FRIEND • BURSUCK

MyLab ™

Including Students with Special Needs

Improving Results
A proven way to help individual students achieve
the goals that educators set for their course.

Engaging Experiences
Dynamic, engaging experiences that personalize
and activate learning for each student.

An Experienced Partner
From Pearson, a long-term partner
with a true grasp of the subject,
excellent content, and an eye on the
future of education. EIGHTH EDITION

Including Students
with Special Needs
www.pearson.com
A Practical Guide for Classroom Teachers
EDITION
EIGHTH

MARILYN FRIEND
WILLIAM D. BURSUCK
 EIGHTH EDITION

Including Students
with Special Needs
A Practical Guide for Classroom Teachers

MARILYN FRIEND
The University of North Carolina at Greensboro
WILLIAM D. BURSUCK
The University of North Carolina at Greensboro

A01_FRIE4093_08_SE_FM.indd 1 13/01/18 5:27 pm

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Friend, Marilyn Penovich, author. | Bursuck, William D., author.
Title: Including students with special needs : a practical guide for
classroom teachers / Marilyn Friend, The University of North Carolina at
Greensboro, William D. Bursuck, The University of North Carolina at
Greensboro.
Description: Eighth edition. | New York, NY : Pearson, [2019] | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017055896| ISBN 9780134801674 (pbk.) | ISBN 0134801679
(pbk.)
Subjects: LCSH: Inclusive education—United States. | Mainstreaming in
Education—United States. | Special education—United States. | Children
with disabilities—Education—United States.
Classification: LCC LC1201 .F75 2019 | DDC 371.9/046—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017055896

ISBN 10: 0-13-480167-9

ISBN 13: 978-0-13-480167-4

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 TO BETH AND BRUCE
our infinitely patient and supportive spouses—we are grateful for all you do for us.

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 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

With over 40 years of experience in the field of education, MARILYN FRIEND

has been both a special education teacher and a general education teacher as well
as a teacher educator, consultant, and staff developer. She currently is professor
emerita in the Department of Specialized Education Services at The University of
North Carolina at Greensboro and works extensively with local schools, school dis-
tricts, and other education agencies to ensure that students with disabilities or other
special needs reach their potential. Her particular areas of expertise—the focus of
her research, teaching, writing, and consultation—include inclusive schooling, co-
teaching and other collaborative school practices, systems change, urban education,
and family–school partnerships.

WILLIAM D. BURSUCK began his career as a general education

teacher, and as a special education teacher and university teacher educator he
has maintained an active interest in inclusive practices. Dr. Bursuck continues
to take particular pleasure in providing classroom and future teachers with prac-
tical, research-based strategies to improve educational outcomes for students
with special needs in this age of school reform and teacher accountability. He
is a professor emeritus in the Department of Specialized Education Services at
The University of North Carolina at Greensboro.

iv

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 PREFACE

E ducation in the first two decades of the twenty-first century undoubtedly

will be remembered for the ongoing clamor for reform. From the mandates
of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), currently referred to as
the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), through those of the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) to the increasingly higher standards adopted
at the state level, relentless efforts are underway to improve the academic
outcomes of U.S. students. And like all students, those who struggle to learn
because of intellectual, physical, sensory, emotional, communication, learning
disabilities, or other special needs must be taught using research-based practices
and are expected to reach the same high academic standards as other learners.
Further, teachers, administrators, and other professionals are being held directly
accountable for the achievement of all of their students.
In many ways, the current educational climate is consonant with the beliefs
on which Including Students with Special Needs: A Practical Guide for Class-
room Teachers is based. In this eighth edition, we have continued our efforts
to integrate today’s expectations for students with our own continued strong
commitment to inclusive practices, a commitment tempered by our knowledge
and experience of the realities of day-to-day teaching. We know that teachers
cannot do the job themselves; they rely on strong and sustained administrative
support and adequate resources. We cannot guarantee that such key supports
will always be in place, but we can provide teachers with a firm grounding in
critical special education concepts, an understanding of the professionals who
support these students and the procedures followed to ensure their rights are
upheld, and a wealth of research-based strategies and interventions to foster
their success.
The textbook is divided into four main sections. The first section provides
fundamental background knowledge about the field of special education as
well as current information on how students with disabilities are served within
inclusive school environments. This is information that readers will find essen-
tial as they move from being students to teachers. The second section of the
book provides a framework for thinking about effective instructional practices
for students who struggle to learn. It provides a foundation for the remain-
der of the book. The third section introduces readers to students with spe-
cific disabilities and other special needs. Although each student is unique, this
material provides readers with examples of students they may teach and sum-
maries of their most typical characteristics. The material in the fourth section
of the text represents the heart of any course on inclusive practices: instruc-
tional approaches that emphasize teaching students effectively in the academic,
social, and behavior domains. Our emphasis is on reality-based techniques that
can be implemented for many students with a range of special needs and that
are consistent with today’s instructional expectations and the knowledge base
on effective practices.
We have brought to this project our own diversity: Marilyn with expertise
in elementary and secondary education, especially in urban settings, and in col-
laboration, inclusive practices, and co-teaching; Bill with expertise in secondary
education, literacy, instructional strategies, assessment, and grading practices.
Our collective perspective on educating students with disabilities and other spe-
cial needs is reflected in the organization and substance of the book; our ultimate
goal is for general educators to be well prepared to effectively teach all of their
students. Our approach to preparing this book is based on our research; our
analysis of the scholarly literature on instruction, teacher preparation, and pro-
fessional development; and our experiences teaching undergraduate and gradu-
ate educators. Our understanding, though, ultimately is grounded in our many
v

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 vi PREFACE

observations of and conversations with general education and special education

teachers who are diligently working, often in difficult circumstances, to make a
difference in the lives of their students. We truly hope that we have managed to
find the right blend of reader-friendly and research-based information. Above
all, we hope this eighth edition is responsive to the many instructional dilemmas
confronting today’s teachers.

