5258 Insect ID Manual WEB1 (3) LowRes

Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation
Identification of insects, spiders

and mites in vegetable crops
Workshop manual
Second edition
Sue Heisswolf, Iain Kay and Bronwyn Walsh
PR10–5258
First published 1997

Second edition 2010
© The State of Queensland, Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation, 2010.
Commercial and non-commercial reproduction: The Queensland Government supports and encourages
the dissemination and exchange of information. However, copyright protects this document. The State of
Queensland has no objection to this material being reproduced or made available online or electronically, but
only if it is recognised as the owner of the copyright and this material remains unaltered.
The information contained herein is subject to change without notice. The copyright owner shall not be
liable for technical or other errors or omissions contained herein. The reader/user accepts all risks and
responsibility for losses, damages, costs and other consequences resulting directly or indirectly from using
this information.
Enquiries about reproduction, including downloading or printing the web version, should be directed to
SAFTRSCopyright@deedi.qld.gov.au or telephone 13 25 23 (Queensland residents) or +61 7 3404 6999.
Contents
Acknowledgements iii
Introduction 1
Workshop summary 2
Field collection list 3
Collecting and preserving 4
Collecting techniques 4
Killing the insects 4
Mounting and preserving your insects 4
Labels 5
Collecting and preserving equipment 5
Basic classification 6
Orders 7
Life cycles 8
Metamorphosis 8
Mouthparts 10
Wings 11
Number of wings 11
Texture of wings 11
Position of wings at rest 12
Damage caused to plants by insects and mites 13
Chewing damage 13
Boring and tunnelling damage 14
Leaf mining damage 14 i
Egg laying damage 14

Sucking and piercing damage 14
Damage from viruses transmitted by insects 14
Rasping damage 14
Identification of the major orders 15
Insects undergoing complete metamorphosis 15
Insects undergoing incomplete metamorphosis 18
Identification of insects, spiders and mites in vegetable crops: workshop manual

Important pests in vegetable crops 22
Moths and butterflies (Lepidoptera) 22
Bugs, leafhoppers, aphids, whiteflies, mealybugs and scale insects (Hemiptera) 31
Thrips (Thysanoptera) 36
Beetles (Coleoptera) 38
Earwigs (Dermaptera) 42
Grasshoppers and crickets (Orthoptera) 43
Flies (Diptera) 45
Ants (Hymenoptera, family Formicidae) 48
Mites (Acarina) 48
Slugs and snails (Gastropoda) 50
Important natural enemies in vegetable crops 51
Predators and parasites 51
Parasitic wasps and predatory wasps (Hymenoptera) 51
Parasitic and predatory flies (Diptera) 54
Predatory bugs (Hemiptera) 56
Predatory beetles (Coleoptera) 59
Lacewings (Neuroptera) 60
Dragonflies and damselflies (Odonata) 61
Other insect predators 61
Spiders and mites (Arachnida) 62
Centipedes (Chilopoda) 64
Pathogens 65
Glossary 67
Further reading and bibliography 69
ii
References for collecting and preserving insects and arachnids 69
Books on insects and crops 69
Ute guides 70
Websites 70
Bibliography 70
Species and disease index 71

Acknowledgements
The first edition of this manual was complied as part of an insect, spider and mite identification program for
Queensland vegetable growers funded by the Horticultural Research and Development Corporation (now
Horticulture Australia Limited), Queensland Fruit and Vegetable Growers (now Growcom) and the Department
of Primary Industries (now the Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation). Sue
Heisswolf, Andy Jordan and Ethna Brown compiled the first edition of the manual, which was dedicated to the
memory of Elaine Brough.
We would like to acknowledge the following people for their contributions to the first edition:
• We are indebted to Alex Banks, Merv Bengston, Elaine Brough, Peter Deuter, Marlene Elson-Harris, John
Hargreaves, Iain Kay, Dave Murray, Peter Nimmo, Frank Page, Denis Persley and Bob Teakle for their
technical expertise and input to testing the manual during pilot workshops.
• We acknowledge Margaret Schneider (University of Queensland), Cheryl Mares (CSIRO), Dr Neil Forrester
(NSW Agriculture) and Temple Kehoe (Queensland Museum) for the loan of slide material.
• Thank you to S Elmer, V Geitzel, IW Helmsing, A Jordan, W Manley and G Wilson for their contribution
to artwork.
• Thank you to ME Badgley, C Brower, RH Broadley, AW Cooke, G Cripps, BA Franzmann, RS Greber,
S Heisswolf, F Holland, M Hill, B Ingram, DA Ironside, C Mares, DM Persely, P Reid, P Room, B Scholz,
M Shepard, D Smith, JW Turner, G Waite and J Wessels for supplying photographs.
This second edition is an outcome of the Horticulture Australia Limited (HAL) project ‘Provision of western
flower thrips technology transfer services in Bundaberg and Bowen’ (project number VG03099). This
project was facilitated by HAL in partnership with AUSVEG and funded by the vegetable levy. The Australian
Government provides matched funding for all HAL’s research and development activities. State government
funding for the project has been provided through the Department of Employment, Economic Development
and Innovation (DEEDI).
In addition to those who contributed to the first edition, we acknowledge the following people for their
contribution to the second edition:
• Thank you to Greg Baker, Cindy Benjamin, Larissa Bilston, Larry Cooper, Matthew Curr, Rob Dimsey,
Lionel Hill, Paul Horne, Danielle Jones, Stewart Learmonth, Debby Maxfield, Sandra McDougall and
Louise Morgan for providing technical, editorial and design input.
• Thank you to L Benson, C Carson, T Dennien, J Duff, S Eyres, C Freebairn, P Grundy, E Jovicich, I Kay,
E Laidlaw, J Lovatt, M Malipatil, P Mangano, S McDougall, L Pilkington, M Steiner, S Subramaniam,
R Teakle, M Widmer, the Department of Agriculture and Food (Western Australia) and the Department of
Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment (Tasmania) for supplying photographs.
• Thank you to Australasian Biological Control Inc. for the use of photographs from The good bug book,
2nd edition. The diagram illustrating the difference between Frankliniella and Thrips originally appeared iii
in Western flower thrips by Megan Hill (1994), a publication from an earlier HAL and Rural Industries
Research and Development Corporation project.

Introduction
Many small creatures reside in your crop. Insects, spiders and mites will make up a large number of these.
Some can easily be seen, while others can only be found with the aid of a magnifying glass or microscope.
Insects are very important members of the animal world. They make up about three-quarters of the known
animal species, with over one million species of insects known throughout the world. Many are as yet
unknown—there could be up to 30 million species in total. It is estimated that there are at least 205 000
species of insects in Australia. Spiders and mites are part of a group called arachnids, which includes around
30 000 species.
The vast majority of insects and arachnids are not pests of agricultural crops. Many have a beneficial role as
pollinators of plants and as predators or parasites of pests and weeds. However, these beneficial insects can
easily be harmed by the same insecticides used to control crop pests. With careful management, parasites
and predators can prevent the build-up of pests. Enlisting the aid of these natural enemies of pests can help
reduce the amount of pesticides you have to use.
We use the terms ‘beneficial insects’, ‘beneficials’ or ‘natural enemies’ to describe insects and
arachnids that kill pests in crops. These include predators such as spiders, predatory mites, lacewings
and ladybirds, and insect parasites such as wasps and flies.
Accurate and confident identification of the insects and arachnids in your crop is the first step towards
successful management of pests and natural enemies. This is an essential prerequisite for crop monitoring,
which is the backbone of an effective pest management program.
This manual is designed as the main resource for delivering a workshop program on pest and beneficial
identification in vegetable crops.
Please note:
• The drawings used in this manual are intended for general identification only. They are not to scale
and do not represent the size of an adult in relationship to its eggs, young or other insects.
• We have tried to keep technical terms to a minimum. A glossary has been included on page 67.
Please ask if there are terms or expressions that you do not understand.
• As the manual is based around the major insect orders, an index has been provided on page 71 so
that identification information on individual species can be easily located.
• The CSIRO (www.csiro.au) and Entomology Australia (www.entomology.edu.au) websites provide lots
of information on insect classification, life cycles and identification. They are very useful references
for this workshop.

Workshop summary
By the end of this workshop, you will:
• know how to collect and preserve insects for identification
• be able to classify most common insects (particularly those of horticultural significance) into broad groups
• appreciate the importance of these groups in pest, predator and parasite identification and management
• have collected and classified some insect pests, predators and parasites of horticultural importance.
The workshop will consist of at least 8 hours of training, including:

• 4–5 hours of classroom/laboratory sessions
• 4–5 hours of field sessions.
In the laboratory/classroom sessions, you will learn about:

• insect classification (relationships with other animal groups, particularly spiders)
• insect groups
• identifying examples from each of the major groups
• collecting and preserving insects
• the significance of the groups in identification and management.
In the field sessions, you will gain practical experience in finding insects and crop damage, and
understanding the interactions between insects.
You may be asked to collect specimens of pests, parasites and predators for a small insect collection to
help with pest identification in the crops you work with. Participants and facilitators will decide whether a
collection is necessary, but making a collection is a useful and beneficial exercise.

Field collection list
This exercise will start during the first field training session but participants are encouraged to collect
specimens whenever they have the opportunity.
Collect and preserve 15 insects, spiders and mites. Try to find these specimens in vegetable crops (or on
vegetables in the backyard) to increase your knowledge about pests and natural enemies in commercial
crops. The collection will be used during the workshop and the greater the number of specimens, the more
valuable the training sessions will be.
Aim to collect specimens from the following orders.
Order Specimens
Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies) 2 adults (1 moth, 1 butterfly)
Hemiptera (bugs, aphids etc.) 2 adults (1 bug and 1 aphid, leafhopper or whitefly)
Thysanoptera (thrips) 1 specimen
Coleoptera (beetles) 1 adult
Diptera (flies) 1 adult
Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets) 1 specimen
Dermaptera (earwigs) 1 specimen
Hymenoptera (wasps and ants) 1 adult
Neuroptera (lacewings) or Odonata (dragon and 1 adult
damsel flies)
Class Arachnida (spiders and mites) 1 specimen
Plus
1 nymph
1 larva
1 egg
The collecting and preserving of insects, spiders and mites is a specialised entomological skill. The following
section provides notes on the basics of collecting and preserving specimens to help you prepare the field
collections. The book Methods for collecting, preserving, and studying insects and allied forms (Upton and
Mantle 2010)provides more detailed information. The Entomology Australia (www.entomology.edu.au) and
CSIRO (www.csiro.au) websites also provide useful information.

Collecting and preserving
If possible, collect specimens from your crops or from crops you work with to help you learn about the insects
in them. Home vegetable gardens are also a rich source of pest and beneficial insects.
Insects are likely to be more abundant in the warmer months of spring through to autumn (September to
April), so collecting then will be easier. Many insects hibernate during the colder months, particularly in
southern subtropical and temperate parts of the country. Various insects are active at different times of the
day, so your collecting activities may need to reflect that (e.g. moths are nocturnal, so they will be active and
can be collected at night). Some species may be found more easily in the early morning as they move to the
top of the crop canopy to bask in the sunlight (e.g. green vegetable bugs), or are more sluggish in the cooler
morning temperature and so are more easily caught (e.g. silverleaf whiteflies).
Collecting techniques
There are many methods that can be used to collect insects. Here are a few simple methods you might use.
You can collect many of these specimens by hand while searching the crop plants, either literally or by placing
a container or jar over the insect and trapping it inside.
A sweep or butterfly net is a great tool for sweeping through the crop to gather whatever is there or catch
flying insects.
A beat sheet or tray can be useful. Place a piece of material (the beat sheet) or a tray under the plant or part
of the crop row, then hit the plant so that any insects fall onto the sheet. You will have to be quick to collect
them before they fly away. Thrips that live in flowers, such as western flower thrips, can be collected in a
similar way. Hold a sheet of white paper (or a white tray) under the flowers and tap them. The thrips should
fall out and can be easily seen on and gathered from the paper. Pick them up with your finger or a brush
moistened with water or alcohol and wash them off into a tube or bottle containing alcohol (see the ‘Mounting
and preserving’ section below).
Some insects (e.g. moths, some beetles, mole crickets) are attracted to light at night. Use a light to attract
them, then collect them as they gather near it.
Particular insects may be collected in traps baited with lures specific to them (e.g. heliothis moths in a
pheromone trap or fruit flies in a fruit fly trap).
Some people have collected butterflies and grasshoppers using the grilles of their cars. While this can be
effective, it is not recommended as the specimens are usually left in very poor condition.
Killing the insects

Collected insects can be killed in a number of ways. Insects that are stored in alcohol (e.g. aphids, thrips,
whiteflies and mites) can be killed by placing them straight into the alcohol.
For other insects, a simple killing bottle can be made from a glass jar, preferably with a metal lid. Impregnate
a piece of cotton wool or tissue with ethyl acetate and place it in the jar with the insect, trying to avoid direct
contact with the insect. The fumes kill the insect. Ethyl acetate is often the main solvent in nail polish remover,
which can be used instead. Ethyl acetate affects many plastics, hence the recommendation of using a metal
lid. Ethyl acetate is not dangerous to use (although it is highly flammable), but do not inhale it directly.
4 Small insects may be killed by freezing them. Be aware that large insects tend to rot and smell when
defrosted, so it is best not to freeze them.
Mounting and preserving your insects

Each type of insect should be pinned or preserved in a specific way. These methods are detailed on the CSIRO
and Entomology Australia websites and in Upton and Mantle’s book. The methods for the insects you have been
asked to collect are provided opposite. Some of your specimens should be preserved in 80% alcohol (methylated
spirits will do for this collection if necessary), while others should be pinned using entomological pins.
Insects should be pinned quite soon after death before they become stiff and brittle, or bits may break off. If
you cannot pin your specimens, keep them dry in a container of some sort.

