University of Rizal System

Republic of the Philippines

H5CC+HH2, Marigman St. Barangay,
San Roque Antipolo City Rizal, Antipolo, 1870 Rizal
*Tel no: (02)8539 - 9950

LANGUAGE CULTURE AND sound complement/contradict/repl

SOCIETY PRELIMS REVIEWER ace words.

The Nature of Language and Functions of Speaking

Language Study
Interaction is seen in social
Language is the road map of conversations. For example, a
culture. It tells you where its people student shares her weekend getaway
come from and where they are experience to a friend, a taxi driver
going. chats with his passenger, or a
- Rita Mae Brown saleslady telling her manager about
her recent experience, etc.
Language - a non instinctive method
of communicating ideas, emotions, Transaction happens when
and desire through a system of someone wants to cut across a
voluntarily produced symbols. message. There is an act to be done
- Edward Sapir after the message is received. For
example, a boy orders a box of pizza,
In its widest sense, means the total of a teacher gives instructions on the
such signs of our thoughts and assignment of the lesson to her
feelings as are capable of external students, or book a plane ticket via
perception and as could be produced phone call.
and repeated at will.
- A.H. Gardiner Performance is when an audience
accepts the message spoken.
Macro Skills in English For example, speeches conducted to
persuade like oration or debate. There
Listening - a prerequisite to is an emphasis on the accuracy, the
understanding. It is the skill of sequencing of ideas, the form and the
grasping and decoding information organization.
during the exchange of messages.
Listening is the beginning of Reading - a multifaceted process
understanding and a valuable key to involving word recognition,
effective communication. It is the task comprehension fluency, and
of getting the meaning of what is motivation. Learn how readers
being heard (Underwood, 2009). integrate these facets to make
meaning from print (Leipzig, 2001).
Speaking - is the ability that makes
us superior to other species. It is
a complex cognitive and linguistic skill Brown (1989) suggested the
that involves words and sounds. category as outlined
below.
It also involves: A. Oral Reading - The goal is to read
aloud smoothly, and to read with
⚫ Meaning: connotation, denotation, comprehension of the text. Oral
grammar reading fluency is a key element of
⚫ Sociality, Relationship, Affect: developing accuracy, rate of reading,
förmal, informal, slang, turn-taking and overall comprehension.
⚫ Cultural lssues: class, ethnicity, B. Silent Reading - reading done
nationality, religion, gender, silently, or without speaking the words
díalect. being read.
⚫ Performance: articulation,
projection, pronunciation I. Intensive - involves learners
⚫ Sound Elements: how volume reading in detail with specific learning
pitch, pace, and nature of aims and tasks.
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San Roque Antipolo City Rizal, Antipolo, 1870 Rizal
*Tel no: (02)8539 - 9950

a. Linguistic - teaching method that including how and when to use

ensures that the school going children these appropriately in utterances.
must have a strong command over
their mother tongue or native It is the proper and efficient
language. communication flow and the skill to
utilize and acclimate this expertise in
b. Context - information that helps the different situations.
message of a literary text make sense.
Grammatical Competence - the
II Extensive - involves learners unconscious knowledge of grammar
reading texts for enjoyment and to that allows a speaker to use and
develop general reading skills. understand language. It includes the
ability to gain knowledge of lexis,
a. skimming. - looking only for the morphology, syntax, semantics, etc. It
general or main ideas, and works best functions as a part of communicative
with non-fiction (or factual) material. competence.

b. Scanning - reading rapidly in order Sociolinguistic Competence -

to find specific facts. knowing and understanding how to
speak given the circumstances you
are in such as the status of
Writing - another macro skill which participants, the purposes of
language teachers should master and interactions, and the norms or
teach students. Writing entails control conventions of interactions
of language variables since it is an
extremely complex cognitive activity. Discourse Competence - the
Good writing skills may increase the learner's capacity to arrange, structure,
chances of a person's success. These link sentences in order to produce
are needed or all students to coherent and cohesive texts.
accomplish their educational and
employable requirements. Strategic Competence - the
knowledge of how to use one's
⚫ Decide the topic language to communicate intended
⚫ Research and Collect meaning.
Information
⚫ Outline and Plan Foreign Language vs.Native
⚫ Start by writing a simple draft Language vs.Mother Tongue
⚫ Review, edit and format
Foreign Language
Viewing - allow students to pause and A foreign language (second language),
reflect and think about the images is a tongue not native to your own
they are seeing and analvze or country, offering a gateway to diverse
evaluate further these visuals for cultures and perspectives. It's a tool
better use. for communication, a bridge
It includes giving meaning to the connecting worlds, and a key to
images or visuals and even with unlocking global opportunities.
computer programs and websites
which have printed and spoken words. Native Language
A native language (first language) is
Communicative Competence the language used by a person from
birth. It is the language used in a
Cooley and Roach (1984) mentioned person's household. There is no
that Communicative competence alternative to the first language. A
refers to the knowledge one has on person
morphology, phonology, syntax
 University of Rizal System
Republic of the Philippines
H5CC+HH2, Marigman St. Barangay,
San Roque Antipolo City Rizal, Antipolo, 1870 Rizal
*Tel no: (02)8539 - 9950