New to the Eighth Edition

Each time we revise Including Students with Special Needs, we carefully con-
sider feedback from reviewers and users who contact us to offer their perspec-
tives, and we also analyze the current trends, issues, policies, and practices
influencing schools. The following are several of the key revisions made for
each chapter in the eighth edition:
• CHAPTER 1 introduces in a straightforward way the complex concepts that
characterize special education. In addition, readers are provided with an
overview of several of the most critical issues that are shaping education for
students with disabilities and other special needs as well as a discussion of
inclusive practices as they occur in this second decade of the twenty-first
century. This chapter also overviews the most recent relevant education
legislation, that is, the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) and the Individu-
als with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), as well as the landmark spe-
cial education 2017 Supreme Court decision Endrew F. v. Douglas County
School District.
• CHAPTER 2 reflects the recent shift in the field of education from response
to intervention (RtI) as an alternative to traditional approaches for deter-
mining whether students have learning disabilities to the broader preven-
tive approach for both learning and behavior concerns represented by
multi-tiered systems of support (MTSS). The chapter also outlines details
that general education teachers must understand about parents’ rights in
making decisions regarding their children who may have disabilities. This
chapter’s discussion of the professionals in special education emphasizes
those with whom elementary and secondary teachers most typically work.
• CHAPTER 3 explores the well-established importance of professional col-
laboration in the delivery of special education and other school services,
including those related to RtI and MTSS. It directly addresses the complex-
ity of collaboration when disagreements occur, especially those between
school professionals and parents. Updated information is provided on co-
teaching, teaming, and consultation, with attention also given to teacher–
paraprofessional partnerships.
• CHAPTER 4 provides the latest information on the use of universal screening
and progress-monitoring assessments in MTSS as well as high-stakes testing,
including the testing requirements of the ESSA of 2015. The chapter also
has a new Technology Notes feature on the use of computer-based stan-
dardized testing with students with disabilities.
• CHAPTER 5’s already comprehensive coverage of foundational teaching
practices has been updated and expanded by providing more in-depth,
nuanced information on the use of research-based practices. The update
also includes expanded coverage of computer-assisted instruction.
• CHAPTER 6 includes updated details about the characteristics and needs of
students with autism spectrum disorders and other low-incidence disabili-
ties, including physical, health, and sensory disorders. Strong emphasis is
placed on the use of technology to meet the needs of students with these
special needs, but attention also is paid to practical ideas for supporting
these students in general education classrooms.

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 PREFACE vii

• CHAPTER 7 includes important updates on dyslexia research, the use of

assistive technology in reading, and controversial therapies in special edu-
cation. The latest information on practices for identifying students with
learning disabilities using MTSS has also been added.
• CHAPTER 8 is intended to alert educators to the many students they will teach
who have special needs, but not necessarily disabilities. It includes updated
data related to these students (e.g., students who live in poverty, students who
are abused or neglected) and also focuses on students with attention deficit–
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and the best ways to accommodate them. In
addition, this chapter addresses students who have special gifts and talents,
and it examines the role of RtI and MTSS in preventing the need for special
education for some at-risk students.
• CHAPTER 9’s practical, research-based coverage of ways to adjust instruction
for students with special needs now includes thoroughly updated sections
on Tier 2 and 3 instructions in MTSS/RtI, expanded coverage of vocabulary
instruction, and a new Technology Notes feature on virtual manipulatives.
• The already extensive focus in CHAPTER 10 on strategies for fostering stu-
dent independence has been expanded by adding new strategies in the
areas of reading and writing as well as a thoroughly updated Technology
Notes feature on web-based programs to improve writing.
• In addition to the already strong, now updated section on classroom testing
accommodations, CHAPTER 11 includes the most current information avail-
able on grading strategies that benefit all students, including those with
special needs. The chapter has also added a Technology Notes feature on
the use of electronic portfolios.
• CHAPTER 12 covers a dimension of education that can truly shape stu-
dents’ lives and determine educator effectiveness: strategies for addressing
students’ social, emotional, and behavioral needs. Emphasis is placed on
preventing behavior problems, addressing serious problems with behav-
ior intervention plans, and fostering positive social interactions among stu-
dents with disabilities and their classmates.

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 viii PREFACE

RESOURCES AND TOOLS

PROFESSIONAL EDGE features describe conceptual material, cutting-

edge trends, and contemporary issues relevant to today’s teachers.
Included are new and sometimes controversial topics that experts in
the field are talking about right now.

TECHNOLOGY NOTES features illustrate the use of technology to support

students with disabilities in inclusive schools. For example, Chapter 3
explores options for electronic collaboration. In Chapter 10, research
on the effectiveness of the latest computer software for improving the
writing skills of students with disabilities provides teachers with the
most current information.

WORKING TOGETHER features present cases in which professional fam-

ily collaboration is needed and provide tips for optimizing collabora-
tive efforts. For example, Chapter 5 presents two teachers learning to
work together to accommodate a student in their shared class. Chapter
12 includes an example of what may occur when parents and profes-
sionals disagree.

MARGINAL ANNOTATIONS are designed to extend readers’ thinking and provide additional
information on cultural and linguistic diversity, information related to the topic at hand, and
useful websites. They provide readers access to the most current research related to teaching
students with disabilities.

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 PREFACE ix

INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICE

INSTRUCTIONAL EDGE features provide numerous research–based

practices for teachers to use. For example, Chapter 8 provides strate-
gies for teaching students with ADHD and, in Chapter 10, a model high
school RtI program is discussed.

CASE IN PRACTICE features clarify key principles by providing brief

case studies related to chapter concepts and teaching scripts as ­models.
Chapter 8, for example, provides a case about meeting the needs of
twice-exceptional students.

Wrapping It Up 421

strategy for some students than are more traditional classroom rewards. Students
can transfer self-management strategies to other classrooms and teachers and
even into adult life. By collaborating with special education teachers and other
school professionals, you can design a CBM program that could have a long-
lasting positive student impact.
CHAPTER-OPENING VIGNETTES open each chapter, describing the
Final Thoughts About Including experiences of elementary, middle school, and high school students as
Students with Special Needs
and the INCLUDE Strategy
With your understanding of strategies and approaches for responding to student
they relate to the topics discussed in each chapter. These individuals’
experiences are referenced at key points in the chapter as well. The
behavior, you now have the final ingredient for making your classroom a place
where students with special needs want to come and want to learn. You know
about the foundations of special education and the procedures followed for iden-
tifying students with disabilities. You have a strategy—INCLUDE—for guiding

FPOvignettes can form the basis for applying information and strategies
your decisions about student needs and interventions that can be embedded
within your curriculum and lesson plans. You know about the importance of Video Example from
having the support and assistance of colleagues and parents, whether for plan-
ning an instructional program for a student, teaching with you in the classroom,
or problem solving when concerns arise. You also understand some of the most
important characteristics and needs of students with disabilities and other special
needs. You have learned many strategies for helping students succeed in your
classroom, including creating a positive instructional environment, assessing stu- MyLab Education
from the chapter, and they can be a launching point for discussions
dent needs, implementing instructional interventions, helping students be inde-
pendent, and evaluating their learning. And you have learned several approaches
for responding to students’ discipline, behavior, and social needs.
If you keep that in mind and use the knowledge you have gained, you will
of issues influencing the field, including inclusive practices, collabora-
Video Example 12.6: People with
Disabilities Can Succeed
What is most important is the
statement that appeared in the first

tion, and response to intervention. They are revisited at the ends of the
chapter of this text: Students with
positively touch the lives and learning of all the students who call you teacher. disabilities and other special needs
You will help all your students reach their potential so that they can become pro- are children and youth first, and you
ductive individuals who contribute to their communities, living happy, construc- can be the teacher that makes all the
tive, and fulfilled lives. And those former students will remember that you were difference in their lives. (https://www

chapters in the Back to the Cases features.

