General Mathematics (M11GM)

Unit II. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

I. Rational Equation and Rational Inequality

A. Solving Rational equation
In solving rational equations, multiply each term of the equation by the least common
denominator (LCD). Then solve the resulting equation.

Example1. Solve each rational equation:

5x 1 1 x 1 x
a.¿ − = b . ¿ +3= (1− )
6 2 3 4 2 3

4 x−6 7 x 12
c .¿ = d . ¿ + =x−2
2 x−3 x+1 3 x

Solution
a.) Multiply both sides by the LCD 6. Check: If x = 1 and 5 x − 1 = 1 , then,
6 2 3
5x 1 1 5(1) 1 1
− = − =
6 2 3 6 2 3

( 5x 1
) 1
− (6) = ( 6)
x 2 3
5 1 1
− =
6 2 3

5 x−3=2 5−3 1
=
6 3
5 x=2+3
2 1
5x 5 =
= 6 3
5 5
1 1
x=1 =
3 3
Hence, x=1 is the solution of 5 x − 1 = 1 .
6 2 3
b.) The LCD of the three fractions involved is 12. Check: If x=-6, and
x
4
1
( )
x
+3= 1− , then
2 3
x
4
1
( )
+3= 1−
2
x
3
−6
4
1
+3= 1−
2 ( )
−6
3

( )
x
4 [ ( )]
1
−3 ( 12 ) = 1−
2
x
3
(12)
−6+12 1 6
4
= +
2 6
6 3+6
( )
3 x+ 36=6 1−
x
3
4
=
6
3 9
3 x+ 36=6−2 x =
2 6
3 x+ 2 x=6−36
3 3
= (True
5 x −30 2 2
=
5 5 Statement)
c.) The given equation is in proportion form. Hence, the product of the extremes 4 x−6and
x +1 is equal to the product of the means 2 x−3 and 7.

4 x−6 7 3 4 x−6 7
= Check: If x= and = , then,
2 x−3 x +1 2 2 x−3 x +1
( 4 x−6 ) ( x+ 1 )=( 2 x−3)(7)
4 x−6 7
=
2
4 x −2 x−6=14 x −21 2 x−3 x +1
2
4 x −2 x−14 x−6+21=14 x−21 3
4 ( )−6
2 7
2 =
4 x −16 x+15=0 3 3
2( )−3 +1
2 2
(2 x−3)(2 x+5)=0
6−6 7
2 x−3=02 x +5=0 =
3−3 5
2 x=3 2 x=−5 2
2 x 3 2 x −5 0 14
= = =
2 2 2 2 0 5
3 −5 (False Statement)
x= ∨x=
2 2
3
The value x= is not a root of the given
2
equation. Such kind of value is referred to
5 4 x−6 7
Check: If x= and = , then,
2 2 x−3 x +1
4 x−6 7
=
2 x−3 x +1
5
4 ( )−6
2 7
=
5 3
2( )−3 +1
2 2
10−6 7
=
5−3 7
2
4 14
=
2 7
2=2

5 (True Statement) 4 x−6 7

Hence, x= is the only solution of = .
2 2 x−3 x +1

d. The given equation can be reduced to quadratic form.

x 12
+ =x −2 , x ≠0
3 x

3x ( x3 + 12x )=3 x ( x−2 ) Multiply both sides by the LCD 3x

2
x + 36=3 x −6 x
2
Apply distributive property.
2
−2 x +6 x +36=0 Combine similar terms.
2
x −3 x−18=0 Divide both sides by -2.
 x−6=0 x +3=0
x=6 x=−3

x 12 x 12
Check: If x=6 and + =x −2 , Check: If x=−3 and + =x −2 ,
3 x 3 x
6 12 −3 12
+ =6−2 + =−3−2
3 6 3 −3
2+2=4 −1−4=−5
4=4 −5=−5
(True Statement) (True Statement)
Thus, the solutions of the given equation are 6 and -3.

B. Solving Rational Inequalities

Rational inequalities are easier to solve if their denominators are eliminated.
Remember that the sense of inequality is unchanged if the same real number is
added to, or subtracted from both sides of the given inequality.
Moreover, the sense of an inequality remains if both sides of the inequality are
multiplied by, or divided by the same positive real number.
But the sense of inequality is reverse if both side of the inequality are multiplied by,
or divided by the same negative real number.

Example 2. Solve each rational inequality, then graph its solution set.

5 −2 x x 2
a . ¿ 3 x− ≥ b.¿ <3−
6 3 x −2 x −2

Solutions
a. The LCD of the fractions involved is 6.