Insect Method
Moths and butterflies Pin through the thorax with the wings spread
Bugs Pin just to the right of the centre of the thorax
Aphids, leafhoppers and whiteflies Preserve in alcohol (leafhoppers can be pinned using a
micro-pin)
Thrips Preserve in alcohol
Beetles Pin through the right side of the wings towards the front
Flies Larger specimens should be pinned through the right side of
the thorax
Micro-pins can be used for smaller specimens
Grasshoppers and crickets Pin through the right side of the thorax with the left side
wings spread
Earwigs Preserve in alcohol or pin on right hand side of the wings
Wasps Usually pinned through the right side of the centre of the thorax
Smaller specimens can be preserved in alcohol
Ants Preserve in alcohol
Lacewings, dragonflies and damselflies Pin through the thorax with the wings spread
Spiders and mites Preserve in alcohol
If you want to keep your collection for reference after this workshop, it should be kept in a storage box that
can be well sealed and kept dry. Place some moth balls or naphthalene in the box to deter various small pests
that can attack the insects and damage the collection.
Labels
If you look at any good insect collection, you will see small labels on each specimen. These labels give the
location where the insect was collected (e.g. property number, nearest town, GPS coordinates), the date of
collection, the collector’s name and any other useful information (e.g. feeding on a particular plant, predating
on another insect, reared from a host, collected at light). These records help tell us the geographical range of
the insect species, the times of year it is active and information on what it does. Label your specimens so this
information is retained with the insect. Another label with the insect’s name can be added once the insect
has been identified.
Collecting and preserving equipment

Equipment such as sweep nets, entomological pins, storage boxes and tubes can be ordered from the
Australian Entomological Supplies website at www.entosupplies.com.au
Typical collection labels A pinned eggfruit caterpillar moth with collection

for a pinned insect labels

Basic classification
Insects and arachnids belong to a large division of animals called arthropods, which are defined by having
segmented bodies, an external skeleton and jointed legs. Mammals such as cats, elephants and humans
have an internal skeleton (bones), while arthropods have a hard external skeleton.
Crustaceans (crabs and crayfish) and myriapods (millipedes and centipedes) are other common arthropods.
Crustaceans are almost entirely aquatic.
The different arthropods can be most easily identified by the number of legs (including claws) and antennae.
Insects have six legs and one pair of antennae. They also have a distinct head, thorax and abdomen (the
thorax roughly corresponds to the chest in other animals). Many insects have wings, and the wings and legs
are attached to the thorax. Not all species have wings, and only adult forms have them fully developed. The
young do not always resemble the adults (see ‘Life cycles’, p. 8).
Antenna
Head
Thorax
Wings
Abdomen
Leg
Wasp
Arachnids (spiders, mites and ticks) have eight legs and no antennae. They have a fused head and thorax,
and an abdomen.
Leg
Palp
Fused head
and thorax
Abdomen
6
Spider

Myriapods have 10 or more legs and one pair of antennae. Myriapods have many body sections. They are
predominantly scavengers on organic matter and so have little relevance to crops, although many centipedes
are voracious predators and so may have a beneficial influence.
Millipede Centipede
Orders
Insect and arachnid species are classified into groups called orders. Species that belong to the same order
have similar characteristics that can be used for identification. However, there are always exceptions and it is
not possible for this manual to outline all those exceptions.
There are many orders of insects and arachnids. In this workshop we will concentrate on identifying the
orders that are important to agriculture.
Important insect orders include:
• moths and butterflies (Lepidoptera)
• bugs, leafhoppers, aphids, whiteflies, mealybugs and scale insects (Hemiptera)
• thrips (Thysanoptera)
• beetles (Coleoptera)
• flies (Diptera)
• crickets and grasshoppers (Orthoptera)
• earwigs (Dermaptera)
• wasps, bees and ants (Hymenoptera)
• lacewings (Neuroptera)
• dragonflies and damselflies (Odonata).
Important arachnid orders include:

• mites (Acarina)
• spiders (Araneae).

Life cycles
The process of developing from egg to mature adult is called the life cycle. Species within the same order
will have similar life cycles. Understanding these life cycles helps to identify pests and natural enemies, and
contributes towards a better understanding of how pests cause damage and when control measures are best
applied.
Life cycles are influenced by temperature—they are shorter in warm weather and longer in cooler conditions.
Metamorphosis
Insects and arachnids shed their external skeleton periodically during development. This is called moulting.
Between periods of moulting the insect is called an instar. The adult stage is reached when the insect or arachnid
is fully developed with functional reproductive organs and (in the case of winged insects) functional wings.
Newly hatched insects and arachnids change as they develop into adults. The process of change is called
metamorphosis. The three different types of life cycle changes are:
1. without metamorphosis
2. incomplete metamorphosis
3. complete metamorphosis.
All three types are found in insects. Arachnids undergo incomplete metamorphosis.
Without metamorphosis
The ‘without metamorphosis’ cycle is characteristic of primitive insect species (none of which are included in
this manual).
During this life cycle:
• insects in the larval stages (also called nymphs) look like adults
• larvae undergo numerous moults (usually more than 10) and continue to moult after they are
sexually mature.
Examples include silverfish and springtails.
Incomplete metamorphosis
During the ‘incomplete metamorphosis’ cycle:
• nymphs (young insects) generally look like adults
• changes from nymph to adult are gradual (nymphal stages correspond to instars)
• wing development is external, with wings first showing as small buds that get larger with each moult
• nymphs often feed in the same habitat as adults (dragonflies are an exception).
Examples include bugs, grasshoppers, thrips, earwigs and dragonflies.
Complete metamorphosis
During the ‘complete metamorphosis’ cycle:
8
• larvae (young insects) do not look like adults
• larvae often feed in habitats that are quite different from those of the adults
• the change from larva to adult is very distinct
• the larva forms a pupa when it is fully grown. This is a stationary, non-feeding stage during which the
adult structures (including wings) are formed. The adult then emerges from the pupa.
Examples include butterflies, moths, beetles, bees, wasps, flies and lacewings.

Egg
Adult
First stage nymph
Second stage
nymph
Fifth stage
nymph
Third stage nymph
Fourth stage
nymph
An example of incomplete metamorphosis—life cycle of the Rutherglen bug
Egg
First instar larva
Adult moth
Second instar larva
Pupa in earthen cocoon
Third
instar larva
9
Pupa
Fully grown larva
An example of complete metamorphosis—life cycle of the potato moth

Mouthparts
Mouthparts are hard to see on most insects (particularly small ones) without the aid of a microscope or
magnifying hand lens. However, it is important to look at mouthparts as they can be used to identify the order
of an insect, how an insect feeds and what damage it is likely to do. The pictures below show the main types of
mouthparts, but there are many variations. Some insects may have combinations of two or more types.
Chewing mouthparts—jaws are Coiled sucking mouthparts (side view)— Sponging mouthparts (side
scissor-like for cutting food into mouthparts form a tube to suck liquids; view)—designed to ‘mop up’
small pieces the coiled tube can be extended into liquids
difficult-to-reach places
View from below

Side view
Piercing/sucking mouthparts—mouthparts form a strong hollow tube to pierce the surface and suck liquid
10

Wings
Most adult insects have wings. The different types of wings can be a good way to separate the main groups of
insects. Different wing characteristics are detailed below.
Number of wings
Four wings Two wings No wings
Texture of wings
Membranous Ends of wings membranous Scaled
Feathered Leathery forewing Hard forewing 11

Position of wings at rest
Held roof-wise over abdomen
Held flat over abdomen Membranous hind wings folded

under hard forewings meeting in
centre line
12

Damage caused to plants by insects and mites
Most insect and mite damage to plants is caused when the pests feed. Other damage can be caused as they
lay eggs or as they seek shelter. Some insects and mites also spread plant diseases.
The type of damage done by a particular insect or mite depends on:
• its basic feeding or egg laying habits—sucking or chewing mouthparts, or a short or long ovipositor
• its size—larger insects not only eat more, they take bigger bites, make bigger holes and feed on older and
tougher parts of the plant
• the stage of the life cycle—older is usually bigger. In its developing phase as a larva or nymph, an insect
or arachnid uses most of its energy to grow so it will consume large amounts of food. Pests will usually do
the most damage during this phase. During adulthood, the insect uses most of its energy on reproduction
and moving around, so it may not eat as much (e.g. caterpillars consume large amounts of food as
opposed to the adult butterfly or moth, which may consume little or none)
• the number of insects—an individual an insect may not do much damage, but swarms of very small insects
can do considerable damage
• the part of the plant that is attacked—soft, actively growing tissue can show quite different damage
symptoms to similar feeding on harder, mature plant parts.
Insects can be responsible for virus damage in crops, as some species of insects spread (vector) viruses from
plant to plant.
Other sources of plant damage that can sometimes be confused with insect damage are:
• plant diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses and virus-like organisms
• physical damage from other animals, people or machinery
• damage from pesticide sprays, herbicides, fertilisers and other chemicals
• weather damage from dry, wet, windy, hot or cold conditions at crucial plant growth stages
• growth disorders such as mutations.
Chewing damage
Pumpkin beetle damage to Cutworm damage to seedlings Cabbage moth damage

rockmelon leaf (photograph courtesy of J Wessels, DEEDI)
(photograph courtesy of DA Ironside, DEEDI)
13

Boring and tunnelling damage
Potato moth larvae tunnelling Heliothis boring into tomatoes Bean podborer in damaged pod
in potato (photograph courtesy of DA Ironside, DEEDI)
Leaf mining damage Egg laying damage Sucking and piercing damage
Leaf mining damage caused by Egg laying sting of fruit fly Green vegetable bug damage to
potato moth tomato
Damage from viruses transmitted by insects
Lettuce necrotic yellow disease Mosaic disease on zucchini caused Spotted wilt in lettuce caused by a
caused by a virus spread by aphids by a virus spread by aphids virus spread by thrips
Rasping damage
14
Severe damage to tomato by tomato Broad mite damage to capsicum Thrips damage to eggplant
russet mite fruit

Identification of the major orders
Insects undergoing complete metamorphosis

Moths and butterflies (Lepidoptera)
Basic identification
Adults
• Wings covered with small, coloured scales
• Moths fold wings along body
• Butterflies fold wings vertically
Moth adult
• Moths generally have thicker bodies
• Coiled, sucking mouthparts
Larvae
• Soft-bodied and elongated
• Chewing mouthparts
Moth larva
• Six legs on thorax and four to eight false legs (prolegs) on abdomen
• Often called caterpillars or grubs
Feeding habits
Adults feed on nectar and other liquids. They may be minor pollinators.
Larvae are usually the damaging stage. Most species are plant feeders.
Many species are surface feeders on leaves, stems and fruit, while Moth pupa
some are leaf miners or fruit borers and occasionally stem borers.
A few species are predators of other insects.
Flies (Diptera)
Adults
• Two clear, membranous forewings
• Hind wings replaced by small, club-like structure (halteres)
• Usually compound eyes
Adult
Larvae
• Soft-bodied, small, legless and elongated
• Often called maggots
Feeding habits
Larvae of most species feed on decaying organic matter. A few (such Egg Pupa
as hover flies) are predators of other insects, while others are parasitic.
Some are fruit, leaf or stem borers. Adults feed on nectar, plant sap
or liquid from rotting organic material. A few suck blood from other
animals. Some are important pollinators.
15
Larva

Lacewings (Neuroptera)
Adults
• Four clear, multi-veined wings that are much larger than the body
Adult
• Fragile appearance
• Weak, erratic fliers
Larvae
• Well-developed thoracic legs
• No abdominal legs Eggs
• Large mandibles for grasping and piercing prey
• Some (like antlions) dig pits to catch prey
• Some carry the debris of their prey on their backs
Feeding habits
Adults of some species are predators of other insects and arachnids. Larva camouflaged with debris
Larvae of all species are active predators.
Wasps, bees and ants (Hymenoptera)

Adults
• Four clear, membranous wings (worker ants are usually wingless)
• Constricted waist between abdomen and thorax
• Mouthparts mainly biting/chewing (adapted in some species to lap
up liquids) Wingless worker ant
• Female wasps and bees with a strong ovipositor, sometimes
developed as a defensive sting
• Some are social insects and live in colonies
Larvae
• Usually soft bodied and legless
• Rarely seen as they are protected in nests, hives or in the bodies of
parasitised hosts
• Most ants, many bees and some wasp species are social insects Winged ant
living in hives or nests
Feeding habits
Most wasps are predators or parasites of other insects and arachnids.
Parasitic wasps lay their eggs in the eggs, larvae or adults of their
hosts. Wasps feed on nectar and pollen. A few wasp species are plant
parasites and lay their eggs in leaves or stems of plants. Bees feed on
nectar and pollen, are important pollinators and produce honey and
16 beeswax. Ants are usually scavengers. They often protect and spread
sap-sucking insects like scales, mealybugs and aphids in return for
their sugary secretions. They may harvest planted seeds. Some ants Parasitic wasp
are predators of other insects.

Beetles (Coleoptera)
This is the largest order of insects. Beetle species vary widely in size
and shape.
Adults
• Four wings
• Forewings form a hard cover over the clear, membranous hind wings
• Chewing mouthparts Adult
• Usually hard-bodied
Larvae
• Six thoracic legs (usually, although some are legless)
• No abdominal legs
Feeding habits
Most beetle species feed on plants and stored products. Adults feed
on the leaves, stems and fruit of many plants. Larvae attack leaves, Eggs
stem and roots. Many species are stem borer or scavengers, while a
few are predators of other insects (e.g. most ladybird species are
valuable predators).
Larva
Pupa
17

Insects undergoing incomplete metamorphosis
Thrips (Thysanoptera)
• Adults have four long, narrow wings, fringed with hairs to give a
feathery appearance; larvae are wingless
• Very small and elongated (up to 3 mm long)
• Relatively large eyes
• Mouthparts are designed to pierce surface cells of plants and suck
their contents
Adult
Feeding habits
Many species feed on plants, usually on soft tissue in protected areas
like flowers and buds. Damage is often seen as scarring and bronzing
or silvering of leaves and fruit. Some species transmit viral diseases.
A few species are predators of mites and other small insects.
Larva
Bugs, leafhoppers, aphids, whiteflies, mealybugs

and scale insects (Hemiptera)
There is a wide variation in shapes and sizes of species belonging to
this group.
Bugs
• Four wings (a few species are wingless)
• Forewings thickened with clear, membranous tips
• Hind wings are clear and membranous
• Piercing, sucking mouthparts
Adult
Feeding habits
Most species are plant feeders, piercing fruit and softer stems and
sucking sap. Some are predators of other insects (e.g. assassin bugs).
Adults and nymphs generally feed on the same plant species.
18
Eggs Nymph

Leafhoppers and planthoppers
• Four clear or coloured membranous wings, often folded roof-wise
along the body
• Long hind legs used for jumping
• Most are less than 10 mm long
Leafhopper
Aphids
• Winged and wingless adult forms—winged aphids have four clear,
membranous wings with obvious veins (winged aphids are generally
the colonising phase of the pest)
• Small, soft-bodied and ovoid in shape (rarely more than 3 mm long)
Winged aphid
• Tend to cluster in groups at the feeding site
• Females generally give birth to nymphs
Wingless aphid
Whiteflies
• Adults are less than 2 mm long
• Bodies and wings are covered in powdery white/yellowish wax
• Nymphs look like small, white to clear flakes or scales on the
underside of leaves
• Piercing, sucking mouthparts Adult
Mealybugs
• Soft-bodied with sluggish movement
• Pinkish or white in colour and covered with waxy filaments
• Often form large groups in protected feeding sites (e.g. calyx of
eggplant fruit)
19
• Not common in vegetables

Scale insects
• Soft-bodied, wingless, legless and sedentary
• Covered with a waxy or hard scale for protection
• Rare in vegetable crops
San José scale
Feeding habits of leafhoppers, aphids, whiteflies, mealybugs

and scale insects
These pests feed by sucking sap, usually from younger and softer
parts of plants. Individual insects are usually too small to do
significant damage, but large populations affect plant growth.
Some species of leafhoppers, aphids and whiteflies transmit viral
diseases and small numbers can cause significant damage by
spreading viruses in crops. Many species secrete sticky honeydew
on to the plant and a black fungus (sooty mould) will sometimes
develop on it. Scale insects and mealybugs are not common in
vegetable crops.
Dragonflies and damselflies (Odonata)

