)
−
(C) 2Cl → Cl 2
0
(From –1 to 0)
(2) Reduction:Reduction is just reverse of oxidation. Reduction is a process which involves;
removal of oxygen, addition of hydrogen, removal of non-metal, addition of metal,
decrease in +ve valency, gain of electrons and decrease in oxidation number.

(i) Removal of oxygen

(A) CuO + C → Cu + CO (Reduction of cupric oxide)
(B) H 2 O + C → CO + H 2 (Reduction of water)
Steam Coke    
Water gas

(C) Fe 3 O4 + 4 H 2 → 3 Fe + 4 H 2 O (Reduction of Fe 3 O 4 )
(D) C6 H 5 OH + Zn → C6 H 6 + ZnO (Reduction of phenol)
(ii) Addition of hydrogen
(A) Cl 2 + H 2 → 2 HCl (Reduction of chlorine)
(B) S + H 2 → H 2 S (Reduction of sulphur)
(C) C 2 H 4 + H 2 → C 2 H 6 (Hydrogenation of ethene)
(iii) Removal of an electronegative element or removal of Non-metal
(A) 2 HgCl 2 + SnCl 2 → Hg 2 Cl 2 + SnCl 4 (Reduction of mercuric chloride)
(B) 2 FeCl3 + H 2 → 2 FeCl 2 + 2 HCl (Reduction of ferric chloride)
(C) 2 FeCl3 + H 2 S → 2 FeCl2 + 2 HCl + S (Reduction of ferric chloride)
(iv) Addition of an electropositive element or addition of metal
(A) HgCl 2 + Hg → Hg 2 Cl 2 (Reduction of mercuric chloride)
(B) CuCl 2 + Cu → Cu 2 Cl 2 (Reduction of cupric chloride)

(v) Decrease in +ve valency and Increase in –ve valency

Decrease in +ve valency

–4, –3, –2, –1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4
Increase in –ve valency

3+
(A) Fe → Fe 2+ (+ve valency decreases)
4+
(B) Sn → Sn 2+ (+vevelency decreases)
3−
(C) [Fe (CN )6 ] → [Fe(CN )6 ]4 − (–ve valency increases)
− 2−
(D) MnO 4 → MnO 4 (–ve valency increases)

(vi) Gain of electrons (also known as electronation)

−4 −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4
M M M M M M M M M

dde+e– +e– +e– +e– +e– -e– -e– -e–

Gain of electrons

(C) Mn 7 + + 5e − → Mn 2+ (Electronation of Mn 7 + )
(D) Fe 3 + + e − → Fe 2+ (Electronation of Fe 3 + )
(e) Sn 4 + + 2e − → Sn 2+ (Electronation of Sn 4 + )
(f) Cl + e − → Cl − (Formation of chloride ion)
3−
(g) [Fe(CN )6 ] + e − → [Fe(CN )6 ]4 − (Eectronation of [Fe(CN )6 ] )
3−

(vii) Decrease in oxidation number

2+
(A) Mg → Mg 0 (From +2 to 0)

(B) Fe(CN )6  → Fe(CN )6 

3− 4−
(From +3 to +2)
(C) Cl 20 → 2Cl − (From 0 to –1)
(3) Redox-reactions
(i) An overall reaction in which oxidation and reduction takes place simultaneously is called
redox or oxidation-reduction reaction. These reactions involve transfer of electrons from one
atom to another. Thus every redox reaction is made up of two half reactions; One half reaction
represents the oxidation and the other half reaction represents the reduction.
(ii) The redox reactions are of following types
(A) Direct redox reaction: The reactions in which oxidation and reduction takes place in the
same vessel are called direct redox reactions.
(B)Indirect redox reaction: The reactions in which oxidation and reduction takes place in
different vessels are called indirect redox reactions. Indirect redox reactions are the basis of
electro-chemical cells.
(C) Intermolecular redox reactions: In which one substance is oxidized while the other is
reduced. For eg.,
2 Al + Fe 2 O3 → Al 2 O3 + 2 Fe
Here, Al is oxidised to Al 2 O 3 while Fe 2 O 3 is reduced to Fe.
(D) Intramolecular redox reactions: In which one element of a compound is oxidized while
the other is reduced. For eg.,

2 KClO3 ⎯⎯→ 2 KCl + 3 O 2
0
Here, Cl +5 in KClO 3 is reduced to Cl −1 in KCl while O 2 − in KClO 3 is oxidised to O 2 .
(iii) To see whether the given chemical reaction is a redox reaction or not, the molecular reaction
is written in the form of ionic reaction and now it is observed whether there is any change in the
valency of atoms or ions. If there is a change in valency, the chemical reaction will be a redox
reaction otherwise not. For eg.,
(A) BaO 2 + H 2 SO 4 → BaSO 4 + H 2 O 2
(B) CuSO 4 + 4 NH 3 → Cu(NH 3 )4  SO 4
In above eg.s there is no change in the valency of any ion or atom, thus these are not redox
reactions.

(iv) Some eg.s of redox reactions are,

(A) –2e–

2 HgCl 2 + SnCl 2 →Oxidation

Hg 2 Cl 2 + SnCl 4
+ 2e–

Here mercuric ion is reduced to mercurous ion and stannous ion is oxidised to stannic ion,
i.e., mercuric ion acts as an oxidising agent while stannous ion acts as a reducing agent.

(B) +2e–

SnCl 2 + 2 FeClReduction
3 → 2 FeCl2 + SnCl 4

– 2e–

Here ferric ion is reduced

Oxidationto ferrous ion by gain of one electron while stannous ion is
oxidised to stannic ion by loss of two electrons. The ferric ion acts as an oxidising agent while
stannous ion acts as a reducing agent.

2 Na 2 S 2 O 3 + I 2 → Na 2 SReduction
4 O6 + 2 NaI
–2e–

Here thiosulphateOxidation
ion is oxidised to tetrathionate ion by loss of electrons while iodine is
reduced to iodide ion by gain of electrons. Thiosulphate ion acts as a reducing agent and iodine
acts as an oxidising agent.

(D) –2e–
0 2+ 0
Zn+ Cu SOOxidation
4 → ZnSO 4 + Cu
+2e –

(e) –2e – Reduction

0 0 + −
H 2 + X 2Oxidation
→ 2 H− X (Where X = F, Cl, Br, I)
+2e–
–2e–
Reduction
0 Oxidation
0 +2 −1
(f) Zn+ I 2 → Zn I 2
+2e–

Reduction

(g) +2e–
0 +1 0 +2
Zn+ 2 Ag CN → 2 Ag + Zn(CN )2
Reduction

–2e–

Oxidation
+2e–
(h)
0 +1 +2
Reduction 0
Cu + 2 Ag NO 3 → Cu( NO 3 )2 + 2 Ag
–2e–

Oxidation
5.3 Oxidising and Reducing agents (Oxidants and Reductants).
(1) Definition : The substance (atom, ion or molecule) that gains electrons and is thereby
reduced to a low valency state is called an oxidising agent, while the substance that loses
electrons and is thereby oxidised to a higher valency state is called a reducing agent.
Or
An oxidising agent is a substance the oxidation number of whose atom or atoms decreases
while a reducing agent is a substance the oxidation number of whose atom increases.