cannot decide his/her first language used throughout the world. It's also
as it comes from his/her inheritance, known as international English and
legacy, or birthright. global English. It's one of the most
widely spoken languages in the globe,
Is native language different from mother tongue of more than 300
mother tongue? million people and the most widely
There is no significant difference learned foreign languages. The
between mother tongue and first language is widely spoken almost all
language since both refer to a over the world, mostly 6 continents in
person’s native language. However, in the world and it's the basic language
some contexts, mother tongue refers of the Britain, Canada, Ireland, U.S,
to the language of one’s ethnic group, Australia, New Zealand and different
rather than one’s first language. Pacific and Caribbean Island countries,
it's as well an official language of India
Is native language different from (bharat), Philippines and several sub-
mother tongue? Saharan African nations.
Mother tongue or first language is the What are Englishes?
language a person has been exposed The term World Englishes is used to
to from the birth. It is usually the describe all the different varieties of
language one first learns. It is also the English that exist worldwide. As
language a person is most fluent in. English travels around the world, it
Nevertheless, in some countries like changes and develops in different
India and Kenya, the term mother ways to fulfil the needs of the people
tongue refers to the language of one’s who use it.
ethnic group, instead of one’s first English is currently spoken by an
language. estimated 1.35 billion people, meaning
almost 20% of the world currently
English vs. Englishes, Standard speaks English. However, the English
English, Common Language, vs. used worldwide can differ in terms of
Multilingualism vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar,
Difference between English vs. and accent. Therefore, it’s best to
Englishes? think of the English language as a
What is English? plural, ie. Englishes.
Definition: Because of British colonialism and
English is a language—originally the British and American imperialism, the
language of the people of England. English language spread around the
Today, English is the main language world. Communities adopted and
of the United Kingdom, Ireland, the adapted the language to suit their
United States of America, Canada, needs, resulting in the creation of
Australia, New Zealand and more than hundreds of new varieties of English.
fifty other countries. The English Today, English continues to spread
language is of Old Germanic origin, worldwide thanks to globalization, its
with many influences from other use as a lingua franca, and its
languages including French, Latin, prominence on the internet.
and Old Norse. It is a part of the Indo- What is Standard English?
European language family. Standard English is the form of
English is sometimes described as a English widely recognised and
"world language" or a "global lingua accepted as 'correct'. It is often used
franca". It is the world's most widely in formal situations (e.g. in an exam)
used language in international and when we are being polite (e.g.
business and telecommunications, speaking to your headteacher).
newspaper and book publishing, It is important to remember that there
scientific publishing, mass isn't just one 'Standard English' as
entertainment and diplomacy. different English-speaking countries
The term World English refers to the have slight variations in their standard.
English language as it is variously Some standard English examples
 University of Rizal System
Republic of the Philippines
H5CC+HH2, Marigman St. Barangay,
San Roque Antipolo City Rizal, Antipolo, 1870 Rizal
*Tel no: (02)8539 - 9950

include British English, standard country or community, based on the

American English, and more. Each Latin word Lingua, meaning tongue.
variety of Standard English follows What is Multilingualism?
specific, regularized grammar rules Definition:
that we learn in school. This includes Multilingualism can be defined as “the
examples of rules such as the correct ability of societies, institutions, groups
use of punctuation, spelling, forms of and individuals to engage, on a
verbs, etc. * Let's look a bit further into regular basis, with more than one
the characteristics and conventions of language in their day-to-day lives”
standard British English, its uses, and (European Commission, 2007: 6).
the different examples between The word "Multilingualism" is derived
standard and non-standard English. from two words, "multi" and "lingual".
Examples: "Multi" means two or more and
Context: You're speaking to your best "lingual" means "language".
friend According to Pearce, "Multilingualism
'Alright mate? What you up to today?' is the use of several languages by an
Context: You receive a text from your individual or society. sometimes
brother bilinguals are described as
'The footy is put off til tomo bc of the multilingual but usually the term is
rain. reserved for speakers or socio-
As you can see, the standard and linguistic situations in which more than
non-standard have completely two languages are used.
different tones and are used in Example:
different contexts. The non-standard A person who can speak multiple
examples include less formal languages is known as a polyglot or a
language ('alright mate'), multilingual.
abbreviations ('til', 'tomo'), and Benefits of Multilingualism
emoticons ' :( ', whereas the standard Learning a new language expands
presents more formal, standardized your mind and worldview.
language ('how are you?', 'postponed'). It opens you up to new cultures and to
What is Common Language? the fruits of diversity.
Definition: Speaking a second or third language
Common language refers to words or will boost confidence and increase
phrases that are commonly self-esteem.
understood by a group of people. It In a globalizing world, knowing a
often relates to specially introduced second or third language gives you an
words or phrases that help people advantage career-wise.
communicate more effectively in a Importance of Common Language:
workplace. (Twowp, 2021) 1. Clear Communication: A common
By introducing specific common language creates a shared
language and ensuring that everyone understanding, reducing ambiguity
in the organization has a chance to and misinterpretations. This ensures
explore and fully understand what is everyone is on the same page and
meant by the language, it’s possible to avoids wasting time clarifying
create new, efficient ways to misunderstandings.
communicate potentially complex and 2. Efficiency: Using shared terms
easily misconstrued ideas. improves efficiency by promoting
Common Language is defined by two faster communication and avoiding
words, Common meaning belonging the need for constant explanations.
equally to, or shared alike by, two or 3. Collaboration: Shared terminology
more or all in question, coming from fosters collaboration by creating a
the Latin word communis, meaning common ground for teamwork and
common, general, run of the mill. And knowledge sharing.
Language meaning a system of 4. Accuracy: Precise terminology in
communication used by a particular specific fields like medicine or science
 University of Rizal System
Republic of the Philippines
H5CC+HH2, Marigman St. Barangay,
San Roque Antipolo City Rizal, Antipolo, 1870 Rizal
*Tel no: (02)8539 - 9950