.youtube.com/watch?v=v4Nq-bLkvP8).
that special teacher who made all the difference.

MyLab Education Self-Check 12.5

BACK TO THE CASES features conclude each chapter, offering

WRAPPING IT UP
Back to the Cases
readers the opportunity to visit MyLab Education to apply what
Now that you have read about responding to student
behavior, look back at the teacher stories at the beginning
of the chapter. Then go to MyLab Education to apply the
MyLab Education Application Exercise 12.2: Case Study 12.2

J.R. is a seventh-grade student with an emotional dis-

ability who is transitioning from a self-contained special
they have learned in the chapter to these opening cases and
knowledge you’ve gained in this chapter to each case.

receive immediate feedback. In some instances, questions are

education class to a blend of services in general educa-
MyLab Education Application Exercise 12.1: Case Study 12.1 tion and a resource class setting. Mr. George, his social
studies teacher, is concerned about two problems that
PAUL is a ninth-grade student struggling in many ways.
are having a negative impact on J.R.’s learning.
He currently is eligible for special education as other
health impaired (OHI) because of significant attention
deficit–hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). asked that require readers to analyze student characteristics and
discuss how their success could be fostered. In others, situa-
32 CHAPTER 1 The Foundation for Educating Students with Special Needs
tions educators are likely to encounter are outlined, and readers
Summary
LO 1.1 Special education refers to the specially designed
instruction, related services, and supplementary
whenever possible, high academic expectations
and accountability for ensuring all students meet
are asked how they would respond. In yet others, readers are
aids and services received by the millions of stu-
dents in the United States who have disabilities.
those expectations, implementation of evidence-
based practices, and the concept of inclusiveness. asked to integrate learning across chapters to consider educa-
The requirements for special education services LO 1. ederal law identifies 13 categories of disability that
are specified in federal special education law, the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, and
may entitle students to special education services:
learning disability, speech or language impair-
tional strategies for the highlighted students. This feature pro-
its regulations. ment, intellectual disability, emotional disturbance,
LO 1.2 Current special education practices have been
influenced by a number of critical factors, includ-
autism, hearing impairment, visual impairment,
deaf-blindness, orthopedic impairment, traumatic
vides instructors with an effective summative activity for each
ing the context in which it began early in the brain injury, other health impairment, multiple dis-
twentieth century, parent advocacy, the civil
rights movement that began in the mid-twentieth
abilities, and developmental delay. However, many
students have special needs not addressed through
chapter—one that can be completed by individual students or
as a collaborative effort.
century, significant court cases, and current civil special education, including those who are gifted or
rights and education legislation. talented; who have ADHD; who are at risk, includ-
LO 1.3 Contemporary special education practice is char- ing English learners and struggling learners; and
acterized by several themes that affect nearly students whose life situations comprise high risk
all general education teachers. These include for school failure. Students with disabilities also
prevention of the need for special education may have these additional special needs.

APPLICATIONS IN TEACHING PRACTICE cases at the end of each chap-

APPLICATIONS IN TEACHING PRACTICE ter are designed to encourage students to apply the chapter contents
Understanding Contemporary Special Education
It is a new school year—your first as a teacher in the often change suddenly: Although he sometimes fol-
to real-life classroom situations.
Danville School District. You are excited about your new lows directions, at other times he refuses to work,
job but worried about following the district curriculum and he sometimes loses his temper and throws a
and making sure your students succeed on high-stakes book or crumples a paper. He frequently is absent
tests. Then you learn that you will be responsible for the from school.
following students, and you find that you need all the
skills for reaching diverse groups of students that you QUESTIONS
learned in your professional preparation program: 1. What are the possible strengths that Cassie, Ramon,
• Cassie is a bright student who has a visual impair- and Tory might bring to your classroom? How can
ment. To read, she uses a computer that greatly you emphasize these strengths instead of their diffi-
magnifies materials. She also needs to work in culties? What is the rationale for assigning these stu-
bright light, and she gets fatigued from the effort dents to a general education classroom like yours?
required to use what little vision she has. If a How do the provisions of IDEA and ESEA/ESSA
teacher points at the whiteboard and says, “Every- affect these students’ educational rights and respon-
one, look at this . . . ,” Cassie will not know what sibilities? What are appropriate goals that you as a
the teacher is referring to; the information must be teacher should have as you begin to instruct them?
stated out loud for her to follow the instruction. Discuss with your classmates how Cassie, Ramon,
• Ramon is identified as having a learning disabil- and Tory’s special needs might be demonstrated
ity. His reading ability is significantly below grade in an elementary school, middle school, or high
level. He also seems disorganized. He often for- school classroom.
gets to bring materials and assignments to school, 2. What are some of the benefits and opportunities of
and he frequently asks for help immediately after educating these students in your classroom? What
directions for an assignment have been given and positive outcomes should you expect? How can you
without trying on his own to follow them. ensure these positive outcomes?
A01_FRIE4093_08_SE_FM.indd 9
• Tory lives in a foster home. He was removed from 3. What are some of the risks and concerns related to
13/01/18 5:28 pm
 x PREFACE

AIDS TO UNDERSTANDING

MyLab Education
One of the most visible changes in the new edition, and one of the most signifi-
cant, is the expansion of the digital learning and assessment resources embed-
ded in the etext through the inclusion of MyLab Education in the work. MyLab
Education is an online homework, tutorial, and assessment program designed
to work with the text to engage learners and to improve learning. Within its
structured environment, learners see key concepts demonstrated through real
classroom video footage, are given opportunities to practice what they learn,
and can test their understanding and receive feedback to guide their learn-
ing and to ensure their mastery of key learning outcomes. Designed to bring
learners more directly into the worlds of students with special needs and the
educators who work with them, the online resources in MyLab Education with
the Enhanced Etext include:

Video Examples
In all chapters, embedded videos provide illustrations of special education prin-
ciples or concepts in action. These video examples show students, teachers, and
families working in classrooms and/or providing their perspectives about real
life situations.