(2) Important oxidising agents

(i) Molecules made up of electronegative elements, e.g. O2, O3 and X2 (halogens).
(ii) Compounds containing an element which is in the highest oxidation state e.g.
KMnO 4 , K 2 Cr2 O7 , Na 2 Cr2 O7 , CrO 3, H 2 SO 4 ,
HNO 3 , NaNO 3 , FeCl 3 , HgCl 2 , KClO4 , SO 3 , CO 2 , H 2 O 2 etc.
(iii) Oxides of elements e.g. MgO, CuO, CrO3 , CO 2 , P4 O10 , etc.
(iv) Fluorine is the strongest oxidising agent.
(3) Important reducing agents
(i) All metals e.g. Na, Zn, Fe, Al, etc.
(ii) A few non-metals e.g. C, H2, S etc.
(iii) Hydracids : HCl, HBr, HI, H2S etc.
(iv) A few compounds containing an-element in the lower oxidation state (ous), e.g.
FeCl 2 , FeSO 4 , SnCl 2 , Hg 2 Cl 2 , Cu 2 O etc.
(v) Metallic hydrides e.g. NaH, LiH etc.
(vi) Organic compounds like HCOOH and (COOH)2 and their salts, aldehydes, alkanes etc.
(vii) Lithium is the strongest reducing agent in solution.
(viii) Cesium is the strongest reducing agent in absence of water. Other reducing agents are
Na 2 S 2 O 3 and KI.
(ix) Hypo prefix indicates that central atom of compound has the minimum oxidation state
so it will act as a reducing agent. e.g., H 3 PO2 (hypophosphorous acid).
(4) Substances which act as oxidising as well as reducing agents
Eg. : H 2 O2 , SO 2 , H 2 SO 3 , HNO 2 , NaNO 2 , Na2 SO 3 , O3 etc.
(5) Tips for the identification of oxidising and reducing agents
(i) If an element is in its highest possible oxidation state in a compound, the compound can
function as an oxidising agent, e.g. KMnO 4 , K 2 Cr2 O7 , HNO 3 , H 2 SO 4 , HClO 4 etc.
(ii) If an element is in its lowest possible oxidation state in a compound, the compound can
function only as a reducing agent, e.g. H 2 S , H 2 C 2 O4 , FeSO 4 , Na 2 S 2 O3 , SnCl 2 etc.
(iii) If an element is in its intermediate oxidation state in a compound, the compound can
function both as an oxidising agent as well as reducing agent, e.g.
H 2 O 2 , H 2 SO 3 , HNO 2 , SO 2 etc.
(iv) If a highly electronegative element is in its highest oxidation state in a compound, that
compound can function as a powerful oxidising agent, e.g. KClO4 , KClO3 , KBrO 3 , KIO3
etc.
(v) If an electronegative element is in its lowest possible oxidation state in a compound or in
− − 3−
free state, it can function as a powerful reducing agent, e.g. I , Br , N etc.
(6) Tests for Oxidising agents
(i) Aqueous solutions of oxidising agents react with,
(A) Hydrogen sulphide to give a milky yellow precipitate of sulphur.
H 2 S + Oxidising agent → S (milky yellow ppt.)
(B) Potassium iodide solution and evolve iodine which gives intense blue colour with starch
solution
KI + Oxidising agent → I 2 ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯ ⎯→ Intense blue colour
Starch solution

(C) Freshly prepared solution of ferrous ammonium sulphate in presence of dil. H 2 SO 4 .

Ferric ions (Fe 3 + ) can be detected by adding ammonium thiocyanate solution when a deep
red colouration is produced.
−
Oxidising agent + Fe 2 + → Fe 3 + ⎯⎯ ⎯→ Fe (CNS )3 (deep red colouration)
CNS

(ii) Insoluble oxidising agents on,

(A) Strong heating evolve oxygen which relights a glowing splinter.
(B) Warming with concentrated hydrochloric acid evolve chlorine which bleaches the
moist litmus paper.
(7) Tests for reducing agents
(i) Aqueous solutions of reducing agents react with,
(A) Acidified potassium permanganate solution and decolourise it.
(B) Few drops of acidified potassium dichromate solution, green coloration is produced.
(C) Few drops of ferric chloride solution. The ferrous ions thus formed give a deep blue
coloration with potassium ferricyanide (K 3 [Fe(CN )6 ]) .
Insoluble reducing agents on,
(D) Heating with concentrated nitric acid, evolve brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide.
(e) Heating with powdered cupric salt, form a red deposit of copper which does not dissolve in
warm dilute sulphuric acid.
(8) Equivalent weight of oxidising and reducing agents
(i) Equivalent weight of a substance (oxidant or reductant) is equal to molecular weight
divided by number of electrons lost or gained by one molecule of the substance in a redox
reaction.
Molecular weight
Equivalent weight of oxidising agent =
No. of electrons gained by one molecule
Molecular weight
Equivalent weight of reducing agent =
No. of electrons lost by one molecule
(ii) In other words, it is equal to the molecular weight of oxidant or reductant divided by
the change in oxidation number.
Molecular weight
Equivalent weight of oxidising agent =
Change in O.N. per mole
Molecular weight
Equivalent weight of reducing agent =
Change in O.N. per mole

Equivalent weight of few oxidising/reducing agents

Change in
O. Total
N. Change in
Agents O. N. Product O. N. Eq. wt.
per O. N. per
ato mole
m

Cr2 O7 2 − +6 Cr 3 + +3 3 3×2=6 Mol. wt./6

2−
C 2 O4 +3 CO2 +4 1 1×2=2 Mol. wt./2
S 2 O3 2 − +2 S 4 O6 2 − + 2.5 0.5 0.5 × 2 = 1 Mol. wt./1
H 2O2 –1 H 2O –2 1 1×2=2 Mol. wt./2
H 2O2 –1 O2 0 1 1×2=2 Mol. wt./2
MnO4−
(Acidic +7 Mn 2 + +2 5 5×1=5 Mol. wt./5
medium)
MnO4−
(Neutral +7 MnO2 +4 3 3×1=3 Mol. wt./3
medium)
MnO4−
(Alkaline +7 MnO42 − +6 1 1×1=1 Mol. wt./1
medium)