(
6 3x−
5
6)( )
≥
−2 x
3
6

18 x−5 ≥−4 x (The sense of the inequality is unchanged when both sides
are multiplied by the positive real number 6)
18 x ∓ 4 x−5 ≥−4 x +4 x (The sense of the inequality is unchanged when real
numbers 4x and 5 are added to both sides.)
22 x−5+5 ≥ 0+5
22 x ≥ 5
22 x 5
≥ (The sense of the inequality is unchanged when both sides
22 22
are divided by 22.)
5
x≥
22
The solution set in interval form is
[ )
5
22
,∞ . Its graph is given below.

5
22
 b.) The LCD of the fractions involved is x-2. This implies that x-2≠0 or x≠2.
x 2
<3−
x−2 x−2
x 2
+ −3< 0
x−2 x−2
Find the zeroes from the numerator and the
x+ 2 values that make the function undefined from
−3<0 the denominator.
x−2
x+2−3(x−2) Critical values:
<0
x−2 −2 x+ 8=0 x−2=0
−2 x=−8 x=2
x +2−3 x +6 ¿ ¿ <0 x=4
x−2
−2 x +8 Intervals: (-∞,2), (2,4), (4,∞)
<0
x −2
(-∞,2) 2 (2,4) 4 (4,∞)

0 2 3 4 5
−2 x+ 8 8 4 2 0 -2

x−2 -2 0 1 2 3

−2 x +8 - undefined + 0 -
x −2

Therefore, the solution set is (-∞,2)U(4,∞) or all real number except [ 2 , 4 ] .

2 4

C. Rational Function
The ratio one polynomial function to another polynomial function is a
rational function.
A rational function, r(x), is a function of the form
p (x)
r ( x )=
q( x )
where p ( x )∧q ( x ) are polynomial function ,∧q ( x ) ≠ 0.
Example of rational functions:
3
x −1
1. r ( x ) = , x ≠−1
x+ 1

A rational function can be represented by its equation, table of values, or graph.

Example: Construct a table of values and sketch the graph of the following rational
functions.
1 x
a.) f ( x )= c.) F ( x )=
x x +1
1
b.) g ( x )=
x −2
Solutions
 1 1
a.) The function f ( x )= which can be presented by the equation y= is not defined when
x x
1
x=0. The graph of the line x=0 will not be crossed by the graph of f ( x )= . The table of
x
values for the function is constructed and shown below.
x -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y -0.20 -0.25 -0.33 -0.50 -1 undefine
d
1 0.50 0.33 0.25 0.20

Using the values, the points (-5,-0.20), (-4,-0.25), (-3, -0.33), (-2,-0.50), (-1,-1), (1,1),
(2,0.50), (3,0.33), (4,0.25), and (5, 0.20) can be determined and plotted in a Cartesian
plane. With these points, the graph can be sketched.

1 1
b.) The function g ( x )= which can be presented by the equation y= is not defined
x −2 x−2
1
when x=2. The graph of the line x=2 will not be crossed by the graph of g ( x )= . The
x −2
table of values for the function is constructed and shown below.
x -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y -0.20 -0.25 -0.33 -0.50 -1 undefine
d
1 0.50 0.33 0.25 0.20
x -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y -0.14 -0.17 -0.20 -0.25 -0.33 -0.50 -1 undefined 1 0.50 0.33
Using the values, the points (-5,-0.14), (-4,-0.17), (-3, -0.20), (-2,-0.25), (-1,-0.33),
(0,0.50), (1,-1), (3,1), (4,0.50), and (5, 0.33) can be determined and plotted in a
Cartesian plane. With these points, the graph can be sketched.
 x x
c.) The function F ( x )= which can be presented by the equation y= is not defined
x +1 x +1
x
when x=−1. The graph of the line x=−1 will not be crossed by the graph of F ( x )= .
x +1
The table of values for the function is constructed and shown below.

x -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 1.25 1.33 1.50 2 undefined 0 0.50 0.67 0.75 0.80 0.83

Using the values, the points (-5,1.25), (-4,1.33), (-3, 1.50), (-2,2), (0,0), (1,0.50), (2,0.67),
(3,0.75), (4,0.80), and (5, 0.83) can be determined and plotted in a Cartesian plane.
With these points, the graph can be sketched.

D. Domain and Range of Rational Function

Domain of rational function
A rational function, which is a ratio of two polynomial functions in many
cases, is not a polynomial function. Unlike a polynomial function which is defined for
every real number, a rational function is defined only when its denominator is not
equal to zero. This implies that the domain of a rational function is the set of all real
numbers, except those that make the denominator zero.

Ex. Find the domain of each rational function.

2
x x −4 x−5
a.) r ( x )= b.) R ( x )=
x( x−3) 2
x +2 x −8
Solution.
x
a. The domain of r ( x )= is the set of all real numbers, except those that make
x( x−3)
the denominator zero. These are x=0 and x−3=0 or x=3. These values of x will
make the function undefined.
D= { x|x ≠ 0∧x ≠3 }
In interval form, the domain is (−∞ , 0 ) ∪ ( 0 , 3 ) ∪ ( 3 ,+ ∞ )
2
x −4 x−5
b. The domain of R ( x )= 2 is the set of all real numbers, except those values
x +2 x −8
of x that make x 2+ 2 x−8 equal to 0. These values are determined by solving
2
x + 2 x−8≠ 0.
2
x + 2 x−8≠ 0
(x +4 )(x−2)≠ 0
( x +4 ) ≠ 0∨(x −2)≠ 0
x ≠−4∨x ≠2
D= { x|x ≠−4∧x ≠ 2 }

In interval form, the domain is (−∞ ,−4 ) ∪ (−4 , 2 ) ∪ (2 ,+ ∞ ).

Range of Rational Function

The range of rational function can easily be determined through its graph.
Ex. Determined the range of each rational function:
1 1
a.) f ( x )= b.) f ( x )=
x x−2

Solution. The range can also be determined by replacing f ( x ) by y and solving x in terms of y
and then find the restrictions.

1 1 1 1
a . ¿ f ( x )= → y= b . ¿ f ( x )= → y=
x x x−2 x−2

1
(x ) y= (x)
x
(x−2) y= ( x
x−2 )
(x−2)

xy=1 xy−2 y=1

1 xy=1+2 y
x=
y
1+2 y
x=
R : { y| y ≠ 0 } y
R : { y| y ≠ 0 }
Graphing Rational Function
Intercepts
The intercepts of the graph of a rational function are the points of intersection
of its graph and an axis.
The y-intercept of the graph of a rational function r (x ), if it exists, occurs at
r (0) , provided that r (x ) is defined at r =0
The x-intercept of the graph of a rational function r (x ), if it exists, occurs at
the zeroes of the numerator that are not zeroes of the denominators.
 Example: Find the x- and y-intercepts, if they exist, of the following rational
functions.
( x+1 )( x−3 ) ( x +2 ) 2
x +3 x−4
a. r ( x )= b. R ( x )= 2
( x−1 )( x +3 ) x −16
Solutions.
( 0+ 1 )( 0−3 ) ( 0+2 ) ( 1 )(−3 )( 2 )
r ( 0) = = =2
( 0−1 )( 0+3 ) (−1 )( 3 )
The x-intercept are the solution of ( x +1 ) ( x−3 ) ( x +2 ) =0
x +1=0∨x−3=0∨x +2=0
x=−1∨x=3∨x=−2
Neither of these three values is a solution of ( x−1 ) ( x+ 3 )=0. Thus,
x=−1 , x=3∧x =−2 are the x-intercepts of the graph of r ( x ) .

b. The y-intercept of the graph of R ( x )is

2
0 +3(0)−4 −4 1
R ( x )= = = .
0 2−16 −16 4
The x-intercepts are the solutions of x 2+ 3 x −4=0.
2
x + 3 x −4=0
( x +4 ) ( x −1 )=0
x +4=0∨x−1=0
x=−4∨x=1

The zeroes of x 2−16=0 are x=4 and x=−4 . Since x=1is not a zero of
the denominator, it is the only x-intercept of R ( x ).
Asymptotes
p (x)
The zeroes of rational function r ( x )= can be determined by solving p ( x )=0. In
q( x )
other words, whatever the values that make the numerator p(x ) equal to zero are the zero of
r (x ) provided that it is not the zero of the denominator q ( x ) .

To determine the vertical asymptote of a rational function r (x ), find the zeroes of

the denominator that are not zeroes of the numerator.

Ex. Determine the vertical asymptotes of each rational function.

( x +1)(x−3)(x+ 4) ( x +3 )2 ( x −1 )3 (x+5)
a. r ( x )= c. h ( x )=
(x−1)(x+ 2) (x−1) ( x+3 )2 (x−5)
(x−1)(x−3)(x−2)
b. R ( x )=
( x +1)(x−2)2

Solution
a. The zeroes of the numerator are -1, 3, -4. The zeroes of the denominator are 1 and -2.
The vertical asymptotes for r (x )are x=1 and -2. These values are zeroes of the
denominator but not of the numerator.
b. The zeroes of the numerator are 1, 3 and 2. The zeroes of the denominator are -1 and 2
(multiplicity 2). The vertical asymptotes for R(x ) are -1 and 2. The value x=2 remains to
be a vertical asymptote since its multiplicity is 2, which is greater than the multiplicity of
the same zero in the numerator.
c. The zeroes of the numerator are -3 (multiplicity 2), 1 (multiplicity 3), and -5. The zeroes
of the denominator are 1, -3(multiplicity 2), and 5. The vertical asymptote for h( x) is
x=5 only.

Note that if the multiplicity of a zero of a numerator is equal to or greater than the
multiplicity of the same zero in the denominator, that value will appear as a hole in the
graph of a given rational function.

To determine the horizontal asymptote of a rational function, compare the degree

of the numerator n and the degree of the denominator d.
i. If n ˂ d, the horizontal asymptote is y=0
ii. If n = d, the horizontal asymptote y is the ratio of the leading coefficient of the
an
numerator a n to the leading coefficient of the denominator a d . That is y= .
ad
iii. If the n ˃ d, there is no horizontal asymptote.

Ex. Determine the horizontal asymptote of each rational function.

4
x 4 x −1
a. r ( x )= 2 c. h ( x )= 2
9 x −1 1−x
 7−3 x
b. R ( x )=
2 x+1

Solution.
a. The degree of the numerator x is less than the degree of the denominator 9 x 2−1.
Therefore, the horizontal asymptote is y=0.
b. The degree of the numerator 7−3 x and that of the denominator 2 x+1 are equal.
Therefore, the horizontal asymptote y is equal to the ratio of the leading coefficient of
−3
the numerator -3 to the leading coefficient of the denominator 2. y= .
2
c. The degree of the numerator 4 x 4−1 is greater than the degree of the denominator 1−x 2.
Therefore, there is no horizontal asymptote.

Exercise. Sketch the graph of the following rational function.

2
3 x −8 x−3
1. r ( x )=
Guide 2
2 x +7 x−4
a. Domain (set of all real
numbers except the zeroes x−2
of the denominator 2. f ( x )=
x +2
b. y-intercept (let x=0)
c. x-intercept (let y=0)
d. zeroes (same as x- Solution.
intercept) 2
(3 x +1)(x −3)
3 x −8 x−3
e. vertical asymptote 1.) H ( x )= 2 =
(restricted value/s for x) 2 x + 7 x−4 ( 2 x−1 ) ( x+ 4 )
f. horizontal asymptote a. Domain
2 x−1=0 x +4=0
dn<dd → y=0
a 2x 1
dn=dd →y= leading coefficient = x=−4
b 2 2
dn >dd → none
1
g. hole(removable x=
2

{| }
discontinuities) 1
D= x x Є R , except ∧−4
2
Simply
b. y-intercept get the
2 constan
3(0) −8 (0)−3 −3 3 t of the
= = numera
2(0)2 +7 ( 0 ) −4 −4 4 tor and
the
constan
3 t of the
(0, ) denomi
4 nator
then
c. x-intercept simplify.

3 x+ 1=0 x−3=0
3 x −1
= x=3
3 3
−1
x=
3
d. zeroes
−1
x= x=3
3

e. vertical asymptote
2 x−1=0 x +4=0
2x 1
= x=−4
2 2
1
x=
2
f. horizontal asymptote
dn=2 dn = dd
a 3
dd=2 y= y= H.A
b 2

g. hole
NO HOLE

−1 −1 1 1
Interval: (-∞, -4), (-4, ), ( , ),( , 3 ¿ ,(3 ,+∞ )
3 3 2 2

x<-4 −1 −1 1 1 x>3
-4<x< <¿ x< < x <3
3 3 2 2
-5 -2 0 2 4
(3 x +1)(x−3) + + - - +
( 2 x−1 ) ( x + 4 ) + - - + +
(3 x +1)(x −3) + - + - +
( 2 x−1 ) ( x+ 4 )
 x−2
2. ¿ f ( x )=
x+ 2

Solution.
x−2
f ( x )=
x +2

a. Domain
x +2=0
x=−2

D= { x|x Є R , x ≠−2 }

b. y-intercept
−2
=−1
2
(0, -1)

c. x-intercept

x−2=0 (2, 0)
x=2

d. zeroes
x=2

e. vertical asymptote
x +2=0
x=−2
f. horizontal asymptote
dn=1 dn = dd
 1
dd=1 y= y=1 → H.A
1
g. hole
NO HOLE

Interval: (-∞, -2), (-2, 2), (2, +∞)

x<-2 -2<x<2 x>2

-3 0 4
x−2 - - +
x +2 - + +
x−2 + - +
x+ 2