ensures accurate communication and KACHRU's CONCENTRIC CIRCLE

reduces the risk of errors. Kachru (1985) proposes this
5. Building Culture: Shared language concentric circle to illustrate the
can build a sense of community and spread of English all over the world.
identity within a group or organization. Each circle in this model represents
the kind of function and acquisition in
World English vs. World Englishes which the English language is used.

World English is the language used in 1. Inner Circle (ENL)

business, trade and diplomacy and The Inner Circle Englishes in the
other international activities, while model refer to the parent countries of
World Englishes refers to the varieties English. These countries are the
of English from the different regions of colonizing nations in our history.
the world. It is a term referring to the Through colonization, they have
emerging Englishes which are spread English to the other regions of
products of influences by the United the world. For example, Britain carried
Kingdom or the United States. the language to Australia, New
Zealand, and North America.
Globalization is considered an
important factor in the spread of 2. Outer Circle (ESL)
English (Schneider, 2011). The Outer Circle belongs to the
Additionally, Quirk (1988, cited in territories colonized by the parent
Kachru 1990) states that because of countries of English. English in this
demographical, economic, cultural, circle, is considered to be a second
and imperia factors, language normative language and is used for
spreads. functions like education, law, and
government transactions.

Nativization Continuum of World 3. Expanding Circle (EFL)

Englishes (NCWEs) The Expanding Circle considers
English as a foreign language. This
Diffusion encompasses countries where English
– English is spread as a result of has no historical or governmental
colonization, globalizatron or by any roles. Nevertheless, English is still
other means. used for very limited transactions and
mostly for international
Induction communications only.
– English is officially accepted as a
language used for education, trade,
communication, and so on. The Power of English
Kachru (1986) establishes the
Customization authority of the English language by
– Ll and other local languages start to looking into Its 'range' and 'depth'. The
reshape English slowly by giving it a range of English refers to the totality
local touch. Indigenous words form of functions i which it has acquired as
and structure get incorporated into it spreads around the globe. Its depth
English. refers to the amount of societal
penetration it has achieved. For
Native Recognition example, those countries that have
– People start to use English uncon- moved from the Inner to the other
sciously without associating with its circles. Although difficult to assess.
parent varieties. depth can be gleaned through the
pluricentricity of English and the
development of varieties within an
educated variety in the Outer Circle.
Putting together the depth and range
 University of Rizal System
Republic of the Philippines
H5CC+HH2, Marigman St. Barangay,
San Roque Antipolo City Rizal, Antipolo, 1870 Rizal
*Tel no: (02)8539 - 9950