5.4 Oxidation number or Oxidation state.

(1) Definition : Charge on an atom produced by donating or accepting electrons is called
oxidation number or oxidation state. It is the number of effective charges on an atom.
(2) Valency and oxidation number : Valency and oxidation number concepts are different. In
some cases (mainly in the case of electrovalent compounds), valency and oxidation number are
the same but in other cases they may have different values. Points of difference between the two
have been tabulated below
Valency Oxidation number
It is the combining capacity of the element. No O.N. is the charge (real or imaginary) present on the
plus or minus sign is attached to it. atom of the element when it is in combination.
It may have plus or minus sign.
Valency of an element is usually fixed. O.N. of an element may have different values. It
depends on the nature of compound in which
it is present.
Valency is always a whole number. O.N. of the element may be a whole number or
fractional.
Valency of the element is never zero except of O.N. of the element may be zero.
noble gases.
(3) Oxidation number and Nomenclature
(i) When an element forms two monoatomic cations (representing different oxidation states), the
two ions are distinguished by using the ending-ous and ic. The suffix – ous is used for the cation
with lower oxidation state and the suffix – ic is used for the cation with higher oxidation state.
For eg. : Cu+ (oxidation number +1) cuprous : Cu2+ (oxidation number +2) cupric
(ii) Albert Stock proposed a new system known as Stock system. In this system, the oxidation
states are indicated by Roman numeral written in parentheses immediately after the name of the
element. For eg.,

Cu2O Copper (I) oxide SnO Tin (II) oxide

FeCl2 Iron (II) chloride Mn2O7 Manganess (VII) oxide
K2Cr2O7 Potassium dichromate (VI) Na2CrO4 Sodium chromate (VI)
V2O5 Vanadium (V) oxide CuO Copper (II) oxide
SnO2 Tin (IV) oxide FeCl3 Iron (III) chloride

Note : Stock system is not used for non-metals.

(4) Rules for the determination of oxidation number of an atom
The following rules are followed in ascertaining the oxidation number of an atom,
(i) If there is a covalent bond between two same atoms then oxidation numbers of these two
atoms will be zero. Bonded electrons are symmetrically distributed between two atoms. Bonded
atoms do not acquire any charge. So oxidation numbers of these two atoms are zero.
A : A or A – A → A* + A*
For e.g. Oxidation number of Cl in Cl2, O in O2 and N and N2 is zero.
(ii) If covalent bond is between two different atoms then electrons are counted towards
more electronegative atom. Thus oxidation number of more electronegative atom is negative and
oxidation number of less electronegative atom is positive. Total number of charges on any
element depends on number of bonds.
A – B → A+ + B :–
A – B → A+2 + : B : –2
The oxidation number of less electronegative element (A) is + 1 and + 2 respectively.
(iii) If there is a coordinate bond between two atoms then oxidation number of donor atom will
be + 2 and of acceptor atom will be – 2.
A → B → A2+ + B-2
(iv) The oxidation number of all the atoms of different elements in their respective elementary
states is taken to be zero. For eg., in N 2 , Cl2 , H 2 , P4 , S 8 , O2 , Br2 , Na, Fe, Ag etc. the oxidation
number of each atom is zero.
(v) The oxidation number of a monoatomic ion is the same as the charge on it. For eg.,
+ 2+
oxidation numbers of Na , Mg and Al 3 + ions are + 1, + 2 and + 3 respectively while those
of Cl − , S 2 − and N 3 − ions are –1, –2 and –3 respectively.
(vi) The oxidation number of hydrogen is + 1 when combined with non-metals and is –1 when
combined with active metals called metal hydrides such as LiH, KH, MgH2, CaH2 etc.
(vii) The oxidation number of oxygen is – 2 in most of its compounds, except in peroxides like
H 2 O2 , BaO 2 etc. where it is –1. Another interesting exception is found in the compound OF2
(oxygen difluoride) where the oxidation number of oxygen is + 2. This is due to the fact that
fluorine being the most electronegative element known has always an oxidation number of –1.
(viii) In compounds formed by union of metals with non-metals, the metal atoms will have
positive oxidation numbers and the non-metals will have negative oxidation numbers. For eg.,
(A) The oxidation number of alkali metals (Li, Na, K etc.) is always +1 and those of
alkaline earth metals (Be, Mg, Ca etc) is + 2.
(B) The oxidation number of halogens (F, Cl, Br, I) is always –1 in metal halides such as
KF, AlCl3, MgBr2, CdI2. etc.

(ix) In compounds formed by the union of different elements, the more electronegative atom
will have negative oxidation number whereas the less electronegative atom will have
positive oxidation number. For eg.,
(A) N is given an oxidation number of –3 when it is bonded to less electronegative atom as
in NH3 and NI3, but is given an oxidation number of + 3 when it is bonded to more
electronegative atoms as in NCl3.
(B) Since fluorine is the most electronegative element known so its oxidation number is
always –1 in its compounds i.e. oxides, interhalogen compounds etc.
(C) In interhalogen compounds of Cl, Br, and I; the more electronegative of the two
halogens gets the oxidation number of –1. For eg., in BrCl3, the oxidation number of Cl
is –1 while that of Br is +3.
(x) For neutral molecule, the sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms is equal to zero.
For eg., in NH3 the sum of the oxidation numbers of nitrogen atom and 3 hydrogen
atoms is equal to zero. For a complex ion, the sum of the oxidation numbers of all the
2−
atoms is equal to charge on the ion. For eg., in SO 4 ion, the sum of the oxidation
numbers of sulphur atom and 4 oxygen atoms must be equal to –2.
(xi) It may be noted that oxidation number is also frequently called as oxidation state. For
eg., in H2O, the oxidation state of hydrogen is +1 and the oxidation state of oxygen is – 2.
This means that oxidation number gives the oxidation state of an element in a compound.
(xii) In the case of representative elements, the highest oxidation number of an element is
the same as its group number while highest negative oxidation number is equal to (8 –
Group number) with negative sign with a few exceptions. The most common oxidation
states of the representative elements are shown in the following table,
Group Outer shell Common oxidation numbers (states)
configuration except zero in free state
IA ns1 +1
II A ns2 +2
2 1
III A ns np +3, +1
IV A ns2np2 +4,+3,+2,+1, –1, –2, –3, –4
VA ns2np3 +5,+3,+1, –1, –3
VI A ns2np4 +6,+4,+2,–2
VII A ns2np5 +7,+5,+3, +1, –1
(xiii) Transition metals exhibit a large number of oxidation states due to involvement of (n
–1) d electron besides ns electron.
(xiv) Oxidation number of a metal in carbonyl complex is always zero, e.g. Ni has zero oxidation state
in Ni(CO )4 .
(xv) Those compounds which have only C, H and O the oxidation number of carbon can be
calculated by following formula,
(n O  2 - n H )
Oxidation number of ' C ' =
nC