Self-Checks
In each chapter, self-check quizzes help assess how well learners have mastered
the content. The self-checks are made up of self-grading multiple-choice items
that not only provide feedback on whether questions are answered correctly or
incorrectly, but also provide rationales for both correct and incorrect answers.

Application Exercises
These scaffolded analysis exercises are built around the scenarios that open
each chapter, describing the experiences of elementary, middle school, and high
school students as they relate to the topics discussed in each chapter. In the Back
to the Cases feature at the end of each chapter, readers are challenged to apply
what they have learned to the students they met at the beginning of the chapter.
The questions in these exercises are usually constructed-response. Once learners
provide their own answers to the questions, they receive feedback in the form of
model answers written by experts.

Video Analysis Tool

The Video Analysis Tool is also available in the left-hand navigation bar of MyLab
Education. This tool uses video case-based exercises to help students build their
skills in analyzing teaching. Exercises provide classroom videos and rubrics to
scaffold analysis. Timestamp and commenting tools allow users to easily annotate
the video and connect their observations to concepts they learned in the text.

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 PREFACE xi

Support Materials for Instructors

The following resources are available for instructors to download on www
.pearsonhighered.com/educators. Instructors enter the author or title of this
book, select this particular edition of the book, and then click on the “Resources”
tab to log in and download textbook supplements.

Instructor’s Resource Manual (0-13-475414-x)

The Instructor’s Resource Manual provides a multitude of activities and ideas to
help instructors teach their courses, whether traditional or online. Each chapter
provides a teaching outline, learning activities, and handouts.

Test Bank (0-13-475416-6)

The Test Bank provides hundreds of test items, with answer keys, organized by
chapter and ready for use in creating tests based on the associated textbook material.

PowerPointTM Slides (0-13-480173-3)

The PowerPointTM slides include key concept summarizations, diagrams, and
other graphic aids to enhance learning. They are designed to help students
understand, organize, and remember core concepts and theories.

TestGen (0-13-475412-3)
TestGen is a powerful test generator that instructors install on a computer and
use in conjunction with the TestGen test bank file for the text. Assessments,
including equations, graphs, and scientific notation, may be created for both
print and online testing.
TestGen is available exclusively from Pearson Education publishers. Instruc-
tors install TestGen on a personal computer (Windows or Macintosh) and create
tests for classroom testing and for other specialized delivery options, such as over
a local area network or on the web. A test bank, which is also called a Test Item
File (TIF), typically contains a large set of test items, organized by chapter and
ready for use in creating a test, based on the associated textbook material.
The tests can be downloaded in the following formats:
TestGen Testbank file—PC
TestGen Testbank file—MAC
TestGen Testbank—Blackboard 9 TIF
TestGen Testbank—Blackboard CE/Vista (WebCT) TIF
Angel Test Bank (zip)
D2L Test Bank (zip)
Moodle Test Bank
Sakai Test Bank (zip)

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 xii PREFACE

Acknowledgments
Many individuals helped us during the preparation of the eighth edition of
Including Students with Special Needs, and without their assistance and encour-
agement the project undoubtedly would have stalled. First and most important,
we express our gratitude to our families. They have listened to us worry about
how to respond to reviewer comments and suggestions, meet the deadlines that
sometimes seemed impossibly near, analyze aloud whether particular video clips
accurately represented the concept at hand, and fret about what material to add
or keep in the book and what material had to be dropped. They helped us sort
through the conundrums, offered suggestions with the perspective of outsiders
who deeply cared, and tolerated our need to hide in our offices as we wrote and
rewrote. We cannot possibly say thank you in enough ways for their support.
We also thank the individuals who helped us with all the innumerable
details of revising a textbook. Tammy Baron from Western Carolina Univer-
sity was instrumental in developing the Back to the Cases and MyLab activi-
ties. Tammy also assisted us in finding just the right videos to help bring our
text to life, and she made suggestions and corrections that helped improve our
final product. Sonia Martin, an invaluable colleague at The University of North
Carolina at Greensboro, helped with the myriad formatting tasks that accompany
textbook revision. We especially thank her for lending a sympathetic ear and for
her inimitable sense of humor. Courtney Barron’s contribution likewise is greatly
appreciated: She created the new icon for the INCLUDE process that is a center-
piece concept for Including Students with Special Needs.
The professionals at Pearson also have supported this effort with both words
and actions. Director and Publisher Kevin Davis has steered this eighth edi-
tion through the many steps of its creation, offering guidance and insights with
encouragement, clarification, and patience. Developmental Editor Alicia Reilly
was, as always, diligent in her efforts to help us keep the book clear, responsive
to the needs of the field, and on target with the many components of the book,
from the main manuscript to the features to the videos—and she demonstrated
once again that nagging about deadlines and tasks still awaiting attention can be
accomplished in a way that is neither overly intrusive nor offensive. Alicia also
helped us navigate the increasingly complex waters encountered in seeking per-
missions for reproduced material. Thanks so much, Alicia.
Special thanks go to the reviewers for this edition: Glennda McKeithan—
North Carolina State University; Genevieve Hay—College of Charleston; and Den-
nis Attick—Clayton State University. We were impressed with their meticulous
approach to reviewing the manuscript and their perceptive suggestions. We tried
to incorporate as many of their recommendations as we could, and they defi-
nitely contributed to the development of a better textbook.
Finally, we continue to be grateful to all of our university colleagues, stu-
dents, and professionals in schools who influence our thinking about educating
students with special needs in general education settings. Their questions about
best practices, their challenges to our thinking, and their ideas for better com-
municating our message have been invaluable.