of English, the following are Kachru's geographical, cultural or historical

useful parameters of the power of the reasons.
language.
Pidgin and Creoles
Demographical and numerical: Pidgin is a language that developed
unprecedented spread across cultures from a combination of two or more
and languages; on practically even languages. accustomed as a way of
continents. communicating with people who do
not speak the same language. Also,
Functional: provides access to the Pidgin does not have a native speaker.
most important scientific, Creoles is a language in a simplified
technological and cross-cultural form of another language or a
domains of knowledge and interaction. combination of two or more languages.
Are born of contact between
Attitudinal: symbolizes-certainly to a European and native languages, and
large group across cultures- one or creoles might include some words and
more of the following: neutrality, structures from European languages
liberalism, status and progressivism. but not all of creoles are based on
European languages. Also, creoles
Accessibility: provides international have fully developed grammar.
accessibility in the Outer Circle and Macro and micro linguistic studies
international mobility across regions Linguistics is Divided into Two
branches:
Pluricentricity: this has resulted in MicroLinguistics
the nativization and acculturation of Microlinguistics refers to the study of
the language. These two are, then, small-scale linguistic phenomena
responsible for the 'assimilation' of within a specific language or
English across cultures. languages. It focuses on detailed
analysis of fundamental properties of
Material: a tool for mobility, economic languages and linguistic elements
gains, and social status. such as phonemes (distinctive
sounds), morphemes (smallest units
of meaning), syntax (sentence
PHILIPPINE ENGLISH structure), and semantics (meaning of
The term "Philippine English" is not words and sentences).
new to most of us. We usually refer to Microlinguistics aims to understand
statements and expressions that are the intricacies of language at the level
akin to the Philippines; these are of individual words, sounds, and
words or phrases that mean differently grammatical structures.
when in the Philippines. Branches of MicroLinguistics:
Phonetics - Phonetics is the study of
Philippine English is one of the very the sounds of language. It deals with
few American-transplanted Englishes. the way sounds are produced,
It is a variety of English used by transmitted and perceived by human
around 42 million or 70% of the beings. Phonetics is further divided
population. The Filipinos were able to into three different branches that are:
adapt and learn English after being 1. Articulatory phonetics: deals with
colonized by the Americans the study of articulation of speech
(Gonzalez, 1996). sounds,
2. Acoustic phonetics: studies the
Though some may contest its physical properties of sounds as
acceptability, we must always transmitted from mouth to air and then
remember that language is alive and received by ear drum,
evolving. It also does not exist in a 3. Auditory phonetics: deals with the
vacuum. As such, differences in study of perpetual response to speech
language use may occur as a result of
 University of Rizal System
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H5CC+HH2, Marigman St. Barangay,
San Roque Antipolo City Rizal, Antipolo, 1870 Rizal
*Tel no: (02)8539 - 9950

sounds as mediated by ear, auditory • Computational Linguistics-

nerve, and brain. concerned with the rule-based
Phonology - Phonology is the study modeling of natural language from a
of how sounds are arranged in each computational perspective.
language as organized units of Intra Disciplinary:
speech. • Applied Linguistics- examines the
- It also looks into the specifications in structures of language and its role in
the distribution of sounds into small communication, language acquisition,
sounds in each language. second language learning, etc.
Morphology -Morphology deals with • Theoretical Linguistics- also
the forms of words, use of words and known as General Linguistics, deals
construction of words by small letters. with concrete theories presented by
-morphemes- It studies how words are scholars of language about various
formed into small meaningful units. aspects concerning linguistics.
-Morphology is divided into two further • Historical Linguistics- also called
branches: Diachronic Linguistics, is the scientific
1. Inflectional morphology study of language change over time.
2. Derivational morphology • Descriptive Linguistics- concerned
Semantics - Semantics is the study of with the description and analysis of
meaning in a language. the ways in which a language
- It focuses on studying the structure operates and is used by a given set of
of meaning of words and making a speakers of a given time.
sentence that is meaningful. • Comparative Linguistics- deals
Pragmatics - Pragmatics also deals with comparative study of different
with the meaning of language but it languages.
focuses on meaning in context rather 3. Prescriptive vs descriptive
than individual word meanings. Prescriptive Grammar - A
Syntax - Syntax is the study of phrase prescriptive grammar is a set of rules
construction, clauses and sentences about language based on how people
in a language. It deals with basic word think language should or ought be
order followed in any language. used.
MacroLinguistics - takes a broad Examples
view of linguistics phenomena, - Visit me to see the new house' as
studying language in different contexts opposed to “Come over and see the
and its development over time. new House”
Interdisciplinary: - “Whom are you going with?” As
• Sociolinguistics- generally used for opposed to “With whom are you
the study of the relationship between going?”
society and language. Descriptive Grammar - Descriptive
• Psycholinguistics- deals with the grammar "describes" how language is
study of the mental aspects of used by its speakers.
language and speech. - It argues that however a language is
• Neurolinguistics- it is dealing with being used to communicate effectively
the study of how language is is correct— because that is the basic
presented in the brain. purpose of language.
• Stylistics- deals with the study and - concerned with the use of language
interpretation of style and tones in without reference to norms or
both written and spoken language. correctness.
• Cognitive Linguistics- deals with - records how people actually use a
the study of language, mind, and language.
sociocultural experience. Examples
• Geographical Linguistics- also - I ain't going nowhere. (I am not going
called as Dialect Geography, is the anywhere.) - How are y’all doing?
study of local or regional variations of Difference between Prescriptive
a language or dialect studied as a field and Descriptive
of knowledge.
 University of Rizal System
Republic of the Philippines
H5CC+HH2, Marigman St. Barangay,
San Roque Antipolo City Rizal, Antipolo, 1870 Rizal
*Tel no: (02)8539 - 9950

- Prescriptive grammar tells you how Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

to speak and what type of language to - is part of Chomsky's acquisition
avoid - its aim is to teach people how hypothesis.
to use a language in a proper and The LAD is a system of principles that
correct way. children are born with that helps them
- Prescriptive grammar takes the learn language. - evidence of
principle that the language usage of independent building of language
native speakers is correct. Someone's first language is the
- Prescriptive grammar sticks to a set language that they learned first and
of standardized rules. speak best; used especially when
- Descriptive grammar helps you to someone speaks more than one
become more creative and expressive language.
without having fear of judgment Differences - A first language, or
because of grammar errors. native language, is acquired naturally
- Rules are natural and need not be during early childhood, forming the
learned. foundation of an individual's
- Descriptive grammar takes the communication skills and closely tied
principles that the language users can to cultural identity. Proficiency in the
vary according to varied speakers. first language encompasses both
Thus, it does not consider what is spoken and written abilities. In
correct. contrast, a second language is
- Similarities between Prescriptive and acquired later in life through formal
Descriptive Both look for patterns in instruction, exposure, or immersion,
the language that speakers use to put with proficiency levels varying. Unlike
words, phrases, and sentences the emotional and cultural significance
together to convey meaning. Both are often associated with the first
forms of grammar, and both have language, the second language may
rules that govern how language is be linked to different cultural contexts.
used. The acquisition of a second language
can be influenced by structures and
First Language vs Second patterns from the first language,
Language impacting pronunciation, grammar,
and vocabulary use.
First Language - Native Language Origins - In acquiring the first
or L1 language, which is the native
“We are designed to walk… That we language, the learning process is
are taught to walk is impossible. And considered subconscious, ongoing,
pretty much the same is true of and immersive. The child begins by
language. Nobody is taught a grasping various sounds in their
language. In fact, you can’t prevent environment, reproducing similar
the child from learning it.” - Noam sounds, and associating objects with
Chomsky. these sounds. Grammar is absorbed
more through communicative
Leonard Bloomfield (1993) defines a experiences than formal rule-learning,
native language as one learned on leading to initial speech patterns
one's mother's knee — 'the first where the child may refer to
language a human being learns to themselves in the third person, make
speak is his native language; he is a errors in gender identification, and
native speaker of this language'. mispronounce words. As exposure to
language expands, the child
First or Native Language is: progressively masters fundamental
- Natural (doesn’t require any grammar rules.
conscious effort) Theories - The nativist and
- Subconscious (acquisition) interactionist theories are widely used
- No alternative to a first language (a in the research of second language
person cannot decide his/her L1)
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acquisition. Here are the fundamental Those sentences are not yet
distinctions between these theories: grammatically correct but the use of
Nativist Theory - proposes that other elements such as lexical
language development is an innate morphemes are now used in this
biological trait in humans, asserting stage.
that the species is biologically ● Multiword Stage (3 and up) -This is
programmed with the ability to acquire likely the last stage of language
language. Noam Chomsky, a acquisition wherein a child is now able
prominent nativist, emphasizes the to communicate fully and understand
role of biological factors over quickly. In this last stage. They are
environmental influences in his theory able to create complex sentences to
of language development. incorporate their ideas. The use of
Interactionist Theory - This theory morphemes has now developed and
combines insights from sociology and are now used to create functional and
biology to elucidate the development semantical sentences essential in
of language, asserting that children communication.
acquire language driven by a desire to
communicate with their surroundings. Second Language or L2
It emphasizes the idea that language Definition - A second language is one
emerges from and is intricately tied to that is spoken in addition to the first
social interactions. language. It might be a nearby
6 Stages of Language Acquisition language, another language from the
● Pre-Linguistic Stage (infant-6 speaker's native nation, or a foreign
months) -In this stage language is not language. It is learned after the first
developed yet, babies communicate language has already been
through sounds. They use crying with established.
facial expressions to determine their Differences - The primary distinction
needs. They discover their voice tracts between a first language and a
that produce sounds through cooing. second language is that a first
● Babbling Stage (6-9 months) -This language is the language that a
stage refers to the development person learns at birth, whereas a
wherein a child learns to babble second language is a non-native
sounds. Babbles are sounds typically, language that is typically learnt later.
vowels that are produced by babies. A first language is learnt easily and
Those are syllables, not yet words. effortlessly, but a second language
Teeth begin to appear. Talking is now requires intentional effort and teaching.
possible. Furthermore, a person's first language
● Holophrastic Stage (9-18 months) - is generally the one they are most
In this stage, a child learns and familiar with and use the most, but a
speaks single words. Mostly, their second language is commonly used in
learnt words during this period are conjunction with the first.
mama and dada, focusing on their Origins - The phrase "second
interest and needs. This phase is language" originated in the study of
longer than the rest of the stages. language learning and usage. The
● Two-word stage (18-24 months) - phrase "second language" originated
This stage of language development in the research of mother tongue/first
focuses on a child’s ability to combine language acquisition, and it now refers
words such “Give me” or “cat stand”. to a language learnt by a person after
Children are now able to group words their original language, particularly if
together to communicate and create they live in a region where the new
essential meanings that are more language is widely spoken. The
understandable. distinction between first language (L1)
● Telegraphic Stage (2-3 years old) - and second language (L2) is based on
This is a much more complex stage the age of acquisition and the
for a child, they are now able to conscious effort required to acquire
construct sentences to communicate. the language. The phrase has been
 University of Rizal System
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used in many domains, including ● Early Production - The individual