Where, n O is the number of oxygen atom, n H is the number of hydrogen atom, n C is the number of
carbon atom.
*
For eg., (A) CH 3 OH ; n H = 4, nC = 1, nO = 1
(1  2 − 4 )
Oxidation number of ‘C’ = = −2
1
*
(B) HCOOH ; n H = 2, nO = 2, nc = 1
(2  2 − 2)
Oxidation number of carbon = = +2
1
(5) Procedure for calculation of oxidation number : By applying the above rules, we can
calculate the oxidation numbers of elements in the molecules/ions by the following steps.
(i) Write down the formula of the given molecule/ion leaving some space between the atoms.
(ii) Write oxidation number on the top of each atom. In case of the atom whose oxidation
number has to be calculated write x.
(iii) Beneath the formula, write down the total oxidation numbers of each element. For this
purpose, multiply the oxidation numbers of each atom with the number of atoms of that
kind in the molecule/ion. Write the product in a bracket.
(iv) Equate the sum of the oxidation numbers to zero for neutral molecule and equal to
charge on the ion.
(v) Solve for the value of x.

Eg.s on calculating Oxidation Number :

Eg.:1 The oxidation state of Mn in K 2 MnO 4 is

(A)+ 2 (B) + 7 (C) – 2 (D) + 6
Solution :(D) K 2 MnO 4 2 + x − 24 = 0
x = 8 − 2 = +6
So, oxidation state of Mn is +6.
Eg.:2 The oxidation number of Cr in K 2 Cr2 O7 is
(A) + 6 (B)– 7 (C) + 2 (D) – 2
Solution :(A) K2 Cr 2O7
12
2 + 2 x − 2  7 = 0 or 2 x − 14 + 2 = 0 or 2 x = 12 or x = = +6
2
So, oxidation state of Cr is +6.

Eg.:3 Oxidation number of N in (NH 4 )2 SO 4 is [CPMT 1996]

(A) –1/3 (B) – 1 (C) + 1 (D) – 3
Solution :(D) (NH 4 )2 SO 4 ⇌ 2 N H 4+ + SO 4−2
N H 4+

x + 4 = +1 or x = 1 − 4 = −3

Eg.:4 The oxidation number of Sb in K 2 H 2 Sb 2 O7 is

(A) +2 (B) + 5 (C) – 2 (D) – 5

Solution : (B) As K2 H 2 Sb 2O7 is a neutral species, therefore the sum of the oxidation number of
all the atoms present in K 2 H 2 Sb 2 O7 = 0
Let oxidation number per Sb atom = x
 2 + 2 + 2 x + (−2)7 = 0 [ Oxidation number of K, H and O are +1,
+1 and –2 respectively]
or 4 + 2 x − 14 = 0 or 2 x − 10 = 0 or x = + 5

Eg.:5 Theoxidation number of Al in Ca 3 (AlO3 )2 is

(A) +3 (B) – 1 (C) + 2 (D) 0
Solution :(A) Ca 3 (AlO3 )2
2 × 3 + 2x – 6 × 2 = 0 or 6 + 2 x − 12 = 0 or 2 x = 6 or x = +3
Eg.:6 Theoxidation state of Cl in Ca (OCl ) Cl is
(A) –1 (B) + 2 (C) + 3 (D) 0
Solution : (A) OCl is known as hypochlorite radical having contribution towards = – 1.
Let the oxidation state of underlined chlorine atom = x
 2 + ( − 1) + x = 0 or x = −1
The oxidation state of underlined Cl = –1.
While the oxidation state of Cl present in OCl radical = + 1.
Eg.:7 Oxidation state of oxygen in hydrogen peroxide is
(A) –1 (B)+ 1 (C) 0 (D) – 2
Solution :(A) In all peroxides oxygen shows –1 oxidation state.

Eg.:8 The brown ring complex compound is formulated as [Fe(H 2 O)5 NO + ]SO 4 . The oxidation
state of iron is
(A) + 1 (B) + 2 (C) + 3 (D) 0
Solution : (B)  Fe (H 2 O)5 NO SO 4 [Oxidation number of H2O = 0 ; Oxidation number of NO =
0; Oxidation number of SO 42 − =–2]
x + 0 +0 − 2 = 0 or x − 2 = 0 or x = +2
Eg.:9 Theoxidation state of V in Rb 4 Na H V10 O 28  is
(A) + 2 (B) + 5 (C) – 2 (D) – 5

Solution : (B) The oxidation state of Rb = +1 (Since it is alkali metals)

Let oxidation state of V = x
 4  1 + 1 + 1 + 10 x + 28  ( − 2) = 0

S
Solution :(B) The structure of FeS 2 is Fe
S
Therefore FeS 2 contain one per disulphide linkage, which is similar to that of peroxide linkages,
having contribution of – 2 units towards the oxidation state
Let the oxidation state of Fe = x
 x − 2 = 0 or x = 2
The oxidation state of Fe in FeS 2 is + 2.
Oxidation number of some elements in compounds, ions or chemical species

Element Oxidation Compounds, ions or chemical species

Number
Sulphur (s) –2 H2S, ZnS, NaHS, (SnS3)2–, BaS, CS2
0 S, S4, S8, SCN–
+1 S2,F2, S2Cl2
+4 SO2, H2SO3, (SO3)2–, SOCl2, NaHSO3, Ca[HSO3]2, [HSO3]–, SF4
+6 H2SO4, (SO4)2-, [HSO4]–, BaSO4, KHSO4, SO3, SF6, H2S2O7, (S2O7)2–
Nitrogen –3 NH3, (NH4)+, AlN, Mg3N2, (N)3–, Ca3N2, CN–
(N)
–2 N2H4, (N2H5)+
–1 NH2OH
–1/3 NaN3, N3H
0 N2
+1 N2O
+2 NO
+3 HNO2, (NO2)–, NaNO2, N2O3, NF3
+4 NO2
+5 HNO3, (NO3)–, KNO3, N2O5
Chlorine –1 HCl, NaCl, CaCl2, AlCl3, ICl, ICl5, SOCl2, CrO2Cl2, KCl, K2PtCl6, HAuCl4,
CCl4
(Cl) 0 Cl, Cl2
+1 HOCl, NaOCl, (OCl)–, Cl2O
+3 KClO2, (ClO2)–, HClO2
+4 ClO2
+5 (ClO3)–, KClO3, NaClO3, HClO3
+7 HClO4, Cl2O7, KClO4, (ClO4)–
Hydrogen –1 NaH, CaH2, LiAlH4, LiH
(H) +1 NH3, PH3, HF

Phosphorus –3 PH3, (PH4)+, Ca3P2

(P) 0 P4
+1 H3PO2, KH2PO2, BaH4P2O4
+3 PI3, PBr3, PCl3, P2O3, H3PO3
+5 (PO4)3–, H3PO4, Ca3(PO4)2, H4P2O7, P4O10, PCl5, (P2O7)4–, Mg2P2O7, ATP
Oxygen –2 H2O, PbO2, (CO3)2–, (PO4)2–, SO2, (C2O4)2–, HOCl, (OH)–, (O)2-
(O) –1 Na2O2, BaO2, H2O2, (O2)2–, Peroxides
– 1/2 KO2
0 O, O2, O3
+1 O2F2
+2 OF2
Carbon –4 CH4
(C) –3 C2H6
–2 CH3Cl, C2H4
–1 CaC2, C2H2
0 Diamond, Graphite, C6H12O6, C2H4O2, HCHO, CH2Cl2
+2 CO, CHCl3, HCN
+3 H2C2O4, (C2O4)2–
+4 CO2, H2CO3, (HCO3)–, CCl4, Na2CO3, Ca2CO3, CS2, CF4, (CO3)–2
Chromium +3 Cr2(SO4)3, CrCl3, Cr2O3, [Cr(H2O)4Cl3]
(Cr) +6 K2CrO4, (CrO4)2–, K2Cr2O7, (Cr2O7)2–, KCrO3Cl, CrO2Cl2, Na2Cr3O10, CrO3
Manganese +2 MnO, MnSO4, MnCl2, Mn(OH)2
(Mn) + 8/3 Mn3O4
+3 Mn(OH)3
+4 MnO2, K2MnO3
+6 K2MnO4, (MnO4)2–
+7 KMnO4, (MnO4)–, HMnO4
Silicon –4 SiH4, Mg2Si
(Si) +4 SiO2, K2SiO3, SiCl4
Iron (Fe) 8 Fe3O4
+
3
+2 FeSO4 (Ferrous ammonium sulphate), K4Fe(CN)6, FeCl2
+3 K3[Fe(CN)6], FeCl3

Iodine(I) +7 H 4 IO 6− , KIO4
Osmium +8 OsO4
(Os)
Xenon +6 XeO3, XeF6
(Xe)
(6) Exceptional cases of evaluation of oxidation numbers : The rules described earlier
are usually helpful in determination of the oxidation number of a specific atom in simple
molecules but these rules fail in the following cases. In these cases, the oxidation
numbers are evaluated using the concepts of chemical bonding involved.
Type I. In molecules containing peroxide linkage in addition to element-oxygen bonds. For
eg.,
(i) Oxidation number of S in H2SO5(Permonosulphuric acid or Caro's acid).
By usual method; H 2 SO 5
2  1 + x + 5  (−2) = 0 or x = +8
But this cannot be true as maximum oxidation number for S cannot exceed + 6.
Since S has only 6 electrons in its valence shell. This exceptional value is due to the fact
that two oxygen atoms in H2SO5 shows peroxide linkage as shown below,
O Peroxide linkage

H O S O O H
O
Therefore, the evaluation of oxidation number of sulphur here should be made as follows,
2 × (+1) + x + 3 × (–2) + 2 × (–1)
(for H) (for S) (for O) (for O–O)
or 2 + x – 6 – 2 = 0 or x = + 6.
(ii) Oxidation number of S in H2S2O8(Peroxodisulphuric acid or Marshall's acid)
By usual method ; H 2 S 2 O 8
1 × 2 + 2x + 8 (–2) = 0
2x = + 16 – 2 = 14 or x = + 7
Similarly, Caro's acid, Marshall's acid also has a peroxide linkage so that in which S shows +6
oxidation state.
Peroxide linkage
O O
H O S O O S O H
O O
Therefore, the evaluation of oxidation state of sulphur should be made as follow,
2 × (+1) + 2 × (x) + 6 × (–2) + 2 × (–1) = 0
(for H) (for S) (for O) (for O–O)
or 2 + 2x – 12 – 2 = 0 or x = + 6.
(iii) Oxidation number of Cr in CrO5 (Blue perchromate)
By usual method CrO 5 ; x – 10 = 0 or x = + 10
This cannot be true as maximum oxidation number of Cr cannot be more than + 6. Since
Cr has only five electrons in 3d orbitals and one electron in 4s orbital. This exceptional

value is due to the fact that four oxygen atoms in CrO5 are in peroxide linkage. The
chemical structure of CrO5 is
O O
Peroxide linkage e Cr Peroxide linkage

O O
O
Therefore, the evaluation of oxidation number of Cr should be made as follows
x + 1 × (– 2) + 4 (–1) = 0
(for Cr) (for O) (for O–O)
or x – 2 – 4 = 0 or x = + 6.
Type II.
In molecules containing covalent and coordinate bonds, following rules are used for
evaluating the oxidation numbers of atoms.
(i) For each covalent bond between dissimilar atoms the less electronegative element is
assigned the oxidation number of + 1 while the atom of the more electronegative element
is assigned the oxidation numberof –1.
(ii) In case of a coordinate-covalent bond between similar or dissimilar atoms but the donor
atom is less electronegative than the acceptor atom, an oxidation number of +2 is
assigned to the donor atom and an oxidation number of –2 is assigned to the acceptor
atom.
Conversely, if the donor atom is more electronegative than the acceptor atom, the
contribution of the coordinate bond is neglected.
Eg. :
→
(A) Oxidation number of C in HC  N and HN = C
The evaluation of oxidation number of C cannot be made directly by usual rules since no
standard rule exists for oxidation numbers of N and C.
In such cases, evaluation of oxidation number should be made using indirect concept or by
the original concepts of chemical bonding.
→
(B) Oxidation number of carbon in H – N = C
The contribution of coordinate bond is neglected since the bond is directed from a more
electronegative N atom (donor) to a less electronegative carbon atom (acceptor).
→
Therefore the oxidation number of N in HN = C remains – 3 as it has three covalent bonds.
1 × (+ 1) + 1 × (– 3) + x = 0
(for H) (for N) (for C)
or 1 + x – 3 = 0 or x = + 2.
(C) Oxidation number of carbon in HC  N
In HC  N , N is more electronegative than carbon, each bond gives an oxidation number
of –1 to N. There are three covalent bonds, the oxidation number of N is HC  N is taken
as – 3
Now HC  N  +1 + x – 3 = 0  x = + 2

Type III. In a molecule containing two or more atoms of same or different elements in different
oxidation states.
(i) Oxidation number of S in Na2S2O3
By usual method Na 2 S 2 O 3
 2 × (+1) + 2 × x + 3 (–2) = 0 or 2 + 2x – 6 = 0 or x = 2.
But this is unacceptable as the two sulphur atoms in Na2S2O3 cannot have the same oxidation
number because on treatment with dil. H2SO4, one sulphur atom is precipitated while the other is
oxidised to SO2.
Na 2 S 2 O3 + H 2 SO 4 → Na 2 SO 4 + SO 2 + S + H 2 O
In this case, the oxidation number of sulphur is evaluated from concepts of chemical bonding.
The chemical structure of Na2S2O3 is
S
+ −
Na O S O− Na +
O
Due to the presence of a co-ordinate bond between two sulphur atoms, the acceptor sulphur
atom has oxidation number of – 2 whereas the other S atom gets oxidation number of + 2.
2 × (+1) + 3 × (–2) + x × 1 + 1 × (– 2) = 0
(for Na) (for O) (for S) (for coordinated S)
or + 2 – 6 + x – 2 = 0 or x = + 6

Thus two sulphur atoms in Na2S2O3 have oxidation number of – 2 and +6.
(ii) Oxidation number of chlorine in CaOCl2(bleaching powder)
In bleaching powder, Ca(OCl)Cl, the two Cl atoms are in different oxidation states i.e., one
Cl having oxidation number of –1 and the other as OCl– having oxidation number of +1.
–

(iii) Oxidation number of N in NH4NO3

By usual method N2H4O3 ; 2x + 4 × (+1) + 3 × (–1) = 0
2x + 4 – 3 = 0 or 2x = + 1 (wrong)
No doubt NH4NO3 has two nitrogen atoms but one N has negative oxidation number
(attached to H) and the other has positive oxidation number (attached to O). Hence the
+ −
evaluation should be made separately for NH 4 and NO 3
NH 4+ x + 4 × (+1) = +1 or x = – 3
NO 3− x + 3 (– 2) = –1 or x = + 5.
(iv) Oxidation number of Fe in Fe3O4
In Fe3O4, Fe atoms are in two different oxidation states. Fe3O4 can be considered as an
equimolar mixture of FeO (iron (II) oxide) and Fe2O3 (iron (III) oxide). Thus in one molecule of
Fe3O4, two Fe atoms are in + 3 oxidation state and one Fe atom is in + 2 oxidation state.
(v) Oxidation number of S in sodium tetrathionate (Na2S4O6). Its structure can be

represented as follows :

The two S-atoms which are linked to each other have oxidation number of zero. The
oxidation number of other S-atoms can be calculated as follows
Let oxidation number of S = x.
 2 × x + 2 × 0 + 6 × ( – 2) = – 2
(for S) (for S–S) (for O)
x = + 5.
5.5 Balancing of oxidation-reduction reactions.
Though there are a number of methods for balancing oxidation – reduction reactions, two
methods are very important. These are,(1) Oxidation number method, (2) Ion – electron method
(1) Oxidation number method: The method for balancing redox reactions by oxidation
number change method was developed by Johnson. In a balanced redox reaction, total increase
in oxidation number must be equal to the total decrease in oxidation number. This equivalence
provides the basis for balancing redox reactions. This method is applicable to both molecular
and ionic equations. The general procedure involves the following steps,
(i) Write the skeleton equation (if not given, frame it) representing the chemical change.
(ii) Assign oxidation numbers to the atoms in the equation and find out which atoms are
undergoing oxidation and reduction. Write separate equations for the atoms undergoing
oxidation and reduction.
(iii) Find the change in oxidation number in each equation. Make the change equal in both
the equations by multiplying with suitable integers. Add both the equations.
(iv) Complete the balancing by inspection. First balance those substances which have
undergone change in oxidation number and then other atoms except hydrogen and oxygen.
Finally balance hydrogen and oxygen by putting H2O molecules wherever needed.
The final balanced equation should be checked to ensure that there are as many atoms of
each element on the right as there are on the left.
(v) In ionic equations the net charges on both sides of the equation must be exactly the
same. Use H+ ion/ions in acidic reactions and OH– ion/ions in basic reactions to balance
the charge and number of hydrogen and oxygen atoms.
The following eg. illustrate the above rules,
Step :I Cu + HNO 3 → Cu(NO 3 )2 + NO 2 + H 2 O (Skeleton equation)
Step: II Writing the oxidation number of all the atoms.
0 +1 +5 − 2 +2 +5 −2 +4 −2 +1 −2
Cu + H N O 3 → Cu ( N O 3 ) 2 + N O 2 + H 2 O
Step: III Change in oxidation number has occurred in copper and nitrogen.
0 +2
Cu → Cu (NO 3 )2 ......(i)
+5 +4
H N O3 → N O2 ......(ii)
Increase in oxidation number of copper = 2 units per molecule Cu
Decrease in oxidation number of nitrogen = 1 unit per molecule HNO3
Step: IV To make increase and decrease equal, equation (ii) is multiplied by 2.
Cu + 2 HNO 3 → Cu (NO 3 )2 + 2 NO 2 + H 2 O
Step: V Balancing nitrate ions, hydrogen and oxygen, the following equation is obtained.
Cu + 4 HNO 3 → Cu (NO 3 )2 + 2 NO 2 + 2 H 2 O
This is the balanced equation.

(2) Ion-electron method (half reaction method)

The method for balancing redox-reactions by ion electron method was developed by
Jette and LaMev in 1927. It involves the following steps
(i) Write down the redox reaction in ionic form.
(ii) Split the redox reaction into two half reactions, one for oxidation and other for reduction.
(iii) Balance each half reaction for the number of atoms of each element. For this purpose,
(A) Balance the atoms other than H and O for each half reaction using simple multiples.
(B) Add water molecules to the side deficient in oxygen and H+ to the side deficient in hydrogen.
This is done in acidic or neutral solutions.
(C) In alkaline solution, for each excess of oxygen, add one water molecule to the same side and
2OH– ions to the other side. If hydrogen is still unbalanced, add one OH– ion for each excess
hydrogen on the same side and one water molecule to the other side.
(iv) Add electrons to the side deficient in electrons as to equalize the charge on both sides.
(v) Multiply one or both the half reactions by a suitable number so that number of
electrons become equal in both the equations.
(vi) Add the two balanced half reactions and cancel any term common to both sides.
The following eg. illustrate the above rules
Step: I I2 + OH − → IO3− + I − + H 2 O (Ionic equation)
− − −
Step: II Splitting into two half reactions, I2 + OH → IO3 + H 2 O ; I 2 → I
(Oxidation half reaction) (Reduction half reaction)
− −
Step: III Adding OH − ions, I2 + 12 OH → 2 IO3 + 6 H 2 O
Step: IV Adding electrons to the sides deficient in electrons,
I2 + 12OH − → 2 IO3− + 6 H 2 O + 10 e − ; I2 + 2e − → 2 I −
Step: V Balancing electrons in both the half reactions.
I2 + 12OH − → 2 IO3− + 6 H 2 O + 10 e − ; 5 [I 2 + 2e − → 2 I − ]
Step: VI Adding both the half reactions.
6 I2 + 12OH − → 2 IO3− + 6 H 2 O + 10 I − ;Dividing by 2,
3 I2 + 6OH − → IO3− + 5 I − + 3 H 2 O
5.6 Autoxidation.
(1)Turpentine and numerous other olefinic compounds, phosphorus and certain metals like
Zn and Pb can absorb oxygen from the air in presence of water. The water is oxidised to
hydrogen peroxide. This phenomenon of formation of H2O2 by the oxidation of H2O is
known as autoxidation. The substance such as turpentine or phosphorus or lead which
can activate the oxygen is called activator. The activator is supposed to first combine
with oxygen to form an addition compound, which acts as an autoxidator and reacts
with water or some other acceptor so as tooxidise the latter. For eg.;
Pb + O 2 → PbO 2 PbO 2 + H 2 O → PbO + H 2 O 2
(activator ) (autoxidat or) (acceptor )

(2) The turpentine or other unsaturated compounds which act as activators are supposed to
take up oxygen molecule at the double bond position to form unstable peroxide called
moloxide, which then gives up the oxygen to water molecule or any other acceptor.

RCH = CHR + O 2 → RHC CHR

O O
RHC CHR + 2 H 2 O → RCH = CHR + 2 H 2 O 2
O O
2 KI + H 2 O 2 → 2 KOH + I 2
The evolution of iodine from KI solution in presence of turpentine can be confirmed with
starch solution which turns blue.
(3) The concept of autoxidation help to explain the phenomenon of induced oxidation.
Na 2 SO 3 solution is oxidised by air but Na 3 AsO 3 solution is not oxidised by air. If a
mixture of both is taken, it is observed both are oxidised. This is induced oxidation.
Na 2 SO 3 + O 2 → Na 2 SO 5 Moloxide
Na 2 SO 5 + Na 3 AsO 3 → Na 3 AsO 4 + Na 2 SO 4
Na 2 SO 3 + Na 3 AsO 3 + O 2 → Na 2 SO 4 + Na 3 AsO 4

5.7 Disproportionation.
One and the same substance may act simultaneously as an oxidizing agent and as a reducing
agent with the result that a part of it gets oxidized to a higher state and rest of it is reduced to
lower state of oxidation. Such a reaction, in which a substance undergoes simultaneous
oxidation and reduction is called disproportionation and the substance is said
todisproportionate.
Following are someeg.s of disproportionation,
increase
decrease

−1 0 +5 +7 −1
(1) H 2 O 2 + H 2 O 2 = H 2 O + O 2 (2) 4 K Cl O3 → 3 K Cl O4 + KCl
–1 –2
increase
decrease
decrease

0 +1 −3
(3) 4 P + 3 NaOH + 3 H 2 O → 3 NaH 2 PO 2 + PH 3

decrease
increase
0 −1 +5
(4) 3Cl2 + 6 NaOH ⎯⎯→
⎯ 5 Na Cl + Na ClO3 + 3 H 2 O
hot
(conc .)

increase

5.8 Important applications of redox-reactions.

Many applications are based on redox reactions which are occurring in environment. Some
important eg.s are listed below;
(1) Many metal oxides are reduced to metals by using suitable reducing agents. For eg.
Al 2 O 3 is reduced to aluminium by cathodic reduction in electrolytic cell. Fe 2 O 3 is
reduced to iron in a blast furnace using coke.

(2) Photosynthesis is used to convert carbon dioxide and water by chlorophyll of green
plants in the presence of sunlight to carbohydrates.
6 CO 2( g ) + 6 H 2 O (l) ⎯⎯ ⎯ ⎯⎯→ C 6 H 12 O 6 (aq .) + 6 O 2 ( g )
Chlorophyl l
Sunlight
In this case, CO 2 is reduced to carbohydrates and water is oxidized to oxygen. The light
provides the energy required for the reaction.
(3) Oxidation of fuels is an important source of energy which satisfies our daily need of life.
Fuels + O 2 → CO 2 + H 2 O + Energy
In living cells, glucose (C 6 H 12 O6 ) is oxidized to CO 2 and H 2 O in the presence of
oxygen and energy is released, C6 H 12 O6 (aq.) + 6O 2 (g) → 6CO 2 (g) + 6 H 2 O(l) + Energy
(4) The electrochemical cells involving reaction between hydrogen and oxygen using
hydrogen and oxygen electrodes in fuel cells meet our demand of electrical energy in space
capsule.
(5) Respiration in animals and humans is also an important application of redox reactions.

***
Level – I Practice

1. Which of the following reaction involves oxidation and reduction ?

(A) NaBr + HCl ⎯

⎯→ NaCl + HBr (B) HBr + AgNO3 ⎯
⎯→ AgBr + HNO3

2. In which one of the following, hydrogen is acting as an oxidizing agent ?

(A) With Li to give LiH (B) With I2 to give HI
(C) With N2 to give NH3 (D) With S to give H2S
3. Which of the following equation is a balanced one?
− −
(A) 5BiO 3 + 22H+ + Mn2+ ⎯ 3+
⎯→ 5Bi + 7H2O + MnO 4

− −
(B) 5BiO 3 + 14H+ + 2Mn2+ ⎯ 3+
⎯→ 5Bi +7H2O + 2 MnO 4

−
(C) 2BiO3− + 4H– + Mn2+ ⎯ 3+
⎯→ 2Bi + 2H2O + MnO 4

−
(D) 6BiO3− + 12H+ + 3Mn2+ ⎯ 3+
⎯→ 6Bi + 6H2O + 3 MnO 4

4. The number of electrons required to balance the following equation

NO3− + 4H+ + e– ⎯⎯→ 2 H2O + NO are

(A) 5 (B) 4
(C) 3 (D) 2

5. For the redox reaction,

MnO −4 + C 2 O 24− + H + ⎯
⎯→ Mn2+ + CO2 + H2O

the correct coefficient of the reactants for the balanced reaction are

MnO −4 C 2 O 24− H+

(A) 2 5 16
(B) 16 5 2
(C) 5 16 2
(D) 2 16 5
6. Which of the following statement is correct about the oxidation number ?
(A) The oxidation number of all atoms in elementary state is 0.
(B) The sum of oxidation number of all the atoms in the formula of a compound is
always zero.
(C) Alkali and alkaline earth metals have +1 and +2 oxidation states respectively.
(D) All of the above.
7. True statement for the reaction

2[Fe(CN)6]–3 + 2OH– + H2O2 ⎯ –4

⎯→ 2[Fe(CN)6] + 2H2O+ O2 is

(A) H2O2 is an oxidant(B)CN– undergoes neither oxidation nor reduction

8. In the conversion NH2OH ⎯

⎯→ N2O, the equivalent weight of NH2OH is

M M
(A) (B)
4 2

M
(C) (D) M
5
2−
9. Oxidation number of S in SO3 is

(A) –2 (B) +2
(C) +6 (D) 0

10. The oxidation state of iron in Fe(CO)9 is

(A) 2 (B) 0
(C) 4 (D) 5
11. The oxidation states of the most electronegative element in the products of the reaction,
BaO2 with dilute H2SO4 are
(A) 0 and –1 (B) –1 and –2
(C) –2 and 0 (D) –2 and +1
12. The oxidation number of phosphorus in Ba(H2PO2)2 is
(A) +3 (B) +2
(C) +1 (D) –1
13. In which of the following compound, iron has the lowest oxidation state ?
(A) FeSO4(NH4)2SO4 6H2O (B) K4[Fe(CN)6]
(C) Fe(CO)5 (D) FeO
14. Oxidation number of iron in Fe0.94O is
(A) +2 (B) +3
(C) 200/94 (D) 8/3
3+
15. In the reaction, 4Fe + 3O2 ⎯
⎯→ 4Fe + 6O2–, which of the following statement is
incorrect ?
(A) It is a redox reaction (B) Metallic iron is a reducing agent
(C) Fe3+ is an oxidising agent (D) Metallic iron is reduced to Fe3+

LEVEL – II

1. For the redox reaction

2−
Cr2 O 7 + H+ + Ni ⎯
⎯→ Cr+3 + Ni+2 + H2O

the correct coefficients of the reactants for the balanced reaction are

Cr2 O 72− Ni H+

(A) 1 3 14

(B) 2 3 14

(D) 3 3 12

2. Which of the following are not redox reactions

(A) Mg + N2 ⎯
⎯→ Mg3N2

(B) K4[Fe(CN)6] + H2SO4 + H2O ⎯

⎯→ K2SO4 + CO + FeSO4 + (NH4)2SO4

(D) CuSO4 + NH3 ⎯

⎯→ [Cu(NH3)4]SO4

3. In which of the following co-ordination compounds, the transition metals have an

oxidation number of +3.

(A) [Cr(H2O)4Cl2]Cl . 2H2O (B) [Fe(CO)5]

(C) [(H2O)5 Cr – O – Cr (H2O)5]4+ (D) K4[Fe (CN)6]

4. Oxidation state of nitrogen is incorrectly given for

Compound Oxidation state

(A) [CO(NH3)5Cl]Cl2 –3

(B) NH2OH –1

(D) Mg3N2 –3

5. A compound contains atoms X, Y, Z. The oxidation number of X is +2, Y is +5 and Z is

–2. The possible form of the compound is
(A) XY1Z2 (B) Y2(XZ3)2

(C) X3(YZ4)2 (D) X3(Y4Z2)

6. The difference in the oxidation states of Cl in bleaching powder is ?

(A) 0 (B) +2
(C) +1 (D) –2

7. The two sulphur atoms in Na2S2O3 have

(A) +2 and +4 oxidation state (B) –2 and +6 oxidation state

(C) +4 and +6 oxidation state (D) same oxidation state

8. The oxidation state of oxygen in NaOCl is

1
(A) 0 (B) +
2

9. A 2.5 mole of hydrazine (N2H4) loses 25 mole of electrons in being converted to a new
compound X. Assuming that all of these nitrogen appear in the new compound, what is
the oxidation state of nitrogen in compound X.

(A) –1 (B) –2

10. In the presence of H+ ions, which of the following species can act as very strong
oxidizing agent?
−
(A) ClO– (B) ClO 3

−
(C) ClO 4 (D) All

−
11. Which of the following species can oxidize Mn+2 to MnO 4 ion

− −
(A) IO 4 (B) H 4 IO 6

−
(C) H 3 I 2 O 9 (D) All

12. Which of the following has been arranged in order of decreasing oxidation number of
sulphur
2− 2− −
(A) H2S2O7> Na2S4O6> Na2S2O3> S8 (B) FeS2> SO 4  SO3 > HSO 4

13. In the following redox reaction

x CrCl3 + y H2O2 + z NaOH ⎯

⎯→ Na2CrO4 + NaCl + H2O

(A) x = 2, y = 4, z = 10 (B) x = 2, y = 6, z = 5

14. Oxidation number of Fe in Fe3O4 is fractional because

(A) it is a mixed [Fe(+2) – Fe(+4)] oxide (B) it is a non-stoichoiometric compound

15. One mole of chlorine gas disproportionates into one mole each of chloride and chlorate
ions. The number of electrons gained/lost per chlorine molecule are
(A) 4 lost (B) 4 gained

(C) 5 lost (D) No gain/loss of electrons

16. A compound containing only sodium, nitrogen and oxygen has 33.33% by weight of
sodium. What is the possible oxidation number of nitrogen in the compound?

(A) –3 (B)+3 (C)–2 (D)+5

−
17. When one mole NO3 is converted into 1 mole NO2, 0.5 mole N2 and 0.5 mole N2O
respectively. It accepts x, y and z mole of electrons, x, y and z are respectively

(A) 1, 5, 4 (B) 1, 2, 3
(C) 2, 1, 3 (D) 2, 3, 4

−
18. If 1 mole of NO3 accepts 4 mole of electrons, the possible reduction product would be
(acidic medium)
1
(A) mole N2O (B) 1 mole NO2
2

1
(C) mole N2 (D) 1 mole NH3
2

2
19. How many moles of nitrogen is produced by the oxidation of one mole of hydrazine by
3
mole bromate ion?
1
(A) (B) 1
3

2
(C) 1.5 (D)
3

20. How many electrons should X2H4 liberate so that in the new compound, X shows an
1
oxidation number of – [electronegativity of X > H]
2

(A) 10 (B) 4
(C) 3 (D) 8

LEVEL – I

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
C A B C A D B B C B
11 12 13 14 15
B C C C D

LEVEL – II

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A BD AC C C B B B C D
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
D AC D C A B A A B C

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