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 BRIEF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 The Foundation for Educating Students

with Special Needs 2

CHAPTER 2 Special Education Procedures and Services 34

CHAPTER 3 Building Partnerships Through Collaboration 70

CHAPTER 4 Assessing Student Needs 106

CHAPTER 5 Planning Instruction by Analyzing Classroom and Student

Needs 136

CHAPTER 6 Students with Low-Incidence Disabilities 178

CHAPTER 7 Students with High-Incidence Disabilities 212

CHAPTER 8 Students with Special Needs Other Than Disabilities 242

CHAPTER 9 Adjusting Instruction 280

CHAPTER 10 Strategies for Independent Learning 324

CHAPTER 11 Evaluating Student Learning 358

CHAPTER 12 Responding to Student Behavior 386

Glossary 425

References 431

Name Index 473

Subject Index 481

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 CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 How Do You Decide Whether a Student Need Might

Be a Disability? 44
The Foundation for Educating Analyze Unmet Needs 44
Students with Special Needs 2 Communicate Your Observations and Try Your Own
Interventions 46
LEARNING OUTCOMES 2 How Do Students Obtain Special
What Is Special Education? 4 Services? 47
Special Education Components 4 Initial Consideration of Student Problems 48

Federal Special Education Law 6 The Special Education Referral and Assessment
Process 53
What Influences Have Shaped Special
Education? 8 Decision Making for Special Services 55

The Context for the Development of Special Monitoring Special Education Services 56
Education 9 What Is an Individualized Education
Parent Advocacy 9 Program? 58
The Civil Rights Movement 10 Required Components of an IEP 58

Precedent-Setting Court Cases 10 The Value of IEPs 61

Current Civil Rights Legislation 11 What Services Do Students with Disabilities

Receive? 62
Current General Education Legislation 12
Special Education and Other Services 62
What Are the Key Themes of Contemporary
Special Education Practice? 13 Student Placement and Educational
Environments 63
Prevention of the Need for Special Education 14
WRAPPING IT UP 66
High Expectations and Accountability 16
Back to the Cases 66
Evidence-Based Practice 17
Summary 67
Inclusiveness 18
APPLICATIONS IN TEACHING PRACTICE A Visit to an MDT
Who Receives Special Education and Other
Meeting 67
Special Services? 22
Categories of Disability in Federal Law 22
Categories versus Understanding Student Needs 28 CHAPTER 3
Other Students with Special Needs 28
Building Partnerships Through
WRAPPING IT UP 31
Back to the Cases 31
Collaboration 70
Summary 32
LEARNING OUTCOMES 70
APPLICATIONS IN TEACHING PRACTICE Understanding
What Are the Basics of Collaboration? 73
Contemporary Special Education 32
Characteristics of Collaboration 73
Prerequisites for Collaboration 76
CHAPTER 2 What Applications of Collaboration Foster
Inclusion? 78
Special Education Procedures Shared Problem Solving 79
and Services 34 Co-Teaching 83
Working on a Team 87
LEARNING OUTCOMES 34
Consultation 88
Who Are the Professionals in Special Education? 36
The Complexity of Professional
General Education Teachers 37 Collaboration 91
Special Education Teachers 37 How Can You Work Effectively with Parents? 92
Related Service Providers and Other Specialists 39 Understanding the Perspective of Family
Parents and Students 43 Members 93

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 xvi CONTENTS

Parents’ Reactions to Their Child’s Disability 93 CHAPTER 5

Collaborating with Parents 96
How Can You Work Effectively with
Planning Instruction by
Paraprofessionals? 99 Analyzing Classroom and
Understanding Your Working Relationship with Student Needs 136
Paraprofessionals 100
Collaborating with Paraprofessionals 101 LEARNING OUTCOMES 136
The Complexity of Working with How Can the INCLUDE Strategy Help You Make
Paraprofessionals 102 Instructional Adjustments for Students with Special
WRAPPING IT UP 103 Needs? 138
Back to the Cases 103 Step 1: Identify Classroom Demands 140
Summary 104 Step 2: Note Student Learning Strengths
APPLICATIONS IN TEACHING PRACTICE Collaboration in the and Needs 143
Washington School District 104 Step 3: Check for Potential Paths to Student
Success 144
Step 4: Look for Potential Problem Areas 145

CHAPTER 4 Step 5: Use Information to Brainstorm Ways to Adjust

Instruction 145
Assessing Student Needs 106 Step 6: Decide Which Adjustments to Make 147
Step 7: Evaluate Student Progress 149
LEARNING OUTCOMES 106
How Is an Inclusive Classroom
How Do Your Student Assessments Contribute Managed? 151
to Special Education Decisions? 108
Physical Organization 152
Screening 108
Routines for Classroom Business 153
Diagnosis 109
Classroom Climate 153
Program Placement 109
Behavior Management 154
Curriculum Placement 111
Use of Time 155
Instructional Evaluation 111
How Can You Group All Your Students for
Program Evaluation 112 Instruction in Inclusive Classrooms? 158
How Are Standardized Achievement Tests and Whole-Class or Large-Group Instruction 158
Psychological Tests Used in Decision Making
Small-Group Instruction 159
for Students with Special Needs? 112
One-to-One Instruction 160
High-Stakes Achievement Tests 112
How Can You Evaluate Instructional Materials
Standardized Achievement Tests 114
for Inclusive Classrooms? 161
Psychological Tests 115
Alignment of Materials to Learning Outcomes 161
How Can I Provide Accommodations and
Textbooks 162
Modifications for Students with Disabilities on
Standardized Tests? 116 Manipulatives and Models 166

Testing Accommodations 117 Technology 168

Alternate Assessments 117 How Can You Analyze Instructional Methods

in Relation to Student Needs? 170
What Are Curriculum-Based Assessments
and How Can I Use Them to Make Special Elements of Direct Instruction 170
Education Decisions? 120 Indirect Methods of Instruction 172
Probes of Basic Academic Skills 120 Scaffolding 172
Curriculum-Based Assessments in Content Areas 125 Independent Student Practice 174
Using Curriculum-Based Probes to Make Special Education Evaluation of Student Performance 176
Decisions 127 WRAPPING IT UP 176
WRAPPING IT UP 133 Back to the Cases 176
Back to the Cases 133 Summary 177
Summary 134 APPLICATIONS IN TEACHING PRACTICE Planning
APPLICATIONS IN TEACHING PRACTICE Collecting and Using Adjustments in the Instructional
Assessment Information 135 Environment 177

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 CONTENTS xvii

CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 7
Students with Low-Incidence Students with High-Incidence
Disabilities 178 Disabilities 212
LEARNING OUTCOMES 178 LEARNING OUTCOMES 212
What Are Low-Incidence Disabilities? 182 What Are High-Incidence Disabilities? 214
What Are the Characteristics and Instructional What Instructional Adjustments Can You Make for
Needs of Students with Autism Spectrum Students with Communication Disorders? 216
Disorders? 183 Understanding Speech Problems 216
Characteristics of Students with Autism Spectrum Understanding Language Problems 216
Disorders 184
Classroom Adjustments for Students
Instructional Supports for Students with Autism with Communication Disorders 218
Spectrum Disorders 185
Who Are Students with Learning and Behavioral
What Are the Characteristics and Instructional Disabilities and What Are Their Academic Needs? 220
Needs of Students with Moderate, Severe, or
Reading Skills 222
Multiple Disabilities? 189
Written Language Skills 223
Characteristics of Students with Moderate to Severe
Intellectual Disabilities 189 Math Skills 226

Instructional Supports for Students with Moderate Learning Skills 228

to Severe Intellectual Disabilities 191 Learning Styles 230
Students with Multiple Disabilities 193 What Are the Social and Emotional Needs
Deaf-Blindness 193 of Students with Learning and Behavioral
Disabilities? 232
What Are the Characteristics of and Instructional
Needs of Students with Sensory Impairments? 195 Interpersonal Skills 233

Students with Visual Impairments 196 Personal and Psychological Adjustment 233

Characteristics of Students with Visual What Instructional Adjustments Can You

Impairments 196 Make for Students with Learning and Behavioral
Disabilities? 234
Instructional Supports for Students with
Visual Impairments 196 Addressing Academic Needs 235

Students with Hearing Loss 198 Addressing Social and Emotional Needs 237

Characteristics of Students Who Are Deaf or WRAPPING IT UP 240

Hard of Hearing 199 Back to the Cases 240
Instructional Supports for Students Who Are Deaf Summary 240
or Hard of Hearing 200 APPLICATIONS IN TEACHING PRACTICE Using the
What Are the Characteristics of and Instructional INCLUDE Strategy with Students with High-Incidence
Needs of Students with Physical, Medical, or Health Disabilities 240
Disabilities? 203
Orthopedic Impairments 203
Instructional Supports for Students with Orthopedic CHAPTER 8
Impairments 204
Other Health Impairments 204 Students with Special Needs Other
Instructional Supports for Students with Health Than Disabilities 242
Impairments 206
Traumatic Brain Injury 207 LEARNING OUTCOMES 242
Instructional Supports for Students with What Are the Characteristics and Instructional
Traumatic Brain Injury 209 Needs of Students Protected by Section 504? 245
WRAPPING IT UP 210 Understanding Section 504 245
Back to the Cases 210 Students Eligible for Services under Section 504 246
Summary 210 How Can You Accommodate Students with Attention
APPLICATIONS IN TEACHING PRACTICE Planning Deficit–Hyperactivity Disorder? 249
for Students with Low-Incidence Characteristics and Needs of Students with Attention
Disabilities 211 Deficit–Hyperactivity Disorder 250

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 xviii CONTENTS

Interventions for Students with Attention Deficit– How Can You Involve Parents in Teaching Their
Hyperactivity Disorder 252 Children? 318
Families of Children with Attention Deficit–Hyperactivity How Can You Make Instructional Modifications
Disorder 256 for Students with Moderate to Severe Intellectual
What Are the Characteristics and Instructional Disabilities? 319
Needs of Students Who Are Gifted and WRAPPING IT UP 321
Talented? 258 Back to the Cases 321
Characteristics and Needs of Students Who Are Gifted Summary 322
and Talented 259
APPLICATIONS IN TEACHING PRACTICE Developing a
Interventions for Students Who Are Gifted and Repertoire of Instructional Adjustments 322
Talented 260
What Are the Characteristics and Instructional
Needs of Students from Culturally Diverse
Backgrounds? 263 CHAPTER 10
Diversity and Special Education 264 Strategies for Independent
Cultural Proficiency 265
Learning 324
Families and Diversity 267
Multicultural and Bilingual Education 269 LEARNING OUTCOMES 324
What Are the Characteristics and Instructional How Can You Encourage Student
Needs of Students Who Are at Risk? 270 Self-Awareness, Self-Advocacy, and
Characteristics and Needs of Students at Risk 270 Self-Determination? 327
Interventions for Students at Risk 275 How Can You Effectively Teach
WRAPPING IT UP 277 Independent Learning Strategies
in Class? 328
Back to the Cases 277
Assess Current Strategy Use 330
Summary 277
Clarify Expectations 332
APPLICATIONS IN TEACHING PRACTICE Diversity in a High
School Class 278 Demonstrate Strategy Use 332
Encourage Students to Memorize
Strategy Steps 333
CHAPTER 9 Provide Guided and Independent
Practice 334
Adjusting Instruction 280 Administer Posttests 335
What Are Some Examples of Successful
LEARNING OUTCOMES 280
Learning Strategies? 335
How Can You Make Instructional Adjustments
Word Identification and Reading Fluency
for Students with Special Needs in Basic Skills? 284
Strategies 335
Teaching Preskills 284
Vocabulary Strategies 337
Selecting and Sequencing Examples 286
Reading Comprehension Strategies 337
Deciding the Rate of Introduction of New Skills 288
Listening and Note-Taking Strategies 342
Providing Direct Instruction and Opportunities for
Writing Strategies 344
Practice and Review 289
Strategies for Problem Solving in Math 348
How Can You Make Instructional Adjustments for
Students with Special Needs When Teaching Strategies for Managing Time and Resources 352
Subject-Area Content? 296 How Can Students Learn to Use Strategies
Activating Background Knowledge 296 Independently? 354
Organizing Content 300 Self-Instruction 354

Teaching Terms and Concepts 305 Self-Monitoring 354

Communicating Clearly 310 Self-Questioning 355

What Adjustments Can You Make for Students WRAPPING IT UP 356

to Help Them Succeed in Independent Back to the Cases 356
Practice? 315 Summary 356
Adjusting Seatwork Assignments 316 APPLICATIONS IN TEACHING PRACTICE Designing Strategies
Adjusting Homework Assignments 316 for Independence 357

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 CONTENTS xix

CHAPTER 11 What Are Positive Behavior Strategies for Responding to

Minor Individual Behaviors? 398
Evaluating Student Learning 358 Use Minimum Interventions 399
Manage Students’ Surface Behaviors 400
LEARNING OUTCOMES 358
How Can Functional Behavior Assessment and Behavior
How Can Adjustments Be Made for Students Intervention Plans Help You Respond to Serious
with Special Needs When Giving Classroom Individual Behaviors? 401
Tests? 360
Understanding the Rationale for Functional Behavior
Adjustments Before the Test 360 Assessment 402
Adjustments During the Test 364 Verifying the Seriousness of the Problem 404
Adjustments After the Test 367 Defining the Problem Behavior 404
How Can Adjustments in Report-Card Grading Collecting Data to Better Understand the Behavior 407
Be Made for Students with Special Needs? 369
Analyzing the Data and Forming Hypotheses 409
Grading Practices That Benefit All Students 371
Developing a Behavior Intervention Plan 409
Using Individualized Grading with Students with
Implementing the Plan 410
Disabilities 375
Monitoring the Plan’s Effectiveness 410
Legalities of Individualized Grading 377
How Do Behavior Intervention Plans (BIPS) Address
How Can Performance-Based Assessment Benefit
Serious Individual Behaviors? 411
Students with Special Needs? 378
Increasing Desirable Behaviors 411
How Can Portfolio Assessment Benefit Students
with Special Needs? 381 Decreasing Undesirable Behaviors 414

WRAPPING IT UP 384 Using Behavior Contracts 417

Back to the Cases 384 How Can You Help Students Manage Their Own
Behavior? 419
Summary 385
Cognitive Behavior Management Strategies 419
APPLICATIONS IN TEACHING PRACTICE Making Adjustments
When Evaluating Students with Special Needs 385 Teaching Cognitive Behavior Management Strategies 420
Final Thoughts About Including Students with Special
Needs and the INCLUDE Strategy 421
CHAPTER 12 WRAPPING IT UP 421

Responding to Student Behavior 386 Back to the Cases 421

Summary 422

LEARNING OUTCOMES 386 APPLICATIONS IN TEACHING PRACTICE Developing Strategies

for Responding to Individual Student Behavior 422
How Can You Use Positive Behavior Supports to Prevent
Discipline Problems? 391
Instructional Environments Conducive to Learning 391 Glossary 425
Schoolwide Strategies 393 References 431
How Can You Promote Positive Group Behavior? 393 Name Index 473
Implement Peer-Mediated Instruction 394 Subject Index 481
Use Group Contingencies 398

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 FEATURES AT A GLANCE

Professional Edge Instructional Edge

CHAPTER 1 • Characteristics of Inclusive Schools, 19 Understanding Multi-Tiered Systems
The Foundation for Educating Students • Promoting Cultural Competence: A Self- of Support (MTSS), 15
with Special Needs Assessment, 30

CHAPTER 2 • Working with Paraprofessionals, 42 RtI and Intensity, 50

Special Education Procedures and • Self-Determination for Students with
Services Disabilities, 43
• Sample IEP Goals and Objectives, 59

CHAPTER 3 • Who Is Responsible for What?, 74 Co-Teaching Instructional Dilemmas, 92

Building Partnerships Through • Barriers to Effective Communication, 77
Collaboration • Professional Interactions that Extend
Beyond School, 89
• Collaborating with Families from Asian/
Pacific Islander Cultures, 95

CHAPTER 4 • Accommodations for Students with • Using Universal Screening in RtI/MTSS

Assessing Student Needs Disabilities on Standardized Tests, 117 to Identify Students at Risk, 110
• Assessing Student Fluency in Basic • Strategies for Fair Assessment of
Academic Skills, 121 Diverse Students, 116
• Using Progress Monitoring to Evaluate
Student Performance in RtI/MTSS, 132

CHAPTER 5 • Using “Sponges” to Increase Academic • Common Questions About Evidence-

Planning Instruction by Analyzing Learning Time, 157 Based Practices, 151
Classroom and Student Needs • Guidelines for Evaluating Basic Skills • Delivering Effective Instruction in the
Materials, 162 Tier 1 Core Curriculum, 158
• Strategies for Teaching Science to
English-Learners (ELs), 166

CHAPTER 6 • Warning Signs That Students May Have • Teaching Students with Autism
Students with Low-Incidence Disabilities Vision or Hearing Loss, 195 Spectrum Disorders, 186
• What to Do When a Student Has a • Teaching Students with Traumatic Brain
Seizure, 205 Injury (TBI), 208

CHAPTER 7 • Understanding Dyslexia, 224 Accommodating Learners in Math Who

Students with High-Incidence Disabilities • Controversial Therapies in Learning Are Linguistically and Culturally
and Behavioral Disabilities: What Does Diverse, 229
the Research Say?, 232

CHAPTER 8 • Section 504 Accommodations, 248 • Strategies for Teaching Students with
Students with Special Needs Other Than • Gifted Underachievers, 262 ADHD, 257
Disabilities • Levels of Language Proficiency, 268 • English Learners and Reading, 266

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 Applications in Teaching
Case in Practice Technology Notes Working Together Practice
Problem Solving in The Opportunities of Assistive The Importance of Understanding Contemporary
Inclusive Schools: The Technology, 27 Collaboration for Meeting Special Education, 32
General Education Student Needs, 22
Teacher’s Role, 25

Response to Intervention: Implementing Response to Understanding A Visit to an MDT Meeting, 67

Looking at the Data, 52 Intervention Using Technology, 51 the Intervention,
Assessment, and
Decision-Making
Process, 62

Everyone Wants What Is Electronic Collaboration, 79 • An RtI Problem-Solving Collaboration in the

Best . . . Teachers and a Meeting, 87 Washington School District,
Parent in Conflict, 99 • Consultation with an 104
Autism Specialist, 90

Using Story Grammars, 124 Using High-Stakes Computer- Communicating Collecting and Using
Based Testing with Students with Effectively with Parents, Assessment Information, 135
Disabilities, 118 111

Assistive Technology for Students The Reluctant ­ Planning Adjustments in

with Special Needs, 170 Co-Teacher, 148 the Instructional
Environment, 177

Including Students Who • Teaching Skills to Students with Questions to Ask When Planning for Students with
Are Deaf or Hard of Autism Through Video Modeling, Working with Students Low-Incidence Disabilities,
Hearing, 201 188 with Low-Incidence 211
• Augmentative and Alternative Disabilities, 183
Communication, 194
• Assistive Technology for Students
with Visual Impairments, 198
• Assistive Technology for Students
Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing,
202

• Identifying Students with Using Assistive Technology (AT) in Using the Include Strategy
Learning Disabilities Reading, 225 with Students with High-
Using RtI, 221 Incidence Disabilities, 240
• A Social Skills Training
Session, 239

Meeting the Needs of a Apps to Facilitate Student Creating a School Diversity in a High School
Twice-Exceptional Student, Learning, 251 Environment for Class, 278
261 Collaborating with
Parents, 269

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 FEATURES AT A GLANCE (continued)

Professional Edge Instructional Edge

CHAPTER 9 How to Develop Study Guides, 302 • Providing Differentiated Instruction
Adjusting Instruction Using Tier 2 in RtI/MTSS, 294
• Providing Differentiated Instruction in
Tier 3 in RtI/MTSS, 297

CHAPTER 10 • Developing Your Own Learning A Model High School RtI Program, 333
Strategies for Independent Learning Strategies, 331
• The Key-Word Strategy for Solving
Math Word Problems: Is There a Better
Way?, 351

CHAPTER 11 • Adjustments in Test Construction for Testing English Learners in Math Problem
Evaluating Student Learning Students with Disabilities, 364 Solving, 365
• Teaching Test-Taking Strategies for
Objective Tests, 366
• Using Grading Rubrics with
Students, 369
• The Legalities of Grading Students with
Disabilities, 378
CHAPTER 12 • Preventing School Violence, 389 Cooperative Learning in Action, 397
Responding to Student Behavior • Response to Intervention, Multi-Tiered
Systems of Support, and Positive
Behavior Supports, 390
• Strategies for Managing Students’
Surface Behaviors, 401
• Bullying: The Problem and Some
Interventions, 406

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 Applications in Teaching
Case in Practice Technology Notes Working Together Practice
• Applying INCLUDE to a Using Virtual Manipulatives to Support Asking for Help, 289 Developing a Repertoire of
Basic Skills Lesson, 293 Instruction, 292 Instructional Accommodations,
• Making Instructional 322
Modifications in a Middle
School Consumer and
Food Science Class, 321
Using INCLUDE and • The Reading Pen, 341 Fostering Team Designing Strategies for
Co-Teaching to Guide • Using Web-Based Programs Communication and Self- Independence, 357
Instruction in Learning to Improve Student Writing Advocacy, 328
Strategies, 330 Performance, 348
• Google Extensions for Assisting
Writers, 349
Fairness, 372 Using ePortfolios (EPs), 382 Communicating with Making Adjustments when
Parents About Grades, Evaluating Students with
372 Special Needs, 385

• Intervening to Promote Help on the Web for Responding to When Differences of Developing Strategies for
Positive Social Student Behavior, 414 Opinion Occur, 411 Responding to Individual
Interactions, 393 Student Behavior, 422
• Supporting a Student with
Autism Using Functional
Behavior Assessment,
405

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 PHOTO CREDITS

FatCamera/E+/Getty Images, p. 2; Bettmann/Getty Images, p. 12; Steve Debenport/E+/

Getty Images, p. 20; Jarenwicklund/123RF.com, p. 26; Rawpixel.com/Shutterstock, p. 34;
Aipon/Shutterstock, p. 38; Elliott Kaufman/Corbis Documentary/Getty Images, p. 38; Klaus
Vedfelt/Iconica/Getty Images, p. 38; Rawpixel Ltd/Alamy Stock Photo, p. 38; Pressmaster/
Shutterstock, p. 38; GARO/Phanie/Alamy Stock Photo, p. 40; Monkey Business/Fotolia,
p. 55; Grant Blakenship/Macon Telegraph/Tribune News Service/Getty Images, p. 70; Philip
LeeHarvey/The Image Bank/Getty Images, p. 75; Jim West/Alamy Stock Photo, p. 79; ZUMA
Press Inc/Alamy Stock Photo, p. 85; Stefano Gilera/Cultura RM Exclusive/Getty Images,
p. 100; Monkey Business/Fotolia, p. 106; Kali9/E+/Getty Images, p. 108; Lisa F. Young/
Fotolia, p. 113; Robin Sachs/PhotoEdit, Inc., p. 119; Marmaduke St. John/Alamy Stock
Photo, p. 136; Gnohz/Fotolia, p. 140; Jozsef Balaton/EPA/Newscom, p. 142; Monkey
Business/Fotolia, p. 145; Shock/Fotolia, p. 167; Elizabeth Crews/The Image Works,
p. 173; Simonkr/E+/Getty Images, p. 178; Jonathan Kirn/The Image Bank/Getty Images,
p. 184; Indiana Resource Center for Autism, p. 189; Jules Selmes/Pearson Education,
Inc., p. 191; Courtesy of AbleNet, Inc., p. 194; Jahi Chikwendiu/The Washington Post/
Getty Images, p. 194; Holger Hollemann/picture-alliance/dpa/AP Images, p. 198; Kokomo
Tribune/Tim Bath/AP Images, p. 198; AMELIE-BENOIST/BSIP SA/Alamy Stock Photo,
­
p. 198; Robin Sachs/PhotoEdit, Inc., p. 202; Andreas Bastian/Agencja Fotograficzna Caro/
Alamy Stock Photo, p. 202; Scott Keeler/Tampa Bay Times/ZUMA Wire/Alamy Stock
Photo, p. 206; Fuse/Corbis/Getty Images, p. 212; Monkey Business Images/Vetta/Getty
Images, p. 232; Monkey Business/Fotolia, p. 235; Kamira/Shutterstock, p. 242; IStudiez
Team, p. 251; Binary Hammer LLC, p. 251; Robin Nelson/ZUMA Press, Inc./Alamy Stock
Photo, p. 253; Monkey Business/Fotolia, p. 260; Ian Shaw/Alamy Stock Photo, p. 264;
Kmiragaya/Fotolia, p. 275; Monkey ­Business Images/Shutterstock, p. 280; Paul Conklin/
PhotoEdit, Inc., p. 307; Kathy DeWitt/Alamy Stock Photo, p. 317; Gemphotography/Fotolia,
p. 324; Robert Kneschke/Fotolia, p. 331; Ian Shaw/Alamy Stock Photo, p. 340; Wavebreak-
media/Shutterstock, p. 348; Monkey Business Images/Vetta/Getty Images, p. 353; Monkey
Business/Fotolia, p. 358; Klaus Vedfelt/DigitalVision/Getty Images, p. 360; Denis Poroy/AP
Images, p. 370; Christian Schwier/Fotolia, p. 377; Stockbroker/MBI/Alamy Stock Photo,
p. 386; Richard Mittleman/Alamy Stock Photo, p. 391; Myrleen Pearson/Alamy Stock
Photo, p. 399; Marilyn Friend, p. 408; Los Angeles Daily News/ZUMA press Inc/Alamy
Stock Photo, p. 420.

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