• Adults have four long, narrow, clear, membranous, net-veined wings
• Wings are held rigidly at right angles to the body, which is elongated
and slender
• Nymphs are aquatic and do not resemble adults
Adult
Feeding habits
Adults are predators of flying insects. Nymphs are predators of small,
aquatic animals.
Grasshoppers and crickets (Orthoptera)

• Four wings (a few species are wingless)
• Forewings are leathery and cover the membranous hind wings
• Large hind legs are used for hopping
Nymph
• Large head and chewing mouthparts
Feeding habits
They are mainly plant feeders, chewing the leaves, stems, roots and
tubers of a range of plants. Some crickets are predators of other
insects. Grasshoppers live and feed above ground, while many species
20 of crickets live in underground burrows and feed on roots and tubers.
Some grasshoppers form migratory swarms and cause extensive
damage to crops and pastures.
Adult

Earwigs (Dermaptera)
• Usually four wings with very short and hard forewings covering
clear, membranous hind wings
• Body elongated and flattened
• Forceps on the end of abdomen
Feeding habits
Most species are nocturnal scavengers living in soil cracks, under logs
or rocks, and in rotting timber or other organic matter. They eat both Adult
plant and animal material and will occasionally chew on live plants,
such as young seedling as they emerge from the soil. A few species are
predators of other insects.
Spiders (Araneae)
• Eight legs and no wings
• Head and thorax fused together
• Chewing mouthparts with strong jaws
Feeding habits
All spiders are predators of insects and other small animals. Many
species stalk their prey, some ambush it and others snare prey in webs. Adult
Mites (Acarina)
• Very small (most are less than 1 mm long and are not visible to the
naked eye)
• Adults usually have eight legs; the microscopic nymphs have
six legs
• No eyes and no antennae
• Body made up of only one section
Adult
• Mouthparts like forceps
Feeding habits
Many species of mites are predators of other mites and small insects.
Some feed on plants, mainly by piercing the surface cells of leaves and
stems and sucking the contents. Others cause russeting (reddening) of
leaves and stems, and some cause blisters and galls.
21

Important pests in vegetable crops
This section gives descriptions of common pests found in Australian
vegetable crops. They are listed according to the insect order they
belong to.
Moths and butterflies (Lepidoptera)
Heliothis (corn earworm, tomato budworm, native budworm)

Helicoverpa spp.
Heliothis larvae feed as leaf eaters and bud and fruit borers on a wide
range of plants, including many weeds. Adults lay round, domed,
ribbed eggs that are cream when newly laid, turning brownish (‘brown
ring’ stage) as they mature. Larvae grow up to 40 mm long and vary in
colour from green through yellow and brown to almost black, with a
pale stripe down each side. The moths have a wing span of 35–45 mm.
Heliothis moth at rest
These are some examples of heliothis damage to vegetable crops:
• On lettuce and brassicas, larvae feed on the outer leaves or tunnel
into the heart of the plant.
• In tomato crops, eggs are laid on the leaves, flowers and fruit. Young
larvae burrow into flowers causing them to fall and they cause
pinhole damage to very young tomato fruit. Older larvae burrow into
the fruit, creating holes and encouraging rots to develop.
• In capsicum, larvae feed on the fruit and the seed inside the fruit.
Eggs are laid mainly on leaves, but also on flowers and buds.
Heliothis eggs on tomato shoot
• In sweet corn, eggs are laid on the silks and leaves. Larvae feed
on the developing grains on the cob, sometimes on the leaves and
often inside the tip of the corn cob.
• In green beans and peas, the larvae feed on the flowers, pods and
developing seed inside the pods.
Stages of heliothis egg

development—freshly laid (left)
to mature (right)
(photograph courtesy of B Scholz, DEEDI)
Heliothis larva
22

Loopers
Chrysodeixis spp.
Looper larvae feed on the leaves and fruit of a wide range of vegetable
crops, including brassicas, lettuce and tomatoes.
The moths are mottled grey or brown with silvery markings on the
forewings. They lay round, flattish, ribbed eggs that are white, turning
bone as they mature. They are very similar to heliothis eggs, except
that the looper eggs are flatter. The larvae grow up to 35 mm in length, Looper larva
are green in colour and older larvae have fine, white lines along the
body. Loopers are easily distinguished by their distinctive ‘looping’
movements.
Looper damage to tomato leaf

Cabbage white butterfly

Pieris rapae
The larvae of the cabbage white butterfly are leaf eaters. Young larvae
feed on the outer leaves of cabbage, cauliflower and broccoli plants.
Mature larvae feed on outer leaves of cabbage heads and the curd of
broccoli and cauliflower.
Adults lay bullet-shaped, ribbed eggs that are pale yellow, turning
orange-yellow as they mature. Young larvae are light green and opaque
with some fine hairs, while mature larvae are 20–30 mm long, dull Cabbage white butterfly
green and velvety with yellow stripes along the mid line of their bodies.
Eggs turn from light yellow (left)

to deep yellow (right) to orange-
yellow just before hatching
Larva and pupae

23

Cutworms
Agrotis spp.
Cutworms feed on most vegetable crops. Larvae usually feed at night
on the stems of seedlings near ground level. The seedling is often
completely severed and wilts and dies. Occasionally, cutworms climb
mature plants and feed on the foliage. Moths are a dull brown-black
colour. Larvae grow to about 30 mm long, are hairless, with dark heads
and darkish bodies, often with longitudinal lines and/or dark spots.
Cutworm larvae and damage
They curl up and remain still if picked up. Larvae may be found during
to seedlings
the day in the topsoil near damaged plants. (photograph courtesy of J Wessels, DEEDI)
Cabbage moth (or diamondback moth)

Plutella xylostella
Larvae mine leaf tissue when they first hatch. Within a day or so they
emerge to feed on the underside of leaves causing holes or windows.
Larvae can damage the heart of cabbages and heads and stems of
broccoli and cauliflower.
The moths are about 10 mm long, greyish-brown with a row of pale
diamond-shaped markings when the wings are folded at rest. The Cabbage moth
moths lay very small (0.4–0.5 mm long) oval, flat, smooth eggs that
are pale yellow in colour. They turn dark yellow with brown markings at
one end as they mature, and are stuck singly or in a small group near
leaf veins. The larvae are creamy green when mining the leaf tissue
and bright green, plump and 10 mm long when mature. They wriggle
backwards and drop from the plant on a thread when disturbed.
Larva with windowing damage

to cabbage
Cabbage moth eggs
24

Cluster caterpillar
Spodoptera litura
Young larvae feed in groups, while older larvae are solitary. Larvae feed
on the leaves of many vegetables and can cause severe leaf damage.
They may also bore into the hearts of cabbage and gouge large holes in
fruit (e.g. tomatoes and capsicums).
Moths are greyish-brown, with silvery markings on the forewings and
Cluster caterpillar moth
silvery white hind wings, and a wing span of 30–40 mm. Eggs are
(photograph courtesy of J Wessels, DEEDI)
laid in clusters covered with a mat of grey-brown hairs. Larvae are
brownish-purple in colour, widest several segments behind the head
and grow to 40–50 mm long. Older larvae have a row of dark triangular
markings along each side of the body.
Cluster caterpillar egg mass

Cluster caterpillar larva
Cluster caterpillar damage to

tomato fruit
(photograph courtesy of I Kay, DEEDI)
25

Cabbage cluster caterpillar
Crocidolomia pavonana
Larvae feed on the leaves of crucifers and can cause severe damage
to head tissue, while outer leaves often are less damaged. Adults are
light brown moths with a wing span of about 25 mm. Eggs are laid in
masses resembling overlapping scales on the underside of leaves.
Young larvae feed in clusters. Older larvae produce a silken web under Cabbage cluster caterpillar larva
which they feed. Fully grown larvae are about 20 mm long, green or
green with light brown backs, and they have black spots and light
longitudinal markings.
Cabbage cluster caterpillar damage

to cabbage
Cabbage cluster caterpillar

hatching egg raft
Potato moth
Phthorimaea operculella
Larvae are leaf miners and fruit borers in tomato, potato, eggplant and
capsicum. They mine the leaf causing irregular windowing. They may
also tunnel into the leaf stalk and stem causing extensive damage.
Larvae enter the fruit under the calyx or where two fruit touch. They
also tunnel into growing or stored potato tubers.
The adults are small, greyish moths with a wingspan of 12 mm. They Potato moth
lay very small, white eggs singly on the fruit calyx, on the underside
of leaves or in the soil. The eggs are very difficult to find in the field.
Larvae grow to 10–12 mm long and are cream, pale green or pale pink in
colour with a dark head.
Potato moth leaf mining damage to

potato leaf
26

Cabbage centre grub
Hellula hydralis
Larvae are stem borers in brassica crops. Young larvae burrow into
the growing point of the plant. This tunnelling causes the death of
seedlings or multiple branching, making the heads unmarketable.
In older plants, larvae tunnel into leaf midribs.
The moth lays small, oval, pale yellow eggs on the young parts of Cabbage centre grub larva
brassica plants. These eggs are almost impossible to find in the field.
The larvae are pale yellow with a dark head and seven brown stripes
along the body.
Cabbage centre grub damage to

cabbage seedling
Bean podborer
Maruca vitrata
Larvae bore into flower buds and pods of beans and other legumes.
Pods and flowers are often webbed together to form shelters for the
feeding caterpillars.
Moths have smoky brown forewings with translucent spots and
translucent hind wings with large smoky brown spots on the tips, and
a wing span of 25 mm. Moths lay oval, creamy yellow eggs near flower Bean pod borer moth
buds. The mature larvae grow up to 20 mm long, are yellowish-green (photograph courtesy of J Wessels, DEEDI)
with several rows of dark spots along the body and a dark head.
Bean pod borer larva

27

Eggfruit caterpillar
Sceliodes cordalis
Larvae tunnel in eggplant fruit, occasionally in tomatoes and
capsicums, and in some solanaceous weeds. Their feeding causes
extensive internal damage—tunnels are filled with frass and they leave
a large (4–5 mm) exit hole when they emerge to pupate.
The moths are mottled yellowish-brown, with a 25 mm wingspan. They
sit distinctively with the abdomen curled upwards. Small, flattened Eggfruit caterpillar moth
eggs are laid singly, mainly on the calyx. They are initially whitish but
develop red markings. Newly emerged larvae tunnel into the fruit and
spend their entire life in the fruit. Young larvae are creamy white, while
mature larvae are pink with a brown head. Mature larvae emerge from
the fruit and pupate in a tough, whitish silken cocoon.
Eggfruit caterpillar larvae

placed on fruit surface (note the
exit holes)
Beet webworm
Spoladea recurvalis
The larvae feed on the leaves of beetroot and silverbeet, and on weeds
such as pigweed. They feed on the underside of the leaves, leaving the
top surface, which results in a window-like effect. Eventually the leaves
are destroyed, with the remains twisted and held together by silken
webbing and frass.
The moths are brown with two white bands on the forewings and one Beet webworm moth
on the hind wings, with a wingspan of 20 mm. Bluish, scalelike eggs (photograph courtesy of J Wessels, DEEDI)
are laid in small groups on the lower leaf surface. Initially the larvae are
whitish, but then become grey-green in colour with a dark band along
the middle of the back. Mature larvae are about 20 mm long. They
pupate in the soil.
Beet webworm larvae on a

damaged leaf
28

Cucumber moth
Diaphania indica
Larvae feed on many types of cucurbits. They normally feed on leaves,
which they can destroy, leaving fragments bound together by silk and
frass. They will also feed on flowers, soft stems and shallowly on the
skin of fruit.
The moths have white wings bordered by a broad dark band, with
a wingspan of about 25 mm. Small, whitish eggs are laid on the Cucumber moth
undersurface of leaves. The larvae, which grow to about 25 mm long,
are green with two white stripes along the length of the body.
Larva of cucumber moth
Armyworms
Mythimna spp. and Spodoptera spp.
Larvae of several species from several genera damage sweet corn
by feeding on the leaves, resulting in the plants having a tattered
appearance.
The moths are quite large, with wingspans of about 40 mm. Mythimna
moths are pale grey-brown in colour. Spodoptera moths have darker
grey-brown forewings with dark and pale markings, and pale white hind Common armyworm moth
wings. Larvae can grow to 40–45 mm long and may be pinkish, brown (photograph courtesy of J Wessels, DEEDI)
or green in colour with white, pinkish and dark stripes running along
the body. Mature lawn armyworm larvae have rows of triangular black
markings. Armyworm larvae superficially resemble heliothis larvae but
look smoother and are relatively hairless in comparison.
Common armyworm larva

Dayfeeding armyworm larvae

damaging corn
29

Chevron cutworm
Diarsia intermixta
A pest in Tasmania, chevron cutworms chew on the foliage of a variety
of brassica vegetables and on tubers of turnips and swedes. They also
feed on the leaves of vegetables such as carrots, lettuce, rhubarb and
potatoes and occasionally on corn silks.
Moths have a wingspan of about 37 mm and at rest their wings overlap
flat on the body. Males are beige or dull orange in colour and females Chevron cutworm moths
are dull purple. Larvae grow to 30 mm. They are dark brown to black on (photograph courtesy of the Department of Primary
Industries, Parks, Water and Environment, Tasmania)
top and paler underneath, with a series of paired black, short V-shaped
marks along the back and a pale mark across the rear end.
Larva of chevron cutworm

(photograph courtesy of the Department of Primary
Green cutworm
Neumichtis spp.
Minor pests in Tasmania, larvae of the three species feed on leaves of
brassica crops and other vegetables such as lettuce, celery and carrots.
Moths are brown (two species) or black (one species) with 34–38 mm
wingspans. At rest, the wings are held steeply inclined. Larvae grow
to 35 mm. They are green or brown in colour, with pairs of faint, pale,
almost inconspicuous spots along the back and a pair of small but very Larva of the green cutworm
distinct white spots on top of the rear end. (photograph courtesy of the Department of Primary
30

Bugs, leafhoppers, aphids, whiteflies, mealybugs and scale insects (Hemiptera)
Green vegetable bug

Nezara viridula
Adults and nymphs feed by sucking sap from young plant tissue, fruit
and seeds. A wide range of vegetable crops are attacked. Feeding
causes distorted growth, death of seeds and dry and corky fruit tissue.
Attacked fruit are small, mottled and blemished.
Adults lay dark, barrel-shaped eggs in groups known as rafts. The
emerging nymphs are bright orange to orange-brown and wingless. As Green vegetable bug adults and
nymphs mature they are first marked with patterns of black, yellow and nymphs on damaged beans
red, then they turn green and develop wings. Adults are up to 15 mm (photograph courtesy of DA Ironside, DEEDI)
long and shield-shaped. They are green with three small white spots
between their shoulders in warm weather, and are brownish-grey in
cooler weather.
First instar green vegetable bug

nymphs hatching from egg raft
Rutherglen bug
Nysius vinitor
Adults and nymphs suck sap from leaves, stalks and fruit of a wide
range of crops. They often attack in large swarms. If the infestation is
severe, leaves and shoots will wilt and die. They can be a problem as a
contaminant in harvested products such as lettuce.
Adults are 5 mm long and grey-brown in colour. The nymphs are pear- Rutherglen bug adults and nymphs
shaped, wingless and reddish-brown.
Vegetable leafhopper (or vegetable jassid)