linguistics, psychology, sociology, and begins to speak using short words and
education, to describe the learning sentences, but the emphasis is still on
and use of languages other than one's listening and absorbing the new
native language. language.
Trivias - Emil Cioran, a Romanian ● Speech Emergent - Speech
philosopher and author, wrote the becomes more frequent, words and
majority of his published novels in sentences are longer, but the
French, despite the fact that individual still relies heavily on context
Romanian was his mother tongue. clues and familiar topics.
Theories - The nativist, environmental, ● Beginning Fluency - Speech is fairly
and functional theories are widely fluent in social situations with minimal
used in the research of second errors.
language acquisition. Here are the ● Intermediate Fluency -
fundamental distinctions between Communicating in the second
these theories: language is fluent, especially in social
● The nativist theory, connected with language situations.
Noam Chomsky, claims that ● Advanced Fluency - The individual
individuals are born with an inbuilt communicates fluently in all contexts
language acquisition device (LAD) and can maneuver successfully in
that allows them to acquire languages. new contexts and when exposed to
According to this view, children are new academic information.
programmed to acquire language, Benefits of Learning a Second
independent of their surroundings. Language
● Environmental Theory focuses on There are tangible benefits to being
the impact of the surrounding bilingual.
environment on language ● It Stimulates Your Brain - Learning a
development. It implies that language new language undoubtedly helps your
acquisition is essentially the product of gray matter grow. Just like muscles,
direct experiences and interactions the brain gets stronger and bigger the
with the environment, such as more you put it to use.
exposure to language input and social ● It Improves Your Attention Span
interactions. Researchers suggest that learning a
● The functional theory of second new language helps the brain
language learning emphasizes maintain focus and block distractions.
language's communicative function. It This is a result of regularly switching
emphasizes the use of language for between languages.
communication and engagement, ● More Career Options to Choose
underlining the practical and social from We are living in a multicultural
elements of language acquisition and world; many companies are opening
usage. offices overseas to extend their
These are the three basic types of market and nowadays, people who
second language or foreign language are proficient in more than one
learning theories, which emphasize language are high in demand in the
the significance of intrinsic language job market
acquisition processes, the influence of ● It Boosts Your Creativity - they get
the environment, and the familiar with the culture of the place
communicative function of language in where that language is spoken.
language learning. learning a new language forces your
Six Stages in Second Language brain to put words together in creative
Acquisition ways, which stimulates your brain and
● Pre-production - This is also called boosts your creativity.
"the silent period," when the student ● Improves Your First Language
takes in the new language but does learning another language is a whole
not speak it. different deal, you become aware of
the differences in structure,
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vocabulary, grammar, idioms, and contexts broader than those in which

sentence structure between the two they should be used.
languages. 9. In acquiring both a first and second
● Build Multitasking Skills -. Their language, learners require
brain has been practicing switching understandable input and chances to
from one language to the other daily. grasp language within a meaningful
● It Slows Down Cognitive Decline - context to enhance their proficiency.
The latest study on the effect of
bilingualism in cognitive aging found DIACHRONIC VS. SYNCHRONIC
that people who spoke more than one The key difference between
language regardless of their gender, synchronic and diachronic linguistics
ethnicity, and occupation experience lies in the viewpoint used to analyze
the onset of cognitive decline four these two branches of linguistics.
years and a half later than the ones Synchronic linguistics, also known
who spoke only one. as descriptive linguistics, is the
● Improves Your Memory - The more study of language at any given point in
you challenge it, the more the brain time while diachronic linguistics is
expands, and the better it functions. the study of language through
There is actual evidence that learning different periods in history.
vocabulary boosts memory. Synchronic linguistics and diachronic
● Boost Your Self-Esteem- It breaks linguistics are two main divisions of
you out of your shell again and again linguistics. The Swiss linguist
that eventually, you’ll feel comfortable Ferdinand de Saussure introduced
in every situation regardless of these two branches of linguistics in his
whether you’re making mistakes or Course in General Linguistics (1916).
not. Overall, synchrony and diachrony
Similarities of first language and refer to a language state and to an
second language acquisition evolutionary phase of language.
1. Universal grammar plays a role in Synchronic Linguistics
both, and Universal grammar may - Synchronic linguistics, also known as
impact second language acquisition descriptive linguistics, is the study of
either on its own or by way of the language at any given point in time,
learner's first language. usually at present. However, this point
2. Both are predictable stages, and in time can also be a specific point in
particular structures are acquired in a the past. Thus, this branch of
set order. linguistics attempts to study the
3. Error in Language Acquisition and function of language without reference
Evolution of Errors. to earlier or later stages. This field
4. In both primary and secondary analyzes and describes how language
language learning, the learner relies is actually used by a group of people
on context clues, prior knowledge, and in a speech community. Thus,
interaction to grasp language involves analyzing grammar,
comprehension. classification, and arrangement of the
5. Age is an important variable features of a language.
affecting proficiency. (Critical Period Unlike diachronic linguistics, it does
hypothesis and Sensitive period) not focus on the historical
6. In both primary and secondary development of language or language
language learning, individuals can evolution. Ferdinand de Saussure
often understand more intricate introduced the concept of synchronic
language than they can generate. linguistics at the beginning of the
During the early phases of learning, twentieth century.
learners experience a silent period. Diachronic Linguistics
7. A learner's proficiency can vary - Diachronic linguistics basically refers
across situations. to the study of language through
8. Learners may overgeneralize different periods in history. Thus, it
vocabulary or rules, using them in studies the historical development of
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language through different periods of Written Language - A written language

time. This branch of linguistics is the is a system of visual symbols
diachronic linguistics. Main concerns representing spoken words, enabling
of diachronic linguistics are as follows: communication across time and
• Describing and accounting for space. It immortalizes ideas, stories,
observed changes in particular and knowledge, transcending the
languages limitations of oral traditions. By
capturing the essence of human
• Reconstructing the pre-history thought, written language is the
of languages and determining cornerstone of culture and education.
their connection, grouping them Alphabetic writing, in which, broadly,
into language families consonant and vowel sounds are
Developing general theories indicated by letters in sequence, is the
about how and why language most widespread system in use today,
and it is the means by which literacy
changes
will be disseminated, but it is not the
• Describing the history of only system, nor is it the earliest.
speech communities PLURALITY OF ENGLISH
• Studying the history of words World Englishes - The term World
Englishes refers to the differences in
Summary: the English language that emerge as it
The difference between synchronic is used in various contexts across the
and diachronic linguistics depends on world. Scholars of World Englishes
their focus of study. This is because identify the varieties of English used in
the former looks at language at a different sociolinguistic contexts,
given period of time while the latter analyzing their history, background,
looks at language through various function, and influence.
periods in history. However, both Languages develop to fulfill the needs
branches are important in order to of the societies that use them.
study a language properly. Because societies contain a diverse
range of social needs, and because
ORAL VS. WRITTEN LANGUAGE these needs can differ across cultures
Oral Language - The system by which and geographies, multiple varieties of
we employ spoken words to the English language exist. These
communicate our thoughts, feelings, include American English, British
and knowledge is known as oral English, Australian English, Canadian
language.Thus, improving oral English, Indian English, and so on.
language requires improving their While there is no single way for a new
speaking, listening, and speaking variety of English to emerge, its
comprehension—all of which are development can generally be
closely related to writing and reading described as a process of adaptation.
comprehension. According to Moats A certain group of speakers take a
(2010), oral language consists of the familiar variety of English and adapt
following at least five essential the features of that variety to suit the
elements: phonological skills, needs of their social context.
pragmatics, syntax, morphological Such variations do not occur in terms
skills, and vocabulary (also known as of word choice only. They happen also
semantics). Though there are in terms of spelling, pronunciation,
significant differences between them sentence structure, accent, and
that affect literacy instruction, all of meaning. As new linguistic
these oral language components are adaptations accumulate over time, a
essential for speaking and learning distinct variety of English eventually
through dialogue and spoken emerges. World Englishes scholars
interaction. use a range of different criteria to
recognize a new English variant as an
established World English. These
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include the sociolinguistic context of LINGUISTIC UNIVERSAL &

its use, its range of functional domains, UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR
and the ease with which new Linguistic Universal - A linguistic
speakers can become acculturated to universal is a statement that is true for
it, among other criteria. all natural languages. For example, All
Kachru’s Three Concentric Models languages have nouns and verbs, or
The inner circle refers to the All spoken languages have
countries where English is used as consonants and vowels. Research in
the primary language, such as the this area of linguistics is closely tied to
USA, Britain, Canada, New Zealand, linguistic typology, and intends to
and Australia. The outer/middle reveal information about how the
circle denotes those countries human brain processes language. The
where English usage has some field was largely pioneered by the
colonial history. This includes linguist Joseph Greenberg, who from
nations such as India, Bangladesh, a set of some thirty languages derived
Ghana, Kenya, Malaysia, Nigeria, a set of basic universals, mostly
Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri dealing with syntax.
Lanka, Tanzania, and Zambia. The 1. Terminology
expanding circle includes countries - Linguists distinguish between two
where English is spoken but where kinds of universals: absolute
it does not necessarily have a (opposite: statistical, often called
colonial history or primary/official tendencies) and implicational
language status. This includes nations (opposite non-implicational). Absolute
such as China, Japan, South Korea, universals apply to every known
Egypt, Nepal, Indonesia, Israel, Korea, language and are quite few in number;
Saudi Arabia, Taiwan, USSR, and an example would be All languages
Zimbabwe. have pronouns. An implicational
Standard English - Standard English is universal applies to languages which
the form of English widely recognised have a particular feature that is always
and accepted as 'correct'. It is often accompanied by another feature, such
used in formal situations (e.g. in an as If a language has trial grammatical
exam) and when we are being polite number, it also must have dual
(e.g. speaking to your headteacher). grammatical number, while non-
It is important to remember that there implicational universals just state the
isn't just one 'Standard English' as existence (or non-existence) of one
different English-speaking countries particular feature.
have slight variations in their standard. - Universals may also be bidirectional
Some standard English examples or unidirectional. In a bidirectional
include British English, standard universal two features each imply the
American English, and more existence of each other. For example,
Each variety of Standard English languages with postpositions usually
follows specific, regularised grammar have SOV order, and likewise SOV
rules that we learn in school. This languages usually have postpositions.
includes examples of rules such as The implication works both ways, and
the correct use of punctuation, thus the universal is bidirectional. By
spelling, forms of verbs, etc. contrast, in a unidirectional universal
Let's look a bit further into the the implication only works one way.
characteristics and conventions of Languages which place relative
standard British English, its uses, and clauses before the noun they modify
the different examples between again usually have SOV order, so
standard and non-standard English. prenominal relative clauses imply
Non-standard English - Non- SOV. On the other hand, worldwide
standard English refers to all other SOV languages show little preference
varieties of English. It often contains for prenominal relative clauses, and
slang and is used in more informal thus SOV implies little about the order
situations. of relative clauses. As the implication
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only works one way, the proposed NOSE, and MOUTH; if there is a
universal is a unidirectional one. distinct term for FOOT, there will be a
- Linguistic universals in syntax are distinct term for HAND; similarly, if
sometimes held up as evidence for there are terms for INDIVIDUAL
universal grammar (though TOES, then there are terms for
epistemological arguments are more INDIVIDUAL FINGERS. Subsequent
common). Other explanations for research has shown that most of
linguistic universals have been these features have to be considered
proposed, for example that linguistic cross-linguistic tendencies rather than
universals tend to be properties of true universals. Several languages, for
language which aid communication. If example Tidore and Kuuk Thaayorre,
a language were to lack one of these lack a general term meaning 'body'.
properties, it has been argued, it On the basis of such data it has been
would probably soon evolve into a argued that the highest level in the
language having that property. partonomy of body part terms would
2. In Phonology be the word for 'person'.
- Some linguistic universals (or Universal Grammar - A theory
tendencies) may be phonologically proposing that humans possess
based. For example, the raspberry innate faculties related to the
sound is never used phonemically acquisition of language. The
within any human language, while definition of universal grammar has
there is no known language without /a/ evolved considerably since first it was
or /ɑ/. Also, all languages have some postulated and, moreover, since the
plosives. 1940s, when it became a specific
- High pitch sounds (such as /i/, as in object of modern linguistic research. It
poquito (Spanish), kitty (English), is associated with work in generative
maomi (Mandarin)) frequently refer to grammar, and it is based on the idea
smaller beings or objects (supposed that certain aspects of syntactic
to be such since smaller creatures can structure are universal. Universal
only produce higher pitched sounds). grammar consists of a set of atomic
3. In Semantics grammatical categories and relations
- In the domain of semantics, research that are the building blocks of the
into linguistic universals has taken particular grammars of all human
place in a number of ways. Some languages, over which syntactic
linguists, starting with Leibniz, have structures and constraints on those
pursued the search for a hypothetic structures are defined. A universal
irreducible semantic core of all grammar would suggest that all
languages. A modern variant of this languages possess the same set of
approach can be found in the Natural categories and relations and that in
Semantic Metalanguage of Wierzbicka order to communicate through
and associates [2]. Other lines of language, speakers make infinite use
research suggest cross-linguistic of finite means, an idea that Wilhelm
tendencies to use body part terms von Humboldt suggested in the 1830s.
metaphorically as adpositions, or From this perspective, a grammar
tendencies to have morphologically must contain a finite system of rules
simple words for cognitively salient that generates infinitely many deep
concepts. The human body, being a and surface structures, appropriately
physiological universal, provides an related. It must also contain rules that
ideal domain for research into relate these abstract structures to
semantic and lexical universals. In a certain representations of sound and
seminal study, Cecil H. Brown (1976) meaning—representations that,
proposed a number of universals in presumably, are constituted of
the semantics of body part elements that belong to universal
terminology, including the following: in phonetics and universal semantics,
any language, there will be distinct respectively.
terms for BODY, HEAD, ARM, EYES,
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- This concept of grammatical

structure is an elaboration of
Humboldt’s ideas but harkens back to
earlier efforts. Noam Chomsky, a
leading figure in modern development
of the idea of universal grammar,
identifies precursors in the writings of
Panini, Plato, and both rationalist and
romantic philosophers, such as René
Descartes (1647), Claude Favre de
Vaugelas (1647), César Chesneau
DuMarsais (1729), Denis Diderot
(1751), James Beattie (1788), and
Humboldt (1836). Chomsky focuses in
particular on early efforts by the 17th-
century Port Royal grammarians,
whose rationalist approach to
language and language universals
was based on the idea that humans in
the “civilized world” share a common
thought structure. Moreover, he traces
the conception of linguistic structure
that marked the origins of modern
syntactic theory to Lancelot and
Arnauld’s 1660 Port Royal work,
Grammaire générale et raisonnée,
which postulated a link between the
natural order of thought and the
ordering of words.