WELDING and ALLIED PROCESSES 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION:

Welding is a fabrication process that joins materials, usually metals or thermoplastics, by

causing coalescence.

1.1.1 Importance of Welding

In most of the modern fabrication works welding science has numerous applications in
different forms, covering a fairly wide range of such work. Welding is an alternative method
for casting or forging and as a replacement for bolted and riveted joints. It is also used as a
repair medium, i.e., to reunite metal at a crack to build up a small part that has broken off such
as gear tooth or to repair a worm surfaces such as bearing surfaces.
The following are the main key features of welding:
1. The welding structures are normally lighter than riveted or bolted structures.
2. The welding joints provide maximum efficiency, which is not possible in other type of
joints.
3. The addition and alterations can be easily made in the existing structure.
4. A welded joint has a great strength.
5. The welding provides very rigid joints.
6. The process of welding takes less time than other type of joints.

1.1.2 Basic concept of Welding

Welding is a process of joining two similar or dissimilar metals with the help of heat or
pressure or by some other means. The cost of welding is very less as compared to other
processes and forms a strong joint.
For this reason it is largely used in the following fields of engineering:
1. Manufacturing of machine tools, auto parts, cycle parts, etc.
2. Fabrication of farm machinery & equipment.
3. Fabrication of buildings, bridges & ships.
4. Construction of boilers, furnaces, railways, cars, aeroplanes, rockets and missiles.
5. Manufacturing of television sets, refrigerators, kitchen cabinets, etc.
A weld will inherit the common drawback of brittleness, which is a disadvantage. The
emphasis in welding technique should, therefore, be preventing this brittleness to the maximum
possible extent

1.1.3 Classification
Welding means the process of joining two metal parts together to give a sound and strong joint.
The welding process is subdivided into two main classes.
a. Fusion welding, which involves heating the ends of metal pieces to be joined to a
temperature high enough to cause them to melt or fuse and then allowing the joint to cool. This
 WELDING and ALLIED PROCESSES 2

process is somewhat similar to casting process. The joint, after the fused metal has solidified
will result in a strong joint.
b. Pressure welding, which involves heating the ends of metal pieces to be joined to a high
temperature, but lower than their melting point and then keeping the metal pieces joined
together under pressure for sometime. This results in the pieces welding together to produce a
strong joint. There are many sub-classifications of welding under each head. Sub-classification
is done according to the source of heat required for fusion or pressure welding. We shall deal
with but three of them
(a) Gas welding (b) Electric arc welding, and (c) Electric resistance welding.

1.2 GAS WELDING

Gas welding is the process in which a gas flame is used to raise the temperature of the metals
to be joined. The metals are heated up to melting. The metal flows and on cooling it solidifies.
A filler metal may be added to the flowing molten metal to fill up cavity made during the end
preparation.

Fig. : Gas Welding

Many combinations of gases are used in gas welding. But the most common of these is oxygen
and acetylene.

1.2.1 Oxy-acetylene Welding

The process of oxy-acetylene welding can be used for almost all metals and alloys for
engineering purposes. A high temperature flame (3200°C) can be produced by this method.
There are two systems of oxygen-acetylene welding.
(a) High Pressure System: In this process the oxygen and acetylene are taken for use from high
pressure cylinders.
(b) Low Pressure System: In this system oxygen is taken from high pressure cylinder and the
acetylene is produced by the action of Calcium carbide and water.
CaC2 + 2H2O = Ca (OH)2 + C2H2
 WELDING and ALLIED PROCESSES 3

1.2.2 Apparatus
Apparatus used for oxy-acetylene (high pressure) welding is shown in the fig. and consists of
the following:
1. Oxygen cylinder
2. Acetylene cylinder
3. Pressure gauges
4. Valves
5. Hose pipes
6. Torch
7. Welding tip
8. Pressure regulators
9. Lighter
10. Goggles

1.2.3 Principle of Oxy-acetylene Welding

A very hot flame is produced by burning of the gases coming through the torch tip. The edges
to be welded are heated up to melting. A filler metal is also added to complete the welding.
This molten metal mixture when solidifies on cooling forms a welded joint.
Oxygen cylinder and acetylene cylinder are filled with gases. Both the cylinders are attached
 WELDING and ALLIED PROCESSES 4

with pressure gauges, regulators and cylinder valves. The cylinder containing oxygen is
painted black whereas the acetylene cylinder is painted maroon. Hose pipes, are provided with
each cylinder. These pipes are connected to welding torch.

1.2.4 Welding Process

To start welding, the acetylene control valve is turned first. When acetylene comes out of the
nozzle, it should be ignited with spark lighter. It will give a yellow-colored smoke flame. After
it, oxygen cylinder valve is opened and supply is increased until a most suitable flame is
obtained. Then the flame is focused on the edges to be welded. The edges and filler metal melt
and a joint are formed after cooling of the molten metal. The joint may be formed with or
without using filler metal.

1.2.5 Applications
Oxy-acetylene welding is particularly used for sheet metal work. All the metals can be welded
with proper filler metals. Same equipment may be used for cutting purposes.

1.2.6 Advantages & Disadvantages of Oxy-acetylene Welding

The main advantages of oxy-acetylene welding are given below:
1. Equipment is cheap as compared to other welding process.
2. It can be used for welding of all types of metals.
3. Maintenance of equipment is very less.
4. It is a portable process.
5. It can be used for cutting of metals of small thickness.
6. It is specially used for sheet metal work.

The main disadvantages of oxy-acetylene welding are given below:

1. It takes long time for heating the job as compared to the arc welding.
2. The heat affected area is more.
3. This is prone to corrosion and brittleness.
4. Gases are expensive and difficult to store.

1.2.7 Types of Gas Flames

There are three types of gas flames:
1. Oxidizing Flame: When the volume of oxygen gas is more than the volume of acetylene
mixed into the torch. This flame is used for welding brass and is also used for cutting the
metals.
2. Carburising Flame: When the volume of acetylene mixed is more than oxygen, carburising
flame is formed. This flame is used for welding nickel, monel etc.
 WELDING and ALLIED PROCESSES 5

3. Neutral Flame: It is known as balanced flame. Oxygen and acetylene gases are mixed in
equal volumes. Neutral flame is used for normal welding of steel, cast iron etc.

1.2.8 Use of filler rods and fluxes

Whenever, welding is done, some extra metal may have to be added to the molten metal pool.
In gas welding, the extra metal comes from filler rods, the ends of which keep getting melted.
Ideally, the composition of filler rod should be identical with the metal of the work piece.
During the process of welding, some metal may get oxidised. Flux is used to dissolve and
remove these metal oxides. Flux like borax or a mixture of flourides and chlorides of sodium,
potassium and lithium are most commonly used. The flux reacts with metallic oxides to yield
slag, which being lighter floats on top of molten metal pool. After solidification, the welder
removes the flux using a chipping hammer and wire brush.
 WELDING and ALLIED PROCESSES 6

1.3 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

The welding in which the electric arc is produced to give heat for the purpose of joining two
surfaces is called electric arc welding.

1.3.1 Principle
Power supply is given to electrode and the work. A suitable gap is kept between the work and
electrode. A high current is passed through the circuit. An arc is produced around the area to be
welded. The electric energy is converted into heat energy, producing a temperature of 3000°C
to 4000°C. This heat melts the edges to be welded and molten pool is formed. On solidification
the welding joint is obtained.

1.3.2 Striking of Arc

To strike an arc, the electrode should be shorted by touching the work. At the moment of
contact, a very heavy current starts flowing through the circuit, while voltage drops. Now, the
electrode is lifted slowly so that a gap of 2–3 mm between the tip of the electrode and the work
piece is maintained. The voltage across the arc rises to about 15–20 volts and the amperage
drops. Due to heat generated in the arc, the tip of the metal electrode starts melting and the gap
increases. Unless the electrode is slowly moved towards the work at the same rate at which the
tip of the electrode is melting maintaining the gap at 2–3 mm, the arc will extinguish. If the gap
increases too much the machine voltage will not be able to maintain the arc.
A great amount of heat (and intense light) is generated by the arc. It not only melts the
electrode tip, but also melts the work piece at the location of the arc maintaining a pool of
molten metal as shown in Fig. Without some manner of shielding, this metal will oxidise. The
metal electrodes are therefore, given a layer of coating throughout its length (except for about
 WELDING and ALLIED PROCESSES 7

35–40 mm at the stub end, where the metal core of electrode is exposed and held in the
electrode holder). Under the action of heat, this coating at the tip of the electrode vaporises and
creates a gaseous shield around the molten metal pool and saves it from oxidation. The
electrode coating also contains flux (which reacts with impurities to form slag) and other
ingredients which help stabilise the arc. Many types of coatings are in use. As the electrode is
slowly moved over the joint, the molten metal pool solidifies creating a joint. The joints
produced by this process are often stronger than the parent metals being joined. Electrodes are
available in many sizes. The size of electrode is specified by the diameter (in mm) of the core
metal wire. Size of electrode depends upon the thickness of parts to be joined. Thicker
electrodes are required to weld thick plates. The current depends upon the size of electrode
used. Thus for a 3.15 mm dia electrodes, the recommended value of current is 100–120 Amp.

1.3.3 Heat affected zone

In the arc welding process, a great amount of heat output takes place resulting in formation of a
molten pool in the arc area. The heat is also conducted into the vicinity of the joint on either
side. The temperature of the material on both sides of the weld bead may not be as high as the
melting point of the metal, but, is very close to it. As we move away from the joint or weld
bead, the metal may be heated to lesser and lesser temperature. As the electrode travels over
the joint and moves away, the heated metal cools as quickly as it was heated. Thus, we can
conclude, that the metal adjacent to the weld bead has been subjected to a heat treatment. If
steel is being welded, this heating and quick cooling may result in formation of martensitic and
 WELDING and ALLIED PROCESSES 8

other structures which may be prone to cracking and hardness. The area so affected by welding
is called “heat affected zone”.

1.3.4 Effect of Arc Length

Arc length is the distance from the tip of the electrode to the bottom of the arc. It should vary
from 3 to 4 mm. In short arc length, the time of contact will be shorter and will make a wide
and shallow bead. The penetration is low as compared to long arc lengths.

1.3.5 Types of Electrodes

Electrodes are of two types
a. Coated electrodes: Coated electrodes are generally applied in arc welding processes. A
metallic core is coated with some suitable material. The material used for core is mild steel,
nickel steel, chromium molybdenum steel, etc. One end of the coated core is kept bare for
holding.
b. Bare electrodes: Bare electrodes produce the welding of poor quality. These are cheaper
than coated electrodes. These are generally used in modern welding process like MIG welding.

Electrode Size
Electrodes are commonly made in lengths 250 mm, 300 mm, 350 mm, 450 mm, and the
diameters are 1.6 mm, 2 mm, 2.5 mm, 3.2 mm, 4 mm, 7 mm, 8 mm and 9 mm.

Functions of Coatings
The coating on an electrode serves the following functions:
1. To prevent oxidation
2. Forms slags with metal impurities.
3. It stabilizes the arc.
4. Increases deposition of molten metal.
5. Controls depth of penetration.
6. Controls the cooling rate.
7. Adds alloy elements to the joint. Specifications of electrodes.
 WELDING and ALLIED PROCESSES 9

1.3.6 Inert-Gas-Shielded Arc Welding:

Coalescence is produced by heat from an arc between a metal electrode and the work which is
shielded by an atmosphere of argon, helium or a mixture of gases. Two methods are employed:

1. Tungsten inert gas welding (TIG)

2. Metal inert gas welding (MIG)

1.3.6.1 Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding / Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) :

It is an arc welding process that uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld.
The weld area is protected from atmospheric contamination by a shielding gas (usually an inert
gas such as argon), and a filler metal is normally used, though some welds, known as
autogenous welds, do not require it. A constant-current welding power supply produces energy
which is conducted across the arc through a column of highly ionized gas and metal vapors
known as a plasma.

GTAW is most commonly used to weld thin sections of stainless steel and non-ferrous metals
such as aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys. The process grants the operator greater
control over the weld than competing processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas
metal arc welding, allowing for stronger, higher quality welds.
 WELDING and ALLIED PROCESSES 10

1.3.6.2 Metal inert gas welding (MIG) / Gas metal arc welding (GMAW):

It is a semi-automatic or automatic arc welding process in which a continuous and consumable

wire electrode and a shielding gas are fed through a welding gun. A constant voltage, direct
current power source is most commonly used with GMAW, but constant current systems, as
well as alternating current, can be used.

A wire is fed continuously through a gun to a contact surface which imparts a current upon the
wire. Direct current with reverse polarity provides a stable arc and offers the greatest heat input
at the workpiece.

1.3.7 Submerged Arc Welding:

This process is so named because the metal arc is shielded by a blanket of granular, fusible flux
during the welding operation. Bare electrode is used and process is performed automatically.
The granular metal is layed along the seam of the bed to be welded and the entire welding
action takes place beneath it.
Arc is started by striking the electrode on the workpiece beneath the flux. Intense heat of the
arc produces a pool of molten in the joint and also a portion of the granular flux, which floats
on the molten metal and protects it. Unused granular metal may be reused.
A back-up strip is used beneath the joint to avoid loss of molten metal. Material of such strips
may be steel, copper or any refractory material.
The process uses high currents about 300-400 amps, which permits high speed of welding.
High penetration is obtained and thick metals may be welded in one pass.
Most submerged arc welding is done on low carbon and alloy steel, but it also may be used on
many of the non-ferrous metals.
 WELDING and ALLIED PROCESSES 11

1.3.8 Plasma-Arc Welding (PAW):

It is an arc welding process similar to gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). The electric arc is
formed between an electrode (which is usually but not always made of sintered tungsten) and
the workpiece. The key difference from GTAW is that in PAW, by positioning the electrode
within the body of the torch, the plasma arc can be separated from the shielding gas envelope.
The plasma is then forced through a fine-bore copper nozzle which constricts the arc and the
plasma exits the orifice at high velocities (approaching the speed of sound) and a temperature
approaching 20,000 °C. Plasma arc welding is an advancement over the GTAW process. This
process uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode and an arc constricted through a fine-bore
copper nozzle. PAW can be used to join all metals that are weldable with GTAW (i.e., most
commercial metals and alloys).

1.3.9 Welding positions:

These are four welding positions from the point of view of the welder. These affect execution
of sound welding.
These positions are:
1. Downhand welding position: This is the most comfortable position for welder to work in
and he is able to produce welds of a good quality.
2. Horizontal welding position (on a vertical surface).
3. Vertical welding position (on a vertical surface).
4. Overhead welding position (say on the ceiling of a room): This is the most difficult welding
position. Not only the operator has to crane his neck upwards and raise his arm to maintain arc,
it is also difficult as molten metal tends to fall down due to gravity.
For important jobs, manipulators are used, which are capable of turning over the jobs and as
much welding is done in down hand welding position as possible.
 WELDING and ALLIED PROCESSES 12

1.3.10 Arc welding defects

Improper welding procedure and lack of skill on the part of welder may result in many welding
defects. The major welding defects are described below:

(i) Incomplete fusion and lack of penetration: Incomplete fusion can be avoided by proper
weld joint preparation, using adequate current and travel speed of electrode should not be too
high.

(ii) Porosity: Molten metal has a tendency to absorb gases. The entrapped gases cause porosity
or blow holes in the weld bead. Remedy lies in cleaning the work piece surface of all oil,
grease and paint etc. before welding and ensuring that electrode coating is free from dampness.
If necessary, electrodes can be dried in an oven before use.

(iii) Slag inclusion: It refers to slag or other non-metallic inclusions getting entrapped in the
weld bead. The most common reason for slag inclusion is that between two electrode runs, the
slag, has not been completely removed by chipping and wirebrushing.

(iv) Undercut: Undercutting is often caused due to high amperage used. It denotes the melting
away of the base metal at the line where the final layer of weld bead merges into the surface of
the base metal. The undercut portion must be rectified by depositing weld metal on it.

(v) Cracking: Cracks can take place either in the weld bead itself (called hot cracks) or in the
heat affected zone (cold cracks). Hot cracks may take place due to narrow deep welds and are
caused due to shrinkage of weld metal, particularly if impurities like sulphur are present in the
weld metal. Excessive joint restraint can also cause such cracks. Cold cracks occur due to
inadequate ductility or presence of hydrogen in hardenable steels. Preheating and post heating
of base material will help in avoiding cold cracks.
 WELDING and ALLIED PROCESSES 13

1.4 ELECTRIC RESISTANCE WELDING:

The electric resistance welding is commonly used. It can be applied to any metals. Electric
current passes through the materials being joined. The resistance offered to the flow of current
results in raising the temperature of the two metal pieces to melting point at their junction.
Mechanical pressure is applied at this moment to complete the weld. Two copper electrodes of
low resistance are used in a circuit. The mechanical pressure or force required after the
surfaces are heated to a plastic temperature is approximately 0.3 N/m2 at the welded surface.
This method of welding is widely used in modern practice for making welded joints in sheet
metal parts, bars and tubes etc.

1.4.1 Parameter Affecting Resistance Welding:

Successful application of Resistance welding process depends upon correct application and
proper control of the following factors.
1. Current: Enough current is needed to bring the metal to its plastic state of welding.
2. Pressure: Mechanical pressure is applied first to hold the metal pieces tightly between the
electrodes, while the current flows through them called weld pressure, and secondly when the
metal has been heated to its plastic state, to forge the metal pieces together to form the weld,
called forge pressure.
3. Time of Application: It is the cyclic time and the sum total of the following time period
allowed during different stages of welding
a. Weld Time Time period during which the welding current flow through the metal pieces to
raise their temp.
b. Forge Time Time period during which the forge pressure is applied to the metal pieces.
c. Hold Time Time period during which the weld to be solidify.
d. Off Time The period of time from the release of the electrodes to the start of the next weld
cycle.
4. Electrode contact area: The weld size depends on the contact area of the face of the
electrodes.

1.4.2 Spot Welding:

Spot welding is used to lap weld joints in thin metallic plates (up to 12.7 mm thick). The
metallic plates are overlapped and held between two copper electrodes. A high current,
depending upon plate thickness, at a very low voltage (4-12 volts), is passed between the
electrodes. The contact resistance of the plates causes to heat rapidly to a plastic state.
Mechanical pressure is applied. Supply is cut-off for the metal to regain strength. The pressure
is released. The process is repeated at another portion of the plates. Thus, spot joints at regular
interval depending upon the strength required are obtained. The electrodes are water cooled to
 WELDING and ALLIED PROCESSES 14

avoid overheating and softening of the tips. Spot welding is mainly used in the manufacture of
automobile parts refrigerators, metallic toys, racks, frames, boxes, radio chassis, etc.

1.4.3 Seam Welding:

The metallic plates are held by two copper roller electrodes with one roller driven by motor so
that the plates are moved between the rollers at a suitable speed. The high current is passed
between the electrodes holding metallic plates pressed together with suitable force and pushes
together to travel between the revolving electrodes as showing in Fig. The plates between the
electrodes get heated to welding (fusion) heat and welded continuously under constant pressure
of rotating electrodes. This is a quicker operation than spot welding and gives a stronger joint.
The process is employed for pressure tight joints on oil drums, tanks and boiler water pipes,
refrigeration parts, motorcar body, utensils, stoves, etc.
 WELDING and ALLIED PROCESSES 15

1.4.4 Butt Welding:

The pieces to be welded are held edge to edge in copper clamps. The ends are brought together
under a light pressure. A heavy welding current is switched on. The resistance between the
contacting faces causes a rise in temperature to the fusion point. A further mechanical pressure
is applied to obtain a welded joint. The current is switched off. This process is mainly used on
non-ferrous materials for joining bars, rods, wires, tubing, etc.

1.4.5 Flash Welding:

The current is switched on and the ends of the workpieces to be welded are slowly brought
closer. An arc is produced between the contacting faces of the workpieces and intense heat is
generated. The faces are brought rapidly together under high pressure (350 to 1650 kg/cm2).
The current is then switched off and the weld is forged, as shown in Fig.
 WELDING and ALLIED PROCESSES 16

The main advantages of flash welding over upset welding are:

1. It is much quicker
2. Current consumption is less
3. The weld joint is stronger
4. The end faces of workpieces need not be prepared, which is a primary requirement in butt
welding.

The main disadvantages of flash welding over upset welding are:

1. During flashing, particles of molten metal are thrown out, which may enter into the sideways
and insulation, etc. These needs periodic maintenance of machine and replacement of
insulation.
2. Operator has to take enough care against possible fire hazard due to flashing.
3. Additional stock has to be provided to compensate the loss of metal during flashing and
upsetting. This adds to the cost of product. Steel and ferrous alloys are most easily welded. The
materials that cannot be flash welded are lead, tin, zinc, bismuth and their alloys and copper
alloys.

1.4.6 Projection Welding

There are raised projections in the workpiece at all points where a weld is desired as shown in
Fig. As the current is switched on the projection are melted and the workpieces pressed
together to complete the weld. The melted projections form the welds. This method enables
production of several spot welds simultaneously.
 WELDING and ALLIED PROCESSES 17

1.4.7 Percussion Welding

The pieces to be welded are moved closer at a fast speed after switching on the current. When
the pieces are 0.16 mm apart, an arc is caused bringing them to fusion temperature. The
percussion blow of the two pieces with sufficient force, completes the welding and
extinguishes the arc. It is used for joining thin wires of dissimilar metals such as copper to
nichrome and copper to stainless steel.

1.5 SPECIAL WELDING TECHNIQUES

1.5.1 Laser beam welding (LBW)

It is a welding technique used to join multiple pieces of metal through the use of a laser. The
beam provides a concentrated heat source, allowing for narrow, deep welds and high welding
rates. The process is frequently used in high volume applications, such as in the automotive
industry.
Like electron beam welding (EBW), laser beam welding has high power density (on the order
of 1 megawatt/cm²(MW)) resulting in small heat-affected zones and high heating and cooling
rates. The spot size of the laser can vary between 0.2 mm and 13 mm, though only smaller
sizes are used for welding. The depth of penetration is proportional to the amount of power
supplied, but is also dependent on the location of the focal point: penetration is maximized
when the focal point is slightly below the surface of the workpiece.
A continuous or pulsed laser beam may be used depending upon the application. Milliseconds
long pulses are used to weld thin materials such as razor blades while continuous laser systems
are employed for deep welds.
LBW is a versatile process, capable of welding carbon steels, HSLA steels (High-strength low-
alloy (HSLA) steel is a type of alloy steel that provides better mechanical properties or greater
resistance to corrosion than carbon steel) , stainless steel (stainless steel, also known as inox
steel or inox from French "inoxydable", is defined as a steel alloy with a minimum of 10.5 or
11% chromium content by mass. Stainless steel does not stain, corrode, or rust as easily as
ordinary steel, but it is not stain-proof ), aluminum, and titanium. Due to high cooling rates,
cracking is a concern when welding high-carbon steels. The weld quality is high, similar to that
of electron beam welding. The speed of welding is proportional to the amount of power
supplied but also depends on the type and thickness of the workpieces. The high power
capability of gas lasers make them especially suitable for high volume applications. LBW is
particularly dominant in the automotive industry.
Some of the advantages of LBW in comparison to EBW are as follows: the laser beam can be
transmitted through air rather than requiring a vacuum, the process is easily automated with
robotic machinery, x-rays are not generated, and LBW results in higher quality welds.
 WELDING and ALLIED PROCESSES 18

1.5.2 Electron beam welding (EBW)

It is a fusion welding process in which a beam of high-velocity electrons is applied to the
materials being joined. The workpieces melt as the kinetic energy of the electrons is
transformed into heat upon impact, and the filler metal, if used, also melts to form part of the
weld. The welding is often done in conditions of a vacuum to prevent dispersion of the electron
beam. German physicist Karl-Heinz Steigerwald, who was at the time working on various
electron beam applications, perceived and developed the first practical electron beam welding
machine which began operation in 1958.
 WELDING and ALLIED PROCESSES 19

1.5.3 Thermit Welding

Thermit material is a mechanical mixture of metallic aluminum and processed iron oxide.
Molten steel is produced by the reaction in a magnesite-lined crucible.
At the bottom of the crucible, a magnesite stone is burned, into which a magnesite stone
thimble is fitted. This thimble provides a passage through which the molten steel is discharged
into the mold. The hole through the thimble is plugged with a tapping pin, which is covered
with a fire-resistant washer and refractory sand. The crucible is charged by placing the correct
quantity of thoroughly mixed material in it. In preparing the joint for welding, the parts to be
welded must be cleaned, aligned, and held firmly in place. If necessary, metal is removed from
the joint to permit a free flow of the metal into the joint. A wax pattern is then made around
the joint in the size and shape of the intended weld. A mold made of refractory sand is built
around the wax pattern and joint to hold the molten metal after it is poured. The sand mold is
then heated to melt out the wax and dry the mold. The mold should be properly vented to
permit the escape of gases and to allow the proper distribution of the metal at the joint
 WELDING and ALLIED PROCESSES 20

1.6 TYPES OF JOINTS

Basic types of welding joints are classified as under:

(a) Butt Joint
In this type of joint, the edges are welded in the same plane with each other. V or U shape is
given to the edges to make the joints strong. Some examples of butt joints are shown in the
figure.

(b) Lap Joint

This type of joint is used in joining two overlapping plates so that the corner of each plate is
joined with the surface of other plate. Common types of lap joints are single lap, double lap or
offset lap joint. Single welded lap joint does not develop full strength as compared to double
welded lap.

(c) T-Joint
When two surfaces are to be welded at right angles, the joint is called T-Joint. The angle
between the surfaces is kept 90°.
 WELDING and ALLIED PROCESSES 21

(d) Corner Joint

In this joint, the edges of two sheets are joined and their surfaces are kept at right angle to each
other. Such joints are made in frames, steel boxes, etc.
(e) Edge Joint
In this joint two parallel plates are welded edge to edge.

( f ) Plug Joint
Plug joints are used in holes instead of rivets and bolts.

1.7 SOLDERING

Soldering is a process of joining two metals by using another low temperature metal alloy. The
metal used for the joining purpose is called solder. Solders are of two types:
1. Hard solder (alloy of copper and zinc)
2. Soft solder (alloy of tin and lead)

Process
The surfaces to be joined are cleaned and are placed on each other. A flux is employed to
prevent oxidation. Zinc chloride is commonly used for this purpose. The soldering iron is
heated either electrically or by some external heat. Then the hot end is dipped into the flux and
solder is pressed against the surfaces to be joined. A joint is formed by melting the solder.

Applications
Soldering is widely used for sheet metal work and in radio and television work for joining
wires.
 WELDING and ALLIED PROCESSES 22

Advantages
1. Joining cost is low
2. Equipment is very simple and cheap
3. Good sealing in fabrication as compared to other processes like rivet, spot weld and bolts
4. It provides a positive electrical connection
5. Due to low operating temperature the properties of base metal are not affected

Disadvantage
1. Joints formed are weak

1.8 BRAZING
The process of joining two metal surfaces by heating and adding a non-ferrous alloy with
melting point above 400°C is known as brazing process.
The surfaces to be joined are cleaned from all oil, dirt or oxides. Then both the surfaces are
placed in joining position. Flux is sprinkled or placed on it. The heat is given to the surface and
the filler metal. The molten filler metal flows to the surfaces to be joined. On cooling, brazing
joint is formed. The filler metals used are copper, copper alloy, silver alloy and aluminium
alloys. In brazing, the filler metal melts but the surfaces to be joined remain unmelted. The
various methods used to melt the filler metal and flux are:
(a) Gas Torch Brazing: It is a commonly used process in which oxy-acetylene torch is used.
(b) Furnace Brazing: The surfaces to be joined are placed in a furnace already hot.
(c) Dip Brazing: The surfaces to be joined are dipped in molten filler metal.
(d) Electrical Brazing: In electric brazing heat is produced by resistance or induction method.

Applications
Brazing is used for electrical items, radiators, heat exchangers, pipes & pipe fittings and tool
tips.

Advantages
1. It is useful for joining dissimilar metals.
2. Thin sections can be easily joined.
3. Good finish is obtained on joint.
4. Less skill is required.
5. Cost of operation is less as compared to other welding processes.

Disadvantages
1. Low strength.
2. Not applicable for hardened steel and aluminium alloys.
 WELDING and ALLIED PROCESSES 23

Difference between soldering and brazing:

Brazing Soldering
1. Filler metal has the melting point 1. Filler metal has the melting point
above 400°C below 400°C
2. More stable joints can be made. 2. Less stable joints can be made.
3. High pressure and temperature do not 3. Joints are affected by high
affect the joint. pressure. temperature and
4. Equipment cost is more. 4. Equipment cost is very low.