Austroasca viridigrisea
Adults and nymphs feed by sucking the sap from young shoots, fruit
and leaves, often leaving small white spots. Leafhoppers are pests of a
wide range of vegetables, including tomatoes, capsicums and potatoes.
Large populations may retard crop growth. Adults are up to 4 mm long
and torpedo-shaped. Both adults and nymphs are bright green.
Vegetable leafhoppers and

typical damage
31

Greenhouse whitefly
Trialeurodes vaporariorum
Adults and nymphs are pests of many vegetable crops. They are found
on the underside of leaves, sucking sap and so reducing plant vigour.
They produce copious amounts of honeydew that can contaminate
produce and encourage the growth of black sooty mould.
Adult greenhouse whiteflies are small (1.5 mm), delicate insects
covered in a whitish waxy powder. The wings are held quite flat and
overlapping (the way the wings are held is an important feature Greenhouse whitefly adult
(photograph courtesy of M Steiner)
distinguishing greenhouse whiteflies from silverleaf whiteflies).
Eggs are bullet-shaped, initially yellow but later dark. The nymphs are
scalelike, pale yellow-green and grow to about 0.5 mm long. The final
instar nymph (or pupa) has a flat top with numerous waxy tendrils
around its circumference, and steep cliff-like sides.
Greenhouse whitefly pupae

(photograph courtesy of M Steiner)
32

Silverleaf (B biotype) and Q biotype whiteflies
Bemisia tabaci
Several biotypes of Bemisia tabaci occur in Australia, with silverleaf
whitefly (biotype B) and Q biotype being serious pests with a wide
host range of broadleaf crops and weeds. The different biotypes are
morphologically indistinguishable and can only be separated by
biochemical or molecular techniques. They live on the underside of Silverleaf whitefly adult
leaves and cause damage by sucking sap (affecting plant vigour), (photograph courtesy of B Scholz, DEEDI)
producing honeydew, sooty mould growth on honeydew and

transmitting plant viruses. Silverleaf whiteflies cause physiological
reactions in some plants.
Adult silverleaf and Q biotype whiteflies are small (about 1 mm), white,
waxy insects. They hold their wings quite steeply like a tent, with a
clear gap between the wings along the length of the body. Eggs are
bullet-shaped and pale yellow to dark in colour. Nymphs are scalelike,
pale green-yellow to clear and 0.3–0.6 mm long. The final instar
nymphs (or pupae) are dome-shaped, with sloping edges and very few
Silverleaf whitefly eggs
waxy projections.
(photograph courtesy of S Subramaniam, DEEDI)
Silverleaf whitefly eggs

and nymphs
(photograph courtesy of S Subramaniam, DEEDI)
Silvering of zucchini leaves due to

silverleaf whitefly
(photograph courtesy of I Kay, DEEDI)
Potato bug
Closterotomus norvegicus
This mirid bug feeds on the buds, growing points, flowers and foliage
of many plants, resulting in wilting, deformation and stunting. Its hosts
include peas, beans, carrots, potatoes, asparagus and strawberries.
Adults are 6–8 mm long, with long legs and antennae. They are mainly
green, although the folded forewings may be yellowish to grey-green.
There is a pair of black spots on the top of the thorax. The membrane
section of the folded forewings appears as a clear to dusky diamond Potato bug adult
shape at the rear of the insect. The nymphs are mainly green to (photograph courtesy of the Department of Primary
yellowish-green with black hairs. Industries, Parks, Water and Environment, Tasmania) 33

Green peach aphid
Myzus persicae
This aphid feeds on a wide range of vegetable crops, stone fruit and
weeds by sucking the sap of leaves, growing points and fruit, and
produces honeydew that contaminates the plants. Severe aphid
attacks may result in leaves and fruit turning yellow, shrivelling and
falling off. Adults are 1.5–3 mm long. Wingless adults can be green to
pale yellow to pink. Winged adults have a dark head and thorax and a Potato leaf infested with green
reddish or green abdomen with a distinctive dark patch. Nymphs are peach aphids
olive green. The green peach aphid is distinguished from other aphids
by having a deep notch at the front of the head.
The adults and nymphs of many aphids can transmit viruses such
as watermelon mosaic, papaya ringspot type W and zucchini yellow
mosaic when they feed. The green peach aphid can transmit potato
leaf roll virus, as can the potato aphid. Winged aphid adults are known
as alatae and wingless adults as apterae.
Green peach aphids on a capsicum

leaf
Cotton aphid (or melon aphid)

Aphis gossypii
Cotton aphids (also called melon aphids) have a very wide host
range. They suck sap (affecting plant vigour), produce honeydew
that contaminates fruit (particularly when sooty mould grows on
it) and transmit many plant viruses. Winged adults (1.1–1.8 mm) are
blackish-green in colour. Wingless adults (0.9–1.8 mm) are variable in
colour, with large ones dark green and smaller ones pale yellow. Most
are mottled light to dark green with short dark siphunculi (tubular
structures at the end of the abdomen).
Currant lettuce aphid

Nasonovia ribis-nigri
Currant lettuce aphid is primarily a contamination pest of lettuce. They
infest lettuce hearts and rosettes (their presence makes the lettuce
unsaleable) and transmit several plant viruses. Winged adults have a
black thorax and a greenish abdomen patterned with irregular, narrow
dark bands. Wingless adults (1.3–2.7 mm) are pale yellow to green with
a pattern of dark bands on the abdomen and dark-tipped siphunculi.
Nymphs are yellow-green.
Currant lettuce aphids

(photograph courtesy of S McDougall)
34

Cabbage aphid
Brevicoryne brassicae
Adults and nymphs feed on crucifers by piercing softer tissue and
sucking the sap. Under heavy infestation, plant growth may be
suppressed and leaf curling may occur. Adults are 2–3 mm long,
greyish-green in colour and have a mealy covering. Nymphs are
greenish.
Many cruciferous plants also are hosts of turnip aphids (Lipaphis

pseudobrassicae, also known as L. erysimi), which may be found
on the undersurface of leaves or in flowers. Leaf curling may occur
and they also transmit viruses. Turnip aphids are medium size
and yellow-green, grey-green or olive green in colour with a white
waxy bloom.
Carrot aphid
Cavariella aegopodii
The aphids feed on the underside of carrot leaves, causing the leaves
to curl and plant vigour to be affected. They produce copious honeydew
and transmit several viruses. Winged and wingless forms vary in colour
from green to yellow to brown, and the winged adults have a black
patch on the upper (dorsal) surface of the abdomen. Wingless adults
are medium size, elongate oval and flattened with small depressions on
the upper surface.
The fennel aphid (Dysaphis foeniculus) also attacks carrots.

Colonies of grey-green wingless aphids usually occur at or below
ground level. Winged adults have a dark green abdomen with a
large black patch on the upper (dorsal) surface.
Sowthistle aphid
Hyperomyzus lactucae
Sowthistle aphid breeds on the sowthistle weed and spreads necrotic
yellows virus to crops such as lettuce. Winged and wingless adults are
2–3 mm long. Adults and nymphs are light green in colour.
Corn aphid
Rhopalosiphum maidis
Corn aphid is a pest of sweet corn and other grasses. The aphids
suck sap from the leaves and can reduce plant vigour. Contamination
from honeydew, sooty mould and the aphids themselves on cobs is a
problem. Corn aphids are yellow-green to dark olive green, with short
antennae and short, dark siphunculi.
Corn aphids—note the dark
Note: In many cases, laboratory microscopic techniques are siphunculi and cast skins
necessary to properly identify aphids. (photograph courtesy of DA Ironside, DEEDI)
35

Solenopsis mealybug
Phenacoccus solenopsis
Female adults are wingless, around 4 mm long, oval-shaped and
covered by waxy filaments, giving them a mealy appearance. Females
often have two dark stripes on the upper (dorsal) surface of the
abdomen. Nymphs or ‘crawlers’ are smaller but similar in appearance.
This sap-sucking insect forms dense, white, cotton-like, waxy colonies
on stems, shoots and leaves of plants. Males (which do not feed) are Solenopsis mealybugs
small, aphid-like, winged insects. (photograph courtesy of S Subramaniam, DEEDI)
The pest is known to affect a range of plants, including cotton, tomatoes,

eggplants, chillies, melons and potatoes. Their feeding can reduce plant
vigour and cause contamination from honeydew and sooty mould.
Thrips (Thysanoptera)
Note: Specialised training and laboratory microscopic techniques

are necessary to properly identify thrips species.
Onion thrips
Thrips tabaci
Adults and larvae feed on many vegetable crops and other plants.
On onions they rasp the leaf surface and suck the sap, leaving a white,
flecked or silvery white leaf. Bulb size may be affected if the thrips
population is large (more than 50 thrips per plant). Adults are
1–1.2 mm long and yellowish-grey to brownish in colour, with grey
simple eyes (ocelli) in fresh specimens. Only females are found in
Australia. Immature thrips (larvae) are white to pale yellow. Onion
thrips are vectors of tomato spotted wilt virus and iris yellow spot virus.
Plague thrips
Thrips imaginis
Adult plague thrips feed by rasping the surface cells and sucking
the sap from the blossoms of weeds, fruit trees, vegetables and
ornamental garden plants. Immature thrips feed on young leaves
and the pistil and stamens inside the flowers. This can interfere with
fruit set and damage young fruit. Adults are light brown to grey and
0.8–1.3 mm long. Immature plague thrips are creamy yellow.
Melon thrips
Thrips palmi
Melon thrips feed on many weeds and vegetables, and are important
pests of cucurbits, eggplant, capsicums and beans, damaging leaves
and fruit with their feeding. They transmit tomato spotted wilt virus and
capsicum chlorosis virus. Adults are about 1 mm long and yellow with
red simple eyes. Both females and males occur in Australia. Immature
melon thrips are white to pale yellow.
Melon thrips
36

Western flower thrips
Frankliniella occidentalis
Western flower thrips have a very large host range that includes many
vegetables. They are usually found in flowers. They cause damage
with their feeding and they are very effective vectors of tomato
spotted wilt virus. Adult western flower thrips are 1–2 mm long and
yellow to pale brown in colour. Larvae are white to yellow. Species of
Western flower thrips
Frankliniella (western flower thrips, tomato thrips and corn thrips) can
be distinguished from other pest thrips by the presence of pairs of
strong hairs (setae) on the anterior (front) corners of the pronotum (first
part of the thorax), which are not present in other genera. Separating
the three species of Frankliniella requires more detailed microscopic
examination.
The differences between thrips in the genus Frankliniella and Thrips

(diagram reproduced from Western flower thrips by M Hill)
Tomato thrips
Frankliniella schultzei
Tomato thrips have a wide range of hosts, including many vegetables.
They usually live in flowers. They cause damage with their feeding
and can transmit tomato spotted wilt and capsicum chlorosis viruses.
Tomato thrips adults are yellow to brown and 1–1.8 mm long. Larvae are
white to yellow.
Bean blossom thrips

Megalurothrips usitatus
Adults and larvae feed by rasping and sucking in bean flowers when
the pod is formed. This feeding causes the pods to twist and curl
and become unmarketable. Adult thrips feeding on maturing pods
may cause russeting. Adults are dark brown and about 1.5 mm long.
Immature thrips are pale yellow and emerge from eggs laid in plant
tissue. Older larvae are deep yellow or orange-red. Bean blossom thrips in a flower
37
Young French beans damaged by
bean blossom thrips

Beetles (Coleoptera)
Pumpkin beetle and plain pumpkin beetle

Aulacophora spp.
Adults may be present as individuals or in swarms or clusters, and are
the main damaging stage. They feed by chewing on leaves, flowers and
small fruit in cucurbit crops. Seedlings can be completely defoliated.
Larvae feed on roots causing swelling and discolouring. This can check
the growth of the plant. Fruit lying on the ground can also be attacked
by larvae.
Pumpkin beetles and plain
Pumpkin beetle adults are orange-yellow with four black patches pumpkin beetles on a damaged
across the wings. Plain pumpkin beetle adults are orange-yellow with rockmelon leaf
no markings. Adults are 6 mm long. Larvae grow up to 12 mm long and
are cream in colour.
Twentyeight-spotted potato ladybird, twentysix-spotted

potato ladybird and cucurbit ladybird
Henosepilachna vigintisexpunctata, H. vigintioctopunctata
and H. cucurbitae
Adults and larvae feed by chewing on a range of vegetable crops,
including potatoes, eggplant, beans and cucurbits. They feed mostly
on leaves, but can damage flowers and developing fruit. Adults feed on
the upper surface of the leaves and larvae mostly feed on the underside Twentyeight-spotted potato
of leaves. This results in a fine, transparent window remaining between ladybird adults, larva and eggs
the network of veins. Adults are 6–10 mm long, oval and yellowish-
brown with many black spots on the wing covers and thorax. Larvae are
creamy yellow and covered in many black, branched spines. Smooth,
bullet-shaped, yellow eggs are laid in clusters on the underside of
leaves and on plant stems. They turn orange/yellow as they mature.
The original describers of these beetles miscounted the spots. The
twentyeight-spotted potato ladybird has 28 spots but its Latin species
name means 26, while the twentysix-spotted potato ladybird’s Latin
name means 28!
False wireworms
Tenebrionidae—northern false wireworm (Gonocephalum carpentariae),
southern false wireworm (G. macleayi) and vegetable beetle (G. elderi)
False wireworm larvae live in the soil and feed on organic matter,
including germinating seeds and young seedlings. Adults and larvae
chew the stems of young seedlings. Adults may also feed on the leaves,
resulting in retarded plant growth or the death of the seedlings.
False wireworm beetle and larva
False wireworm larvae grow up to 30 mm long and are slender, hard- (photograph courtesy of DA Ironside, DEEDI)
skinned, cylindrical and segmented, with a rounded head and three
pairs of legs just behind the head. They are shiny cream to yellow to
tan in colour with a darker head. Adults are found on the soil surface
or under surface organic matter or soil clods. They are oval-shaped
beetles, about 10 mm long, with flanges around the outline of the
thorax. They are dark grey to black in colour, often with a dusting of soil.
38

True wireworms
Elateridae—important wireworms include species of Agrypnus and
Conoderus, and the potato wireworm (Hapatesus hirtus)
A number of species of wireworms are pests of vegetables. Larvae
live in the soil where they normally feed on organic matter. They will
damage seeds, roots and tunnel into stems. They are particularly
damaging to crops like carrots, sweetpotatoes and potatoes, where
they bore deeply into the roots and tubers. Wireworm adult or click beetle
Wireworm larvae grow to 35–40 mm long. They are cream, yellow,
orange-yellow to tan in colour with a darker head, and with three
pairs of legs behind the head. The body is segmented and distinctly
flattened, the head is wedge-shaped and there is a flat plate with two
short prongs at the rear end. Adults are the well-known click beetles—
elongate grey to brown beetles with the ability to flip their bodies
upright with an audible click.
Wireworm larva
Cucurbit stemborer
Apomecyna histrio
Larvae are stem borers in cucurbits. This feeding causes the stem
and leaf nodes to swell as they are filled with the excreta of the stem
borer. They are minor pests of chokos, cucumbers, marrows, melons,
squash and zucchini. Adults are 10 mm long and grey with white spots
that make three conspicuous V-shaped marks across the wing covers.
Larvae grow up to 20 mm long and are cream in colour.
African black beetle

Heteronychus arator
African black beetles are members of the scarab family of beetles.
Adults damage many different vegetables (particularly seedlings) by
chewing on the stems at or just below ground level, causing the plants
to wilt, lodge or die. The larvae, which live in the soil, damage potatoes
by burrowing into the tubers. African black beetle adult
(photograph courtesy of L Benson
Adults are shiny black beetles, 10–15 mm long, with their front legs © Western Australian Agriculture Authority, 1988)
modified for digging. They live in or on the soil and can fly. Larvae are
typical scarab larvae, commonly called white grubs or curl grubs. They
are C-shaped, with a distinct brown head capsule and legs, and usually
a swollen end of the abdomen. They are white to bluish-white and
grow to about 25 mm long. Similar looking larvae of many other scarab
beetles are occasional pests of tuber and root vegetables such as
potatoes and sweetpotatoes.
African black beetle larva

© Western Australian Agriculture Authority, 1988)
39

Whitefringed weevil
Naupactus leucoloma
Whitefringed weevil larvae live in the soil and feed on the roots of
plants, including vegetables such as carrots, cabbages, beans and
cucurbits and on potato tubers. If vegetables are grown in a weevil-
risk location, knowing whether a pest population of larvae is present
before planting is important in taking appropriate preventative action
to protect the crop. Adults feed on the foliage of a wide range of plants,
Whitefringed weevil adult
occasionally stripping leaves.
Adults are grey beetles about 12 mm long with a short broad snout and
a distinctive white band along the sides of the body. The wing covers
are fused so the beetles cannot fly. The larvae are legless, white to grey
in colour with brown mouthparts on the head. They appear wrinkled,
have a slightly curved body and grow to about 12 mm long.
Whitefringed weevil larvae
Vegetable weevil
Listroderes difficilis
Vegetable weevils damage a wide range of vegetables, including
crucifers, carrots, parsnips, lettuce, silverbeet, spinach and potatoes.
Adults feed on the foliage, which can be left holed or completely
destroyed, and they will chew gouges in carrots. Larvae can damage
the centres and growing points of plants and will chew ragged holes in
leaves. Both adults and larvae feed at night and hide in the soil during
Vegetable weevil adult
the day.
Adult vegetable weevils are a dull grey-brown colour with a V-shaped
pale grey marking near the end of the wing covers. They are box-
shaped with a prominent snout and 9–12 mm long. Larvae are cream
or greenish-yellow to green in colour with a flattened, legless, slug-like
body; a small, dark brown head; and a brown plate on the top of the
thorax behind the head. They grow to 12–15 mm.
Vegetable weevil larva

(photograph courtesy of the Department of
Agriculture and Food, Western Australia)
Apple weevil
Otiorhynchus cribricollis
Apple weevils attack vegetables (including crucifers), as well as
ornamentals, fruit trees and grape vines. Adults feed on leaves and can
strip plants, growing tips and stems of seedlings. Adults are shiny dark
brown weevils about 9 mm long, with a slightly bulbous abdomen. They
feed at night, hiding in the soil by day.
Apple weevil adult on a leaf
40 (photograph courtesy of the Department of

Spotted vegetable weevil
Desiantha diversipes
Adults feed on the leaves and stems of young vegetables, including
crucifers and on other plants such as strawberries. The soil-dwelling
larvae feed on seedling roots. Adults are mottled grey-black beetles
about 6 mm long, with the typical weevil snout and are active day and
night. Larvae are legless and white with an orange-brown head.
Spotted vegetable weevil adult
Spotted vegetable weevil larva

(photograph courtesy of S Eyres
Small lucerne weevil

Atrichonotus taeniatulus
Adults damage the leaves and stems of vegetable seedlings as well
as feeding on many other plants. The soil-dwelling larvae will damage
roots. Adults are grey weevils with some brownish mottling, similar
in shape to whitefringed weevil but smaller (8–10 mm). Larvae are
creamy white with small, pointed, brown jaws. They are legless and
grow to 8 mm long.
Small lucerne weevil
Sweetpotato weevil
Cylas formicarius
Sweetpotato weevil larvae tunnel in the stems and storage roots of
sweetpotatoes, making the roots unusable. Adults feed on stems and Sweetpotato weevil adult on a
leaves and excavate small cavities in which to lay eggs. damaged sweetpotato stem
Adults are antlike, shiny beetles 5–6 mm long, with a narrow head and (photograph courtesy of J Lovatt, DEEDI)
pronotum, long legs and a slightly distended body. The head, wing
covers and abdomen are blue-black and the pronotum and legs are red.
Sweetpotato weevil larvae in a

damaged root
41

Flea beetles
Chrysomelidae
Adults of a number of species of flea beetles damage vegetables by
chewing small, irregularly shaped holes in the leaves, resulting in a
shot-hole appearance. Seedlings can be severely affected. Flea beetles
are usually small (2–4 mm long), stout beetles, often a dark metallic
colour. They are characterised by having enlarged femora (thighs)
on their hind legs that enable them to hop or jump rather like a flea.
Potato flea beetle adult
Larvae live below ground and feed either internally or externally on
(photograph courtesy of J Duff, DEEDI)
plants, but rarely cause significant damage. Specific examples include
the potato flea beetle (Psylliodes spp.) and the striped or brassica flea
beetle (Phyllotreta undulata), which is 2.5 mm long and black with a
longitudinal yellow stripe on each wing cover.
Striped flea beetle adult

(photograph courtesy of T Dennien)
Dried fruit beetles

Carpophilus spp.
Adult dried fruit beetles are small (3–4 mm), flattish beetles with
clubbed antennae and short wing covers that do not reach the tip of the
abdomen. They are black or brown, usually with pale patches on the
wing covers. Larvae are cream coloured with a pale brown head, short
legs, a slightly hairy appearance and a forked tip to the abdomen. Adult Adult dried fruit beetle
beetles are attracted by rotting fruit and vegetables. Dried fruit beetles
do not cause primary damage but they can cause secondary damage
and introduce rot organisms. They can be a problem in sweet corn cobs
as a contaminant.
Earwigs (Dermaptera)
Black field earwig

Nala lividipes
Adults and nymphs feed mainly on decaying organic matter but may
chew young seedlings of many vegetables as they emerge. They also
feed on the roots of some crops. Adults are small, shiny black and up
to 12 mm long. They have short wings and a pair of pincers at the end of
the abdomen. Nymphs are pale but become darker as they mature.
Black field earwig adult (top)

and nymphs
42

European earwig
Forficula auricularia
European earwigs feed on organic matter and a wide range of plants.
They chew on the leaves of plants, seedling roots and on fruit and
vegetables, and their faeces can contaminate harvested produce.
Damage can be serious when populations are large.
Adults are 12–22 mm long with slender, flattish bodies. They have
smooth, shiny, dark brown bodies with pale yellow legs, shoulders European earwig adults
and pincers. Females have straight pincers and the males have (photograph courtesy of M Widmer
curved pincers with a distinguishing straight section at the base of
the pincers. Adults have wings. Nymphs are similar to but smaller and
paler than adults.
Grasshoppers and crickets (Orthoptera)
Australian plague locust

Chortoicetes terminifera
Australian plague locusts are active from spring to autumn, spending
winter as eggs in the ground. They can occur as solitary individuals,
but when conditions are suitable they form gregarious bands and
swarms typical of locusts. Their feeding can cause serious damage to
vegetables, crops and pastures.
Adult Australian plague locusts are 25–42 mm long. The usual body Australian plague locust
colour is brown, but grey and green specimens occur. They often (photograph courtesy of DA Ironside, DEEDI)
have a pale stripe down the back. The forewings are narrow, mottled
with darker patches and are semi-transparent. The hind wings are
transparent and colourless except for a large smoky black spot at the
tip of each wing. The shanks (tibia) of the hind legs are bright red.
The hind wings and the red shanks are the characters that distinguish
Australian plague locusts from other locusts and grasshoppers.
Nymphs resemble adults but with no wings and dark shanks, and grow
to about 25 mm. They are brown to grey, sometimes with a white stripe
along the back. Wing buds develop in later instars. The nymphs have a
white X-shaped marking on top of the thorax, which distinguishes them
from the wingless grasshopper.
Wingless grasshopper
Phaulacridium vittatum
Adult males are smaller than adult females, which are about 20 mm
long. Their colour and pattern are variable but generally brown. The
hind femur (thigh) has a black mark at the mid point and the tibia
is orange. There may be two white stripes running the length of the
body. Wings are reduced to small scales, although at high densities
adults may develop wings. Nymphal stages are known as hoppers and Wingless grasshopper adults
resemble adults, but are smaller in size. Adults and hoppers chew the
leaves of grasses, weeds and a range of vegetable and fruit crops.
43

Mole cricket
Gryllotalpa spp.
Mole crickets burrow in the soil and chew on the roots or tubers
of potatoes, pasture grasses and other crops. They also feed on
seedlings. Adults are 40 mm long and brown in colour. Their forelegs
are broad and flat to assist in digging. Nymphs resemble adults but
are smaller.
Mole cricket
Mole cricket damage to a potato
Black field cricket

Teleogryllus commodus
The adults and nymphs feed on vegetables, pastures and field crops
causing seed, seedling and root damage. Some crops fail to emerge
because of damage to germinating seed. Adults are 25–30 mm long
and black in colour. Adult males have rough wings that produce a song
when rubbed together.
Adult black field cricket
44

Flies (Diptera)
Queensland fruit fly

Bactrocera tryoni
Fruit fly larvae are borers. The maggots feed on most cultivated fruit,
including tomato and capsicum. Adult females lay small batches
of eggs beneath the surface of the fruit. The larvae hatch as the
fruit ripens, then tunnel into the flesh. Rot soon develops and skin
discoloration occurs around the sting mark. The adult is 8 mm long and
is wasplike in appearance. It has a reddish-brown body, yellow patches
Queensland fruit fly (left) and
on the shoulders, two yellow stripes on the upper surface of the cucumber fly (right)
thorax and a triangular yellow section at the rear of the thorax. Larvae
(maggots) are white, grow to 7 mm long when mature and can spring by
curling and then releasing back into the straight shape. Eggs are laid
into fruit and are white and sickle-shaped.
Green tomato showing stinging by

Queensland fruit fly
Fruit fly eggs laid beneath the skin

surface
Fruit fly larvae in a tomato
Cucumber fly
Bactrocera cucumis
Cucurbits are the main hosts of cucumber fly, but papaws and tomatoes
also are hosts. The adult fly is wasplike and about 8 mm long. It has
an orange-brown thorax with three yellow stripes on the upper surface
(which distinguishes it from Queensland fruit fly) and a reddish-brown
abdomen. The larvae are carrot-shaped, creamy white maggots that
tunnel in the flesh of the fruit. They can spring by curling and then 45
releasing back to the straight shape.

Mediterranean fruit fly (or medfly)
Ceratitis capitata
Hosts include many fruit and solanaceous vegetables. The adult fly
is 3–5 mm long. Its thorax is mottled with black and yellowish-white
markings, and its abdomen is yellow-brown with two pale cross bands.
The wings have characteristic yellowish-brown bands and spots. Larvae
are white maggots, growing to 8 mm long, that tunnel inside the fruit.
Mediterranean fruit fly

(photograph courtesy of E Laidlaw
Bean fly
Ophiomyia phaseoli
Bean fly larvae are leaf miners and stem borers of beans and some
other legumes, first mining the leaves and then tunnelling into the
lower stem where they pupate. Infested young bean plants will wilt and
die. In mature plants, larval tunnelling will cause leaf stalks and stems
to swell and crack. The plant is then susceptible to breaking in the
wind at ground level. Surviving plants will have reduced yields. White
Adult bean fly on leaf showing
puncture marks on bean leaves are symptoms of a bean fly infestation. oviposition sites
Adult flies are 2–3 mm long and glossy black. Maggots are whitish and (photograph courtesy of J Wessels, DEEDI)
the pupae are brown and about 2.5 mm long. Both can be found inside
damaged stems.
Bean stalk damaged by bean fly—

note the larvae
46

Beet leafminer and cabbage leafminer
Liriomyza chenopodii and L. brassicae
Adult leafminers are small flies (1–2.5 mm long), grey to black in
colour with a yellow head and yellow markings on the body. Beet
leafminer larvae, which are small, tunnel in the stalks and veins of
leaves of beetroot, silver beet, spinach and some weeds. They make
thin mines that enlarge to distinct tunnels as the larvae grow. The
white to yellowish larvae pupate to form brown pupae about 2 mm
long. Cabbage leafminer larvae tunnel in the upper surface of leaves Liriomyza leafminer adult
(photograph courtesy of M Malipatil)
of cruciferous vegetables, forming narrow mines. They pupate outside
the mines.
Several Liriomyza species that are serious pests of vegetables overseas
are considered a threat to the Australian vegetable industry, were
they to arrive here. They look very similar to the beet and cabbage
leafminers, requiring a skilled taxonomist to identify them correctly.
Mines in a leaf caused by Liriomyza

leafminer larvae
(photograph courtesy of E Jovicich, DEEDI)
Onion maggot (or seedling maggot)

Delia platura
Onion maggots usually feed on and damage seedlings of vegetables
such as onions, beans, crucifers and cucurbits but will also damage
cauliflower curds. The adults are small (3–5 mm), greyish-brown flies
that look a little like small house flies. The larvae are yellowish-white
maggots up to 6 mm long that bore into the stems of seedlings below
ground. Pupae are brown, barrel-shaped and about 5 mm long.
Onion maggot adult

Atherigona
Atherigona orientalis
Atherigona flies are usually associated with damaged fruit. The adult
flies are grey-brown in colour, 3–4 mm long and look like small house
flies. The eggs (which are laid on the surface of the fruit, often around
the calyx or at damage sites) are creamy white and rectangular in shape
with a sculptured surface. The larvae are whitish, grow to about 6 mm
long, look similar to fruit fly larvae but have two raised, often darker
coloured prominences at the rear end.
Vinegar fly
Drosphila spp.
Vinegar, ferment or rot flies are attracted to and feed on well-ripened
fruit and decomposing organic matter. The adult females lay their eggs
on fruit that is decaying or damaged. Maggots develop and feed in the
47
fruit. Adults are 3 mm long and reddish-brown with bright, red eyes.
Maggots are 4 mm long.

Ants (Hymenoptera, family Formicidae)
There many species of ants and their beneficial effects are often
counteracted by their pest activities. Ants can be scavengers, predators
or plant feeders. They may also feed on the sugary secretions of
aphids, mealybugs and scale insects, and in return may protect the
pests from parasites and predators. They are sometimes involved
in spreading young pests from plant to plant. Seed-harvesting ants
remove and carry off small seeds and the germ of large seeds. Ants
live in colonies in which individuals have different functions. Foraging
workers are the most commonly seen.
Mites (Acarina)
Two-spotted mite
Tetranychus urticae
Adults and nymphs feed by puncturing surface cells on leaves and soft
stems on a wide range of plants. Individual mites are just visible to the
naked eye, being about 0.5 mm long. Females are oval and pale green
to yellow. They may change colour to orange or light red. Two dark spots
can be seen on the female’s body. Males are smaller and elongated.
Eggs are small, clear and round. These mites are usually found on the
underside of leaves surrounded by the webs that they spin. Feeding Two-spotted mite adults and eggs
causes mottling and yellowing of leaves, and reduced production. The
bean spider mite (Tetranychus ludeni) is uniformly red in colour and
without spots. Immature stages are yellow-green and may show dark
spots near the middle of the body.
Eggplant leaf damaged by

two-spotted mites
(photograph courtesy of S Heisswolf, DEEDI)
48

Tomato russet mite
Aculops lycopersici
Adults are very small and can only be seen with magnification using a
hand lens or microscope. They are cream coloured and carrot-shaped.
Typical feeding damage is russeting (reddening) of stems and loss of
stem hairs. Damage to tomatoes can be very severe and they will
also affect other solanaceous vegetables such as eggplant, potato
and capsicum.
Tomato russet mites
Damaged tomato stems with

undamaged stem (bottom)
Broad mite
Polyphagotarsonemus latus
Broad mites infest a wide range of vegetables and other plants. Usually
found in young growth, they cause twisting and distortion of leaves
similar to that caused by 2,4-D, and can cause scarring, discolouration
and distortion of fruit (e.g. in capsicums).
Adults are shiny, translucent white to pale yellow, with oval bodies
0.2–0.25 mm long. Males are very active, and may be seen carrying Broad mites and broad mite eggs
females in a crosswise position. The eggs are very distinctive. They
are about 0.1 mm long, oval-shaped, translucent, with a convex upper
surface covered with five or six rows of white tubercules (knobs).
Redlegged earth mite and blue oat mite

Halotydeus destructor and Penthaleus spp.
These mites (while primarily pests of pastures) are important pests of
vegetables, including peas, beets, crucifers and lettuce. They feed on
the upper surfaces of leaves by puncturing the plant cells and sucking
the sap. Their feeding causes silvery or white blemishes on leaves,
distorted leaves and wilting and death of seedlings. The mites are
similar in appearance but have distinguishing characteristics, so can
quite easily be separated.
Blue oat mite
Redlegged earth mites are about 1 mm long (i.e. pinhead size), with a (photograph courtesy of DA Ironside, DEEDI)
velvety black, somewhat flattened body and eight pinkish-red legs.
The immature stages look like the adults. They generally feed in largish
groups and prefer broadleaf plants.
Blue oat mite adults are about 1 mm long with a purplish-blue rounded
body, a distinguishing red spot near the rear end of the body and eight
red legs. The immature stages are pink-orange, then brownish, then
green. Blue oat mites usually feed separately or in small groups. They
prefer grasses but will feed on broadleaf plants.
49

Slugs and snails (Gastropoda)
Slugs and snails are gastropods, not insects, but they are mentioned
here as the damage they cause to plants may be confused with insect
damage.
Slugs and snails can range in size from 10 mm to 100 mm. They have
a soft, unsegmented body and a prominent head with eyes and
two tentacles. Many snails have a single, coiled shell into which
they retreat. Slugs and snails move by gliding along mucus or slime
produced by glands on their large muscular foot. They prefer moist Black keeled slug (bottom) and
environments. reticulated slug (top)
(photograph courtesy of P Mangano
Most pest species of slugs and snails are introduced species. They © Western Australian Agriculture Authority, 2007)
cause damage by feeding on seeds, underground tubers, seedlings and

young plants, and can be a contaminant at harvest. Typical damage on
seedlings and young plants is irregular pieces chewed from leaves or
shredded leaf edges.
Common pest snails and slugs include the common garden snail
(Helix aspersa), white Italian snail (Theba pisana), vineyard snail
(Cernuella virgata), pointed snail (Cochlicella spp.), black keeled slug
(Milax gagates), reticulated slug (Deroceras reticulatum) and brown
slug (Deroceras panormitanum).
Common garden snail
(photograph courtesy of C Carson)
50

Important natural enemies in vegetable crops
This section describes common natural enemies found in Australian
vegetable crops. They are listed according to order.
Predators and parasites

Predators hunt and capture their prey, killing it as they feed on it.
Parasites invade the body of their host (endoparasites) or attach
themselves to their host (ectoparasites), and feed on it while it is still
living. They weaken the host but may not necessarily cause death.
However, insect parasites (which feed on other insects) invariably
kill their host and are known as parasitoids. Parasitoids have a free-
living adult stage (i.e. the adults live independently of the host) and a
parasitic immature stage.
Many parasitoids and predators are very susceptible to insecticides,
while others have some degree of tolerance. Most parasitoids and
predators are very important in the ‘natural’ control of pests. There are
many that we don’t know about, and many that may play only a minor
role in some seasons.
Only a small selection of the many insect predators and parasitoids are
mentioned here.
Parasitic wasps and predatory wasps (Hymenoptera)
Parasitic wasps
Parasitic wasps lay their eggs in a wide range of eggs, larvae and pupae
of other insects and arachnids. The wasp larvae feed and develop
inside the host, with some pupating inside and some outside the host.
In vegetables, wasp parasites are important in controlling heliothis,
potato moth, cabbage white butterfly, cabbage moth, whiteflies and
aphids. The adult wasps feed on nectar and pollen from flowering
plants. Some feed on the honeydew secretions of their target hosts.
Large wasps (more than 10 mm long)

Adults are often slender-bodied with long antennae, and are red or
orange in colour with black or steely blue markings. Female wasps have
a long ovipositor to penetrate the host insect when laying her eggs.
Hosts include many moth, butterfly and beetle larvae. Some species
included in this category are orange caterpillar parasite (Netelia
producta), two-toned caterpillar parasite (Heteropelma scaposum),
banded caterpillar parasite (Ichneumon promissorius) and yellow flower Orange caterpillar parasite
wasp (Campsomeris tasmaniensis). The female of the banded caterpillar parasitising heliothis larva
parasite lays its eggs in moth pupae in the soil, while the yellow flower (photograph courtesy of DA Ironside, DEEDI)
wasp parasitises scarab beetle larvae in the soil.
Two-toned caterpillar parasite that

has emerged from host pupa
(photograph courtesy of DA Ironside, DEEDI) 51

Small wasps (1–10 mm long)
A number of species of small wasps also parasitise a wide range of
moth, butterfly and beetle larvae, as well as scale insects, aphids and
mealybugs. The adults are slender-bodied and many of them are black.
Examples are Aphidius spp. that parasitise aphids; Orgilus lepidus,
Apanteles subandinus and Copidosoma spp. that parasitise potato
moth; species of Cotesia that parasitise brassica pests; and Diadegma
spp. and Apanteles spp. that parasitise diamondback moth. Microplitis
demolitor and Cotesia kazak parasitise heliothis larvae. Aphidius colemani with parasitised
aphids or ‘mummies’
Copidosoma sp. cocoons in

parasitised potato moth larvae
Cotesia pupae on cabbage white

butterfly larva
Diadegma sp.—a parasite of

cabbage moth
Microplitis pupa attached to a

parasitised heliothis larva
52

Tiny wasps (less than 1 mm long)
There are also many species of tiny wasps that parasitise insect pests.
Native species of Encarsia and Eretmocerus parasitise whiteflies. The
introduced Eretmocerus hayati parasitises silverleaf whitefly. The
adult wasps are 0.8–1 mm long and yellow to yellow-brown in colour.
The females lay their eggs under young whitefly nymphs, and the
wasp larvae penetrate the nymphs and feed and develop within them.
Encarsia formosa is an important parasite of greenhouse whitefly. The
wasps have a dark head and thorax and yellowish abdomen. Eretmocerus wasp with silverleaf
whitefly nymphs—note the wasp
Other tiny wasp parasites such as Trichogramma spp., exit hole in empty pupal shell
Trichogrammatoidea spp. and Telenomus spp. are important egg (photograph courtesy of S Subramaniam, DEEDI)
parasites of moths and butterflies. They are known to parasitise eggs

of heliothis and looper caterpillars, although most species have a
preference for a single-host species. Up to five wasps may emerge from
each host egg. The Trichogramma wasp adult (which is a minute, black
wasp) lays up to three eggs into the eggs of insect pests like heliothis.
Host eggs turn black as the Trichogramma larvae develop within. The
adults are too small to be easily seen in the field and often the first sign
of their presence is when parasitised eggs turn black.
The imported Trissolcus basalis (green vegetable bug egg parasite) is
an important parasitoid of green vegetable bug eggs. Trichogramma sp. on a heliothis egg
(photograph courtesy of ME Badgley)
Telenomus sp. on a heliothis egg

(photograph courtesy of B Sholtz, DEEDI)
Trissolcus basalis and parasitised

green vegetable bug eggs
53

Predatory wasps
Many wasps are predators of insect and arachnid eggs, larvae, nymphs,
pupae and adults. Some are both predators and parasites. Predatory
wasps usually collect a large number of prey and can be very effective
in controlling pests. They build nests of paper or mud (which may be
single or multi-celled) into which spiders, caterpillars, flies, bugs and
other soft-bodied insects are placed. The prey is usually stung and then
stored in the nest in a partly paralysed state. Adult wasps are usually
yellow to orange in colour with black or brown markings.
Some species create a nest by burrowing in the soil. Others nest in
cavities in plants or protected places. Mud-dauber wasps, also known
as slender mud nest builders (Sceliphron spp.), are predators of a range
of insects and spiders. Prey are sealed in mud nests where they are
devoured by developing larvae. Adults are black and yellow with a long,
threadlike waist. They are a relatively large wasp, between 12 mm and
20 mm long. Mud nests are built on stones and walls.
Parasitic and predatory flies (Diptera)

Many flies are predators or parasites of a range of insect and arachnid
eggs, larvae, nymphs, pupae and adults. Some are both predators
and parasites.
Parasitic flies
Tachinidae
Tachinid fly larvae are internal parasites of a wide range of insect
larvae and adults. Larvae of moths and butterflies are often targeted,
and bugs are also parasitised. The eggs are generally laid on the
surface of the host. When they hatch, the larvae enter the host through
openings such as breathing pores. In some species the eggs are laid in
protected places and the newly hatched larvae have to find the host.
Adult tachinid fly
After hatching, the maggots bore into the host and feed on its tissue. (photograph courtesy of B Ingram, DEEDI)
Adults are small- to medium-sized flies, 4–10 mm long. They are thick-
bodied, hairy and may be dull black, grey or metallic in colour. Many
have an abdomen with a checkerboard appearance. Examples include
Carcelia spp. and Chaetophthalmus spp. The green vegetable bug
parasitic fly (Trichopoda giacomellii) parasitises green vegetable bugs.
Adult flies feed on nectar or honeydew secretions from other insects.
Adult Trichopoda fly

54

Predatory flies
Hover flies
Syrphidae
There are many species of hover flies. The larvae are sluggish, legless
maggots, often green in colour, which feed by puncturing their prey and
consuming the fluid contents. They are important predators of aphids
and other small, slow-moving insects, including moth and butterfly
larvae. All stages of the prey, including eggs, are attacked. Adult hover
flies are up to 12 mm long and resemble bees and wasps due to the
Hover fly adult
black and yellow bands on the abdomen. They feed on nectar and
pollen, and are often seen hovering around weeds.
Hover fly pupa (left) and larva (right)
Robber flies
Asilidae
Both adults and larvae prey on a wide range of insects. Adults ‘pounce’
on their prey from the air. The adults range in size from 10 mm to 25 mm
in length. They are slender-bodied and hairy, and are mainly grey or
black in colour, sometimes with red or yellow markings.
55

Predatory bugs (Hemiptera)
Spined predatory shield bug

Oechalia schellenbergii
Adults and nymphs are predators on caterpillars like loopers and
heliothis. The strong, piercing/sucking mouthparts are used to
impale the prey and suck the body fluids. The adult is 9–12 mm long
and mottled grey to brown with a large, lateral spike on each side of
the thorax.
Adult spined predatory shield bug
piercing a heliothis larva
(photograph courtesy of C Freebairn, DEEDI)
Spined predatory shield bug egg raft

Spined predatory shield bug nymph

Glossy shield bug

Cermatulus nasalis
Adults and nymphs are predators of caterpillars such as heliothis and
loopers. The adults are similar to the spined predatory shield bug but
without the spines on the thorax. The nymphs, like those of spined
predatory shield bug, are dark red and brown.
Adult glossy shield bug

Glossy shield bug nymph

56

Assassin bug
Reduviidae
A number of species, including the beekiller (Pristhesancus
plagipennis), are useful predators of pest insects. Adults and nymphs
are predators of a range of insects, many of which are pests. They have
very strong, curved, piercing/sucking mouthparts that are used to
pierce the hard, outer skeleton of their prey. Adults range in size from
10 mm to 30 mm depending on the species. They are usually drab red-
Adult assassin bug with prey
brown in colour and ambush their prey by waiting quietly near flowers (photograph courtesy of P Grundy, DEEDI)
and other places frequented by insects. Nymphal stages sometimes
camouflage themselves with plant debris.
Assassin bug nymph

Bigeyed bug
Geocoris spp.
These bugs are easily recognised by their very large eyes. Adults are
about 3 mm long, grey/steely black in colour with brown translucent
wings and are very fast moving. They prey on small, soft-bodied insects
and mites.
Bigeyed bug adult
Damsel bug
Nabis spp.
Nymphs and adults pierce and suck the contents of eggs and
caterpillars of heliothis and loopers, and also feed on leafhoppers,
aphids and spider mites. Adults are 7–9 mm long, with a tan or grey,
slender body and long legs and antennae.
Damsel bug adult

Damsel bug nymph

57

Mirids
Miridae
A number of species of mirids are predators of other insects and also
sometimes feed on plants. Most are less than 3 mm long and range
in colour from brown and yellow to green. One common species is the
brown smudge bug (Deraeocoris signatus). It will feed on heliothis
eggs and aphids. Apple dimpling bugs (Campylomma liebknechtii)
will feed on mites and heliothis eggs, although they also feed on
Adult brown smudge bug with prey
soft plant tissue.
Brown smudge bug nymph

(photograph courtesy of J Duff, DEEDI)
Apple dimpling bug adult

(photograph courtesy of RH Broadley, DEEDI)
Minute pirate bugs

Anthocoridae—Orius spp.
These small bugs (2–3 mm) are dark brown to black in colour. They feed
on insect eggs and thrips, and are an important predator of western
flower thrips.
Adult minute pirate bug

58

Predatory beetles (Coleoptera)
Ladybirds
Coccinellidae
There are a large number of ladybirds that are
effective predators of vegetable pests. They
prey on a wide range of soft-bodied insects Minute two-spotted ladybird
adults and larva
and mites, including aphids, mealybugs,
scale insects, two-spotted mites and Mite-eating ladybird adults,
European red mites. Most are small, between larvae and pupae with
remains of mite infestation
2 mm and 4 mm in length. Their bodies are
(photograph courtesy of D Smith, DEEDI)
generally rounded with red, orange, yellow
and black markings, although a few are
predominantly black. Ladybird larvae have a
tapered abdomen and some may be covered
with a waxy substance and appear similar to
Common spotted ladybird adult
mealybugs. Eggs are laid in clusters of 5 to
100, are generally yellow or cream in colour
and are cylindrical with tapered ends.
The major ladybird species are: Transverse ladybird adults
and larva attacking aphids
• mite-eating ladybird (Stethorus spp.)—
small, black ladybirds about 1.5–2 mm
long, which are very efficient predators of
mites and aphids Common spotted ladybird larva
• transverse ladybird (Coccinella
transversalis)—adults, which are about
4 mm long, are yellow-orange with black,
V-shaped marks on each wing cover
Striped ladybird adults
• striped ladybird (Micraspis frenata)— and larva
adults are 4 mm long and have a striped (photograph courtesy of BA Franzmann, DEEDI)
pattern on the wing covers
• maculate or three banded ladybird Variable ladybird adults
(Harmonia octomaculata)—adults are 5 mm (photograph courtesy of RH Broadley, DEEDI)
long with three rows of spots across the

wing covers giving a banded appearance
• minute two-spotted ladybird (Diomus
notescens)—adults are 2.5 mm long and
dark in colour with two orange spots on
Three banded ladybird adults,
the wing covers larva and pupa
• common spotted ladybird (Harmonia (photograph courtesy of DA Ironside, DEEDI) Variable ladybird larva feeding
on aphids
conformis)—larger species up to 7 mm long
with prominent spots
• variable ladybird (Coelophora
inaequalis)—adults are 5 mm long with
variable wing cover pattern
• spotted amber ladybird, also known as
the white collared ladybird (Hippodamia
Three banded ladybird eggs
variegata)—adults are 5 mm long, with
Spotted amber ladybird adult
red to orange to yellow wing covers with (photograph courtesy of T Dennien)
several black spots. The front of the
thorax (pronotum) is black with a white
edge, or collar.
59

Ground beetles (or carab beetles)
Carabidae
This is a very large family of beetles, most of which are predators.
Almost all are ground-dwelling, sheltering under rocks and other
debris. They are mainly nocturnal feeders and because they are not
often seen, their importance tends to be overlooked. They prey on a
wide range of insects, spiders, worms, slugs and snails—all stages
of which are consumed. Size varies from 5 mm to 25 mm in length
and they are usually dull black or brown in colour. A few species have
brighter metallic colours. They have long legs, strong mandibles and
the protective plate behind the head has a distinctive ‘shield’ shape.
Larvae are slender with strong mouthparts.
Lacewings (Neuroptera)
Green lacewing
Mallada spp.
Green lacewing larvae are predators of a wide range of caterpillars,
aphids, scale insects and moth eggs. They are squat, six-legged
voracious hunters that clamp their well-developed jaws on soft-bodied
insects or eggs and then suck up the contents. They camouflage
themselves with the carcasses of their prey. Adults are green to yellow,
10–18 mm long and have lacy, see-through wings. They lay their eggs Green lacewing adult
on long, flexible stalks that may be 4–8 mm long. (photograph courtesy of J Wessels, DEEDI)
Green lacewing larva with prey

corpses on its back
Green lacewing eggs

60

Brown lacewing
Micromus tasmaniae
Adults and larvae are predators of moth caterpillars and aphids and
their eggs. Larvae are smooth with brown and white markings. They are
longer and thinner than green lacewing larvae and do not camouflage
themselves with the corpses of their prey. They suck the contents of
their prey through their large jaws. Adults are pale brown and smaller
than green lacewings. Their wings have a brown, speckled appearance.
Females lay their cream, oval eggs singly, attached by one side to the Brown lacewing adult
underside of leaves. Adults chew their prey.
Brown lacewing larva feeding

on aphids
Dragonflies and damselflies (Odonata)

Adult dragonflies and damselflies feed on flying insects, which they
catch ‘on the wing’. Their general importance as predators is not
fully understood, but they do catch small moths and flies. The larvae
are aquatic.
Dragonfly
Adults are predators of flying insects, including moths, bugs and
beetles. The aquatic larvae feed on small water animals such as
beetles and mosquito larvae. The larvae do not resemble adults. Adults
are slender bodied with a large head. The forewings and hind wings
differ in shape and venation.
Damselfly
Both adults and larvae prey on a range of insects. The adults catch
various insects in flight and the larvae feed in the water on mosquito
larvae and other small aquatic insects. Adults are similar in appearance
to dragonflies (but are smaller) and the forewings and hind wings are
the same shape and have similar venation. The larvae are aquatic.
Other insect predators
Praying mantid
Mantodea
Most species are green, brown or mottled in colour. Prey are caught in
distinctive, strong, raptorial (adapted for seizing prey) front legs. They
prey on a wide range of insects and other small animals.
61
Praying mantid

Common brown earwig
Labidura truncata
The common brown earwig is a nocturnal predator of caterpillars
and other small animals. It will also attack heliothis pupae in their
chambers underground. Adults have distinct ‘forceps’ at the tail end
of the abdomen and the large, membranous hind wings are folded
beneath slate blue wing covers. They hide on and in the ground during
the day. Adult females guard their oval, white eggs and young nymphs
Common brown earwig attacking
in burrows in the ground.
a pupa
Ants
Formicidae
As stated in the previous section on pests (see p. 48), ants have a wide
range of feeding habits, but some species are very effective
as predators.
Spiders and mites (Arachnida)
Spiders
Araneae
Web spiders
Web spiders build sticky webs to entangle their prey. Orbweavers
(Araneus spp. and Argiope spp.) build large, circular webs. Some
species wait under nearby leaves, others in the centre of the web.
Tangle web spiders (Achaearanea veruculata) build an untidy web,
often with no recognisable pattern. Most species hide under
nearby leaves.
Orbweaving spider (Araneus sp.)
Tangle web spider

(photograph courtesy of RH Broadley, DEEDI)
62

Hunting spiders
Hunting spiders rarely build webs, except for protection of eggs. They
either stalk their prey or hide and ambush it.
Lynx spiders (Oxyopes spp.) are active near the tops of plants. The
abdomen is narrow and pointed. Wolf spiders (Lycosa spp.) generally
hunt on the ground. They may build a shallow burrow. Flower spiders
(Diaea spp.) hide in flowers and ambush small insects. Nightstalking
spiders (Cheiracanthium spp.) hunt at night. These spiders are pale Female wolf spider guarding her
yellow with a faint, grey mark on the abdomen. The ‘head’ of one egg sac
species, the yellow nightstalking spider, is pale orange. Jumping (photograph courtesy of DA Ironside, DEEDI)
spiders (Salticidae) hunt during the day. They have two very large
forward-facing eyes that give them excellent binocular vision.
Flower spider
Jumping spider
Mites
Acarina
Chilean predatory mite

Phytoseiulus persimilis
This predator is produced commercially for release into crops for the
management of two-spotted mite. It is larger with longer legs than the
two-spotted mite and has a shiny, orange, pear-shaped body. Eggs are
elliptical in shape and also larger than two-spotted mite eggs. Juvenile
predatory mites are a pale, salmon colour.
Chilean predatory mite with

two-spotted mite in background
63

Montdorensis predatory mite
Transeius montdorensis
These predatory mites are useful predators of thrips, whiteflies and
other small insects, particularly in protected cropping. The pale, pear-
shaped adults are about the same size as two-spotted mites.
Montdorensis predatory mite

(photograph courtesy of L Pilkington)
Cucumeris predatory mite

Neoseiulus cucumeris
These small, pear-shaped cream coloured mites are efficient predators
of thrips larvae and some mites, particularly in protected cropping.
Cucumeris predatory mite

(photograph courtesy of Australasian Biological
Control Inc.)
Hypoaspis predatory mites

Hypoaspis spp.
These soil-dwelling predatory mites are useful predators of fungus
gnat larvae.
Hypoaspis predatory mite

(photograph courtesy of Australasian Biological
Control Inc.)
Centipedes (Chilopoda)
Centipedes are long animals with many segments and pairs of legs.
Contrary to the name, very few centipedes have 100 or more legs.
Most are voracious predators, feeding on insects, spiders and other
small animals. They have a pair of poison glands (which are actually
modified legs of the first body segment) underneath the head and they
use these glands to paralyse their prey.
Centipede
64

Pathogens
Insects and arachnids can become infected with a range of diseases.
In nature, these diseases tend to have the most impact when pest
numbers are high and the weather is humid or rainy. Some insect
disease pathogens are available as commercial insecticides, and
examples include the bacterial insecticides made from Bacillus
thuringiensis and the insecticides made from the nuclear polyhedrosis
virus specific to and effective against heliothis.
Viral diseases
Outbreaks of viral diseases, such as that caused by nuclear
polyhedrosis virus, may be seen sporadically in vegetable crops.
Viruses are usually specific to a particular insect species or group of
related species. One nuclear polyhedrosis virus affects the larvae of
heliothis and another the larvae of cabbage white butterfly. Infected
larvae first become pale, then die, turning into liquidy sacks, and are
often found with the head characteristically hanging down. Granulosis
viruses infect some insects (e.g. potato moth larvae).
Virus-infected heliothis larva

showing characteristic head-down
position
65

Fungal diseases
Fungal diseases affect aphids as well as larvae of some vegetable
pests. The fungal spores invade the body of the host insect and give it
a colour and sheen characteristic of that particular fungus. Prolonged
wet or humid conditions favour the development of fungal diseases
and infected larvae become stiff and are anchored to the plant by
fungal threads.
Cabbage moth larva infected with

Entomophthora fungus (bottom),
with healthy larva (top)
(photograph courtesy of R Teakle, DEEDI)
Scarab beetle larva infected by

a fungus
Cabbage cluster caterpillar infected

with the fungus Nomuraea rileyi
Bacterial disease
Pests may become infected with bacterial diseases. One such disease
is caused by Bacillus thuringiensis. Commercial preparations of this
bacterium that are specific to moth and butterfly larvae are available.
Dark, Bacillus thuringiensis–

infected heliothis larva
Bacillus thuringiensis–infected
diamondback moth larvae—
dead (left), dying (middle) and
66 healthy (right)

Glossary
Abdomen The third or posterior major division of the insect body
Alatae Winged forms (e.g. in aphids)
Antennae ‘Feelers’ at the front of the head, which may be long or short, slender, branched or
feathery and sensitive to touch, smell and sometimes sound
Apterae Wingless forms (e.g. in aphids)
Brassicas Vegetables in the genus Brassica such as broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, brussel
sprouts and turnips (see also ‘crucifers’)
Biotype A strain of an insect species
Cocoon Silken sac covering the pupa
Compound eyes Eyes on either side of the adult insect head, which consist of many units each made up
of a lens system and a smaller number of sense cells
Crucifers Vegetables in the family Brassicaceae (or Cruciferae), including the brassicas and
some other crops such as rocket, radish, horseradish and cress (see also ‘brassicas’)
Cucurbits Vegetables in the family Cucurbitaceae such as cucumber, pumpkin, squash
and zucchini
Curd The edible flower head of cauliflower and broccoli
Dorsal The upper surface
Ectoparasites Parasites that live on the exterior of their hosts
Egg raft Cluster of eggs; egg mass
Endoparasites Parasites that live inside their hosts
Femur The third and usually the stoutest segment of the leg
Forewings Front pair of wings
Frass Solid larval insect excrement; faeces
Halteres Reduced hind wings that are used as balancing organs in flies
Hind wings Rear pair of wings
Instar Immature stage between moults
Larva (pl. larvae) Immature stage that hatches from an egg and passes through a life cycle involving
complete metamorphosis (common terms: grub, caterpillar, maggot)
Mandibles Part of the insect mouthparts; large and jaw-like in chewing insects and
needle-shaped in piercing and sucking insects
Mealy Floury
Metamorphosis Progression through stages from egg to adult
Moult Shedding of skin from previous instar
Mouthparts Chewing, sucking, piercing and sucking part of the head that takes food
Nocturnal Active at night
Nymph Immature stage of an insect that undergoes incomplete metamorphosis
Ocellus (pl. ocelli) Simple insect eye
Ovipositor Egg-laying tube at the end of the female abdomen
67
Parasite An organism that lives on another, obtaining food, shelter or other needs
Parasitise To attack or infest as a parasite
Parasitoid A parasite that slowly kills the host, usually near the end of the parasite’s
development
Pathogen A microorganism that causes disease
Predator An organism that kills and eats other organisms
Prolegs Soft, fleshy, false legs on the abdomen of some immature stages, such as caterpillars
Pronotum The upper and dorsal part of the first segment of the thorax
Pupa (pl. pupae) Resting stage between larva and adult
Raptorial Adapted for seizing prey, as in the raptorial legs of the praying mantid
Russetting To make reddish-brown in colour
Setae Hairlike projections
Siphunculi Tubular structures at the end of the aphid abdomen
Solanaceous Vegetables in the family Solanaceae such as capsicum, eggplant, potato and tomato
Thoracic legs Legs on the thorax
Thorax The second section of the insect body (between the head and the abdomen) to which
the legs and wings are attached
Tibia The fourth segment of the insect leg
Tubercule A small knoblike or rounded protuberance
Vector An organism that transports a pathogen from one host to another
Venation Pattern of veins on insect wings
Wingspan The distance between the tips of the outspread wings
68
Further reading and bibliography
There are many books available on insect pests and their management in vegetables and other crops. The
following is a selection of those, but you may find others that are informative and useful. Books aimed at
the home gardener can also be useful as they often include colour photos and drawings, sometimes with
outstanding pictures of insects and arachnids. Check with your local bookshop, at specialist book suppliers
or with the online bookshops of your state agricultural department. Some of the books listed may no longer
be in print, but they may be available in libraries or at your local agricultural department’s offices.
Specialist book suppliers include Johima Books (www.johima.com.au) and the Rural Bookshop
(www.ruralbookshop.com.au). An internet search on ‘bookshops and horticulture’ or ‘bookshops and
agriculture’ should provide a useful list.
References for collecting and preserving insects and arachnids

Schauff, ME (ed.) 2005, Collecting and preserving insects and mites: tools and techniques, Systematic
Entomology Laborator, USDA, National Museum of Natural History, Washington DC.
Available online at www.ars.usda.gov
Upton, MS and Mantle, BL 2010, Collecting, preserving and studying insects and allied forms, 5th edn,
Australian Entomological Society Miscellaneous Publication No. 3, Canberra.
Available online at www.austentsoc.org.au
Books on insects and crops

Bailey, P (ed.) 2007, Pests of field crops and pastures, CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood.
This book includes photographs, descriptions and management notes for pests of field crops, many of which
also are pests of vegetables.
Brough, E, Elder, R & Beavis C (eds) 1994, Managing insects and mites in horticultural crops, Information
Series QI94010, Department of Primary Industries, Queensland.
This book includes descriptions and management notes of major insect and mite pests, but no illustrations.
Fullelove, G (ed.) 1992, Tomato pests and disorders, Information Series QI91021, Department of Primary
Industries, Queensland.
This book includes an extensive collection of colour photos with management notes.
Heisswolf, S, Carey, D, Walsh, B, Davis, B & Henderson C, 2004, Brassica problem solver and beneficial
identifier, Information Series QI04005, Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Queensland.
This book includes photographs and descriptions of brassica problems, including those caused by insect
pests, with a section on beneficial insects.
Hely, PC, Pasfield, G & Gellately JG 1982, Insect pests of fruit and vegetables in NSW, Inkata Press, Melbourne,
Sydney and London.
This book includes photographs, diagrams and descriptions of pests and their damage. However, the control
measures are out of date and should be ignored.
Horne, P, De Boer, R & Crawford, D 2002, Insects and diseases of Australian potato crops, Melbourne
University Press, Melbourne.
This book has photographs and life cycle and management information on beneficial and pest insects and
diseases of potatoes.
Llewellyn, R (ed.) 2002, The good bug book, 2nd edn, Integrated Pest Management Pty. Ltd. for Australasian
Biological Control Inc.
This book lists suppliers of beneficial insects and mites, and also gives detailed descriptions of these
natural predators.
Identification of insects, spiders and mites in vegetable crops: workshop manual 69

Lovatt, J (ed.) 2004, Sweet corn problem solver and beneficial identifier, Information Series QI04008,
Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Queensland.
This book includes photographs and descriptions of sweet corn problems, including those caused by insect
pests, with a section on beneficial insects.
Swaine, G, Ironside, DA & Corocoran RJ (eds) 1991, Insect pests of fruit and vegetables, 2nd edn, Information
Series QI91018, Department of Primary Industries, Queensland.
This book includes a collection of colour photos with biological and management notes.
Ute guides
Ute guides (field guides) are small, spiral-bound books, usually printed on plasticised paper, containing
photographs and information on pest and beneficial insects in a particular crop or a related group of crops.
The guides can be taken into the field and used to identify the insects found in the crops. Ute guides have
been prepared for many horticultural and field crops and several of particular interest to vegetable growers
are listed below.
Brown, J (comp.) 2004, Insect pest guide: a guide to identifying vegetable insect pests and their natural
enemies in the dry tropics, Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Queensland.
Donald, C, Endersby, N, Ridland, P, Porter, I, Lawrence, J & Ransom L 2000, Field guide to pests, diseases and
disorders of vegetable brassicas, Agriculture Victoria, Victoria.
Available from Crop Health Services on (03) 9210 9356
Draper, V & Napier, T (eds) 2009, Pests, beneficials, diseases and disorders in cucurbits: field identification
guide, Department of Primary Industries, New South Wales.
Duff, J 2008, Green beans: insect pests, beneficials and diseases, Department of Primary Industries and
Fisheries, Queensland.
Goodwin, S & Steiner M (eds) 2002, Pests, diseases, disorders and beneficials in greenhouse vegetables: field
identification guide, NSW Agriculture, New South Wales.
Llewellyn, R 2000, Sweet corn pests and their natural enemies: an IPM field guide, BioResources Pty Ltd.
Websites
A lot of information can be obtained from the internet, provided you use reputable sites. Government
departments and universities, both in Australia and overseas, often have a lot of information on specific
pests available on their websites. Search engines are useful for finding the sites you may need.
Bibliography
Bailey, PT (ed.) 2007. Pests of field crops and pastures. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood.
CSIRO 1991, The insects of Australia, 2nd edn, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne.
Hely, PC, Pasfield, G & Gellatley JG 1982, Insect pests of fruit and vegetables in NSW, Inkata Press,
Melbourne, Sydney, London.
Swaine, G, Ironside DA & Corcoran RJ (eds) 1991, Insect pests of fruit and vegetables, 2nd edn,
Information Series Q191018, Department of Primary Industries, Queensland.
70 Identification of insects, spiders and mites in vegetable crops: workshop manual

Species and disease index
A Bemisia tabaci......................................................33
Achaearanea veruculata........................................62 Bigeyed bug.......................................................... 57
Aculops lycopersici...............................................49 Black field cricket................................................ 44
African black beetle..............................................39 Black field earwig.................................................42
Agrotis spp...........................................................24 Black keeled slug..................................................50
Agrypnus spp.......................................................39 Blue oat mite........................................................49
Ants...............................................................48, 62 Brevicoryne brassicae........................................... 35
Apanteles spp. ..................................................... 52 Broad mite............................................................49
Apanteles subandinus........................................... 52 Brown lacewing.................................................... 61
Aphidius colemani................................................ 52 Brown slug............................................................50
Aphidius spp......................................................... 52 Brown smudge bug...............................................58
Aphis gossypii......................................................34 C
Apomecyna histrio................................................39 Cabbage aphid..................................................... 35
Apple dimpling bugs.............................................58 Cabbage centre grub.............................................27
Apple weevil........................................................ 40 Cabbage cluster caterpillar...................................26
Araneus spp..........................................................62 Cabbage leafminer................................................47
Argiope spp. ........................................................62 Cabbage moth......................................................24
Armyworm............................................................29 Cabbage white butterfly........................................23
Assassin bug........................................................ 57 Campsomeris tasmaniensis................................... 51
Atherigona............................................................47 Campylomma liebknechtii.....................................58
Atherigona orientalis.............................................47 Carab beetles...................................................... 60
Atrichonotus taeniatulus....................................... 41 Carcelia spp. ........................................................54
Aulacophora spp...................................................38 Carpophilus spp....................................................42
Australian plague locust.......................................43 Carrot aphid......................................................... 35
Austroasca viridigrisea.......................................... 31 Cavariella aegopodii............................................. 35
B Centipedes.......................................................... 64
Bacillus thuringiensis........................................... 66 Ceratitis capitata.................................................. 46
Bacterial diseases............................................... 66 Cermatulus nasalis...............................................56
Bactrocera cucumis...............................................45 Cernuella virgata...................................................50
Bactrocera tryoni..................................................45 Chaetophthalmus spp. .........................................54
Banded caterpillar parasite................................... 51 Cheiracanthium spp. ............................................63
Bean blossom thrips.............................................37 Chevron cutworm.................................................30
Bean fly............................................................... 46 Chilean predatory mite..........................................63
Bean podborer......................................................27 Chortoicetes terminifera........................................43
Bean spider mite.................................................. 48 Chrysodeixis spp...................................................23
Beekiller............................................................... 57 Chrysomelidae......................................................42
Beet leafminer......................................................47 Closterotomus norvegicus.....................................33
Beet webworm......................................................28 Cluster caterpillar.................................................25
71
Coccinella transversalis.........................................59 E
Cochlicella spp......................................................50 Eggfruit caterpillar................................................28
Coelophora inaequalis..........................................59 Encarsia formosa.................................................. 53
Common brown earwig.........................................62 Eretmocerus hayati............................................... 53
Common garden snail...........................................50 European earwig...................................................43
Common spotted ladybird.....................................59 F
Conoderus spp......................................................39 False wireworms...................................................38
Copidosoma spp. ................................................. 52 Fennel aphid......................................................... 35
Corn aphid............................................................ 35 Flea beetles..........................................................42
Corn earworm.......................................................22 Flower spiders......................................................63
Cotesia kazak........................................................ 52 Forficula auricularia..............................................43
Cotesia spp. ......................................................... 52 Frankliniella occidentalis.......................................37
Cotton aphid.........................................................34 Frankliniella schultzei............................................37
Crocidolomia pavonana.........................................26 Fungal diseases................................................... 66
Cucumber fly.........................................................45 G
Cucumber moth....................................................29 Geocoris spp. ....................................................... 57
Cucumeris predatory mite.................................... 64 Glossy shield bug.................................................56
Cucurbit ladybird..................................................38 Gonocephalum carpentariae.................................38
Cucurbit stemborer...............................................39 Gonocephalum elderi............................................38
Currant lettuce aphid............................................34 Gonocephalum macleayi.......................................38
Cutworms.............................................................24 Green cutworm.....................................................30
Cylas formicarius.................................................. 41 Greenhouse whitefly.............................................32
D Green lacewing.................................................... 60
Damsel bug.......................................................... 57 Green peach aphid................................................34
Damselfly............................................................. 61 Green vegetable bug............................................. 31
Delia platura.........................................................47 Ground beetles.................................................... 60
Deraeocoris signatus............................................58 Gryllotalpa spp.................................................... 44
Deroceras panormitanum......................................50 H
Deroceras reticulatum...........................................50 Halotydeus destructor...........................................49
Desiantha diversipes............................................. 41 Hapatesus hirtus...................................................39
Diadegma spp. ..................................................... 52 Harmonia conformis..............................................59
Diaea spp.............................................................63 Harmonia octomaculata........................................59
Diamondback moth...............................................24 Helicoverpa spp....................................................22
Diaphania indica...................................................29 Heliothis...............................................................22
Diarsia intermixta..................................................30 Helix aspersa........................................................50
Diomus notescens.................................................59 Hellula hydralis.....................................................27
Dragonfly.............................................................. 61 Henosepilachna cucurbitae...................................38
Dried fruit beetles.................................................42 Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata......................38
Drosphila spp.......................................................47 Henosepilachna vigintisexpunctata.......................38
Dysaphis foeniculus.............................................. 35 Heteronychus arator..............................................39
72
Heteropelma scaposum......................................... 51 Mythimna spp.......................................................29
Hippodamia variegata...........................................59 Myzus persicae.....................................................34
Hover flies............................................................ 55 N
Hyperomyzus lactucae.......................................... 35 Nabis spp............................................................. 57
Hypoaspis predatory mites.................................. 64 Nala lividipes........................................................42
Hypoaspis spp..................................................... 64 Nasonovia ribis-nigri.............................................34
I Native budworm...................................................22
Ichneumon promissorius....................................... 51 Naupactus leucoloma........................................... 40
J Neoseiulus cucumeris.......................................... 64
Jumping spiders....................................................63 Netelia producta................................................... 51
L Neumichtis spp.....................................................30
Labidura truncata..................................................62 Nezara viridula...................................................... 31
Ladybirds.............................................................59 Nightstalking spiders............................................63
Lipaphis pseudobrassicae..................................... 35 Northern false wireworm......................................38
Liriomyza brassicae...............................................47 Nysius vinitor........................................................ 31
Liriomyza chenopodii............................................47 O
Listroderes difficilis.............................................. 40 Oechalia schellenbergii.........................................56
Loopers................................................................23 Onion maggot.......................................................47
Lycosa spp............................................................63 Onion thrips.........................................................36
Lynx spiders.........................................................63 Ophiomyia phaseoli............................................. 46
M Orange caterpillar parasite.................................... 51
Maculate ladybird.................................................59 Orbweavers..........................................................62
Mallada spp......................................................... 60 Orgilus lepidus..................................................... 52
Maruca vitrata......................................................27 Orius spp..............................................................58
Medfly................................................................. 46 Otiorhynchus cribricollis...................................... 40
Mediterranean fruit fly......................................... 46 Oxyopes spp.........................................................63
Megalurothrips usitatus........................................37 P
Melon aphid.........................................................34 Penthaleus spp.....................................................49
Melon thrips.........................................................36 Phaulacridium vittatum.........................................43
Micraspis frenata..................................................59 Phenacoccus solenopsis........................................36
Micromus tasmaniae............................................. 61 Phthorimaea operculella.......................................26
Microplitis demolitor............................................. 52 Phytoseiulus persimilis.........................................63
Milax gagates.......................................................50 Pieris rapae..........................................................23
Minute pirate bugs................................................58 Plague thrips........................................................36
Minute two-spotted ladybird.................................59 Plain pumpkin beetle............................................38
Mirids...................................................................58 Plutella xylostella..................................................24
Mite-eating ladybird.............................................59 Pointed snail.........................................................50
Mole cricket......................................................... 44 Polyphagotarsonemus latus..................................49
Montdorensis predatory mite............................... 64 Potato bug............................................................33
Mud-dauber wasp.................................................54 Potato moth..........................................................26
73
Potato wireworm...................................................39 Theba pisana........................................................50
Praying mantid..................................................... 61 Three banded ladybird..........................................59
Pristhesancus plagipennis.................................... 57 Thrips imaginis.....................................................36
Pumpkin beetle....................................................38 Thrips palmi..........................................................36
Q Thrips tabaci.........................................................36
Q biotype whitefly.................................................33 Tomato budworm..................................................22
Queensland fruit fly..............................................45 Tomato russet mite...............................................49
R Tomato thrips.......................................................37
Redlegged earth mite............................................49 Transeius montdorensis....................................... 64
Reticulated slug....................................................50 Transverse ladybird..............................................59
Rhopalosiphum maidis.......................................... 35 Trialeurodes vaporariorum....................................32
Robber flies.......................................................... 55 Trichogramma spp................................................ 53
Rutherglen bug..................................................... 31 Trichogrammatoidea spp....................................... 53
S Trichopoda giacomellii..........................................54
Salticidae.............................................................63 Trissolcus basalis.................................................. 53
Sceliodes cordalis.................................................28 True wireworm......................................................39
Sceliphron spp......................................................54 Turnip aphid......................................................... 35
Seedling maggot...................................................47 Twentyeight-spotted potato ladybird.....................38
Silverleaf (B biotype) whitefly...............................33 Twentysix-spotted potato ladybird........................38
Slugs....................................................................50 Two-spotted mite................................................. 48
Small lucerne weevil............................................. 41 Two-toned caterpillar parasite............................... 51
Snails...................................................................50 V
Solenopsis mealybug............................................36 Variable ladybird..................................................59
Southern false wireworm......................................38 Vegetable beetle...................................................38
Sowthistle aphid.................................................. 35 Vegetable jassid................................................... 31
Spined predatory shield bug.................................56 Vegetable leafhopper............................................ 31
Spodoptera litura..................................................25 Vegetable weevil.................................................. 40
Spodoptera spp....................................................29 Vinegar fly............................................................47
Spoladea recurvalis..............................................28 Vineyard snail.......................................................50
Spotted amber ladybird........................................59 Viral diseases.......................................................65
Spotted vegetable weevil...................................... 41 W
Stethorus spp.......................................................59 Western flower thrips............................................37
Striped ladybird....................................................59 White collared ladybird.........................................59
Sweetpotato weevil.............................................. 41 Whitefringed weevil............................................. 40
T White Italian snail.................................................50
Tachinidae............................................................54 Wingless grasshopper..........................................43
Tangle web spiders...............................................62 Wolf spiders.........................................................63
Telenomus spp...................................................... 53 Y
Teleogryllus commodus........................................ 44 Yellow flower wasp................................................ 51
Tetranychus ludeni............................................... 48
Tetranychus urticae.............................................. 48
74
Notes
75
Notes
76
Notes
77
Notes
78
79

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Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation

Identification of insects, spiders

First published 1997

Egg laying damage 14

Identification of insects, spiders and mites in vegetable crops: workshop manual

Identification of insects, spiders and mites in vegetable crops: workshop manual

Identification of insects, spiders and mites in vegetable crops: