ROMANTICISM

1. Liberation of the Self:

The concept of the liberation of the self refers to the pursuit of individual
freedom and autonomy from societal constraints or oppressive forces. In literature,
this theme often manifests through characters who challenge societal norms,
question authority, or break free from traditional expectations to assert their own
identity and agency. Writers explore the complexities of self-discovery, self-
expression, and personal growth as characters navigate internal and external
struggles to achieve liberation. This theme is central to various literary movements,
including Romanticism, Modernism, and Postcolonial literature, reflecting the
universal human desire for autonomy and fulfillment.

2. Return to Nature:

The motif of the return to nature explores the idea of reconnecting with the
natural world as a means of spiritual renewal, healing, and self-discovery. In
literature, characters often seek solace, wisdom, or inspiration by retreating from
the constraints of civilization and immersing themselves in the beauty and
tranquility of nature. This theme is prevalent in Romantic literature, where writers
celebrate the sublime power of the natural landscape and emphasize the importance
of harmony between humanity and the environment. The return to nature
symbolizes a desire to escape the artificiality and materialism of modern life,
seeking authenticity and transcendence in the simplicity of the natural world.

3. Subjectivity:

Subjectivity in literature refers to the perspective, emotions, and experiences

unique to individual characters or narrators. Writers explore the complexities of
subjectivity by depicting the inner thoughts, feelings, and perceptions of characters
as they navigate the world around them. Through subjective narration, authors
invite readers to empathize with characters, understand their motivations, and
appreciate the nuances of human consciousness. Subjectivity allows for a rich
exploration of identity, memory, and the subjective nature of truth, challenging
readers to question their own perceptions and biases.

4. Rustic Life:

Rustic life, also known as pastoralism, romanticizes rural or countryside settings

and celebrates the simplicity, purity, and authenticity of rural existence. In
literature, writers often depict rustic life as an idealized alternative to the
complexities and corruptions of urban society. Characters living in rural settings
are portrayed as closer to nature, embodying virtues such as innocence, honesty,
and closeness to the land. The motif of rustic life evokes nostalgia for a simpler
way of life, highlighting the contrast between the natural rhythms of rural existence
and the hustle and bustle of city life.

5. Imagination:

Imagination plays a central role in literature as a creative faculty that enables

writers to envision new worlds, characters, and experiences. Writers harness the
power of imagination to craft compelling narratives, evoke vivid imagery, and
explore the depths of human consciousness. Imagination allows for the exploration
of fantastical realms, symbolic landscapes, and allegorical journeys that transcend
the boundaries of reality. Through imaginative storytelling, authors engage readers'
senses, emotions, and intellect, inviting them to embark on imaginative journeys of
their own.

6. Language of the Common Man:

The language of the common man refers to the use of vernacular, everyday
speech, and colloquial expressions in literature to capture the authentic voice and
experiences of ordinary people. Writers employ the language of the common man
to depict characters from diverse social backgrounds, regions, and cultures,
reflecting the richness and complexity of human communication. This linguistic
diversity adds depth and authenticity to literary narratives, allowing readers to
connect with characters on a personal and emotional level. By embracing the
language of the common man, writers celebrate the diversity of human experience
and challenge hierarchical notions of language and culture.

MODERNISM
1. Imagism:

Imagism was a literary movement that emerged in the early 20th century,
characterized by a focus on clear, precise imagery and the use of everyday
language. Led by poets such as Ezra Pound, H.D. (Hilda Doolittle), and Amy
Lowell, Imagist poetry aimed to capture the essence of a subject through vivid and
evocative images, often employing free verse and unconventional syntax. Imagist
poets emphasized the importance of direct observation and sensory experience,
rejecting the ornate language and sentimentality of Victorian poetry. Their
influence extended beyond poetry, shaping modernist literature and contributing to
the development of literary experimentation.

2. World War I:

World War I, also known as the Great War, was a global conflict that took place
from 1914 to 1918. It had a profound impact on literature, inspiring a wave of
writing that reflected the disillusionment, trauma, and upheaval of the era. Many
soldiers-turned-writers, including Wilfred Owen, Siegfried Sassoon, and Rupert
Brooke, depicted the brutal realities of trench warfare and the psychological toll of
combat in their poetry and prose. World War I literature often explores themes of
loss, futility, and the collapse of traditional values, contributing to a broader
cultural shift towards modernism and existentialism.

3. Symbolism:

Symbolism is a literary movement that originated in late 19th-century France,

characterized by the use of symbols to represent abstract ideas or concepts.
Symbolist writers sought to convey emotions and spiritual truths through evocative
imagery and suggestive language, rejecting realism and rationalism in favor of
subjective expression. Symbolism had a significant influence on English literature,
particularly through the works of poets such as W.B. Yeats, T.S. Eliot, and
William Blake. Symbolist poetry often explores themes of mysticism, the
supernatural, and the subconscious mind, inviting readers to interpret and decipher
layers of meaning beneath the surface of the text.
4. The Lost Generation:

The Lost Generation refers to a group of writers and artists who came of age
during World War I and its aftermath. Coined by Gertrude Stein, the term
encapsulates the sense of disillusionment, aimlessness, and moral ambiguity that
characterized the post-war period. Writers such as Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott
Fitzgerald, and John Dos Passos are often associated with the Lost Generation,
known for their exploration of existential themes, moral decay, and the search for
meaning in a world shattered by war. The literature of the Lost Generation reflects
a sense of alienation and disillusionment with traditional values, capturing the
spirit of a generation caught between the idealism of the past and the uncertainty of
the future.

5. Allusion:

Allusion is a literary device that refers to a brief and indirect reference to a

person, place, event, or work of art within a literary text. By drawing on familiar
cultural or historical references, authors can enrich their writing with additional
layers of meaning and resonance. Allusions may serve to evoke specific emotions,
enhance characterization, or underscore thematic elements. In literature, allusions
are often used to establish connections between different works, allowing authors
to engage with the broader literary tradition and invite readers to explore
intertextual relationships.

6. New Criticism:

New Criticism, also known as formalism, was a literary movement that emerged
in the early 20th century, particularly in the United States. New Critics focused on
close textual analysis and interpretation, emphasizing the intrinsic qualities of a
literary work rather than external factors such as authorial intent or historical
context. Key figures associated with New Criticism include Cleanth Brooks, John
Crowe Ransom, and Robert Penn Warren. New Critics advocated for a rigorous
examination of language, structure, and imagery, viewing the text as a self-
contained and autonomous entity worthy of close attention. Their approach
revolutionized literary criticism, influencing generations of scholars and shaping
the academic study of literature.
The Rainbow

My heart leaps up when I behold

A rainbow in the sky:

So was it when my life began;

So is it now I am a man;

So be it when I shall grow old,

Or let me die!

The Child is father of the Man;

I could wish my days to be

Bound each to each by natural piety.

by William Wordsworth
She Walks in Beauty

BY LORD BYRON (GEORGE GORDON)

She walks in beauty, like the night

Of cloudless climes and starry skies;
And all that’s best of dark and bright
Meet in her aspect and her eyes;
Thus mellowed to that tender light
Which heaven to gaudy day denies.

One shade the more, one ray the less,

Had half impaired the nameless grace
Which waves in every raven tress,
Or softly lightens o’er her face;
Where thoughts serenely sweet express,
How pure, how dear their dwelling-place.

And on that cheek, and o’er that brow,

So soft, so calm, yet eloquent,
The smiles that win, the tints that glow,
But tell of days in goodness spent,
A mind at peace with all below,
A heart whose love is innocent.
Ozymandias

BY PERCY BYSSHE SHELLEY

I met a traveller from an antique land,

Who said—“Two vast and trunkless legs of stone
Stand in the desert. . . . Near them, on the sand,
Half sunk a shattered visage lies, whose frown,
And wrinkled lip, and sneer of cold command,
Tell that its sculptor well those passions read
Which yet survive, stamped on these lifeless things,
The hand that mocked them, and the heart that fed;
And on the pedestal, these words appear:
My name is Ozymandias, King of Kings;
Look on my Works, ye Mighty, and despair!
Nothing beside remains. Round the decay
Of that colossal Wreck, boundless and bare
The lone and level sands stretch far away.”

Journey of the Magi

T. S. Eliot

‘A cold coming we had of it,

Just the worst time of the year

For a journey, and such a long journey:

The ways deep and the weather sharp,

The very dead of winter.’

And the camels galled, sore-footed, refractory,

Lying down in the melting snow.

There were times we regretted

The summer palaces on slopes, the terraces,

And the silken girls bringing sherbet.

Then the camel men cursing and grumbling

And running away, and wanting their liquor and women,

And the night-fires going out, and the lack of shelters,

And the cities hostile and the towns unfriendly

And the villages dirty and charging high prices:

A hard time we had of it.

At the end we preferred to travel all night,

Sleeping in snatches,

With the voices singing in our ears, saying

That this was all folly.

Then at dawn we came down to a temperate valley,

Wet, below the snow line, smelling of vegetation;

With a running stream and a water-mill beating the darkness,

And three trees on the low sky,

And an old white horse galloped away in the meadow.

Then we came to a tavern with vine-leaves over the lintel,

Six hands at an open door dicing for pieces of silver,

And feet kicking the empty wine-skins,

But there was no information, and so we continued

And arrived at evening, not a moment too soon

Finding the place; it was (you may say) satisfactory.

All this was a long time ago, I remember,

And I would do it again, but set down

This set down

This: were we led all that way for

Birth or Death? There was a Birth, certainly,

We had evidence and no doubt. I had seen birth and death,

But had thought they were different; this Birth was

Hard and bitter agony for us, like Death, our death.

We returned to our places, these Kingdoms,

But no longer at ease here, in the old dispensation,

With an alien people clutching their gods.

I should be glad of another death.

The Circus Animals’ Desertion

BY WILLIAM BUTLER YEATS

I sought a theme and sought for it in vain,

I sought it daily for six weeks or so.

Maybe at last being but a broken man

I must be satisfied with my heart, although

Winter and summer till old age began

My circus animals were all on show,

Those stilted boys, that burnished chariot,

Lion and woman and the Lord knows what.

II

What can I but enumerate old themes,

First that sea-rider Oisin led by the nose

Through three enchanted islands, allegorical dreams,

Vain gaiety, vain battle, vain repose,

Themes of the embittered heart, or so it seems,

That might adorn old songs or courtly shows;

But what cared I that set him on to ride,

I, starved for the bosom of his fairy bride.

And then a counter-truth filled out its play,

`The Countess Cathleen' was the name I gave it,

She, pity-crazed, had given her soul away

But masterful Heaven had intervened to save it.

I thought my dear must her own soul destroy

So did fanaticism and hate enslave it,

And this brought forth a dream and soon enough

This dream itself had all my thought and love.

And when the Fool and Blind Man stole the bread

Cuchulain fought the ungovernable sea;

Heart mysteries there, and yet when all is said

It was the dream itself enchanted me:

Character isolated by a deed

To engross the present and dominate memory.

Players and painted stage took all my love

And not those things that they were emblems of.

III

Those masterful images because complete

Grew in pure mind but out of what began?

A mound of refuse or the sweepings of a street,

Old kettles, old bottles, and a broken can,

Old iron, old bones, old rags, that raving slut

Who keeps the till. Now that my ladder's gone

I must lie down where all the ladders start

In the foul rag and bone shop of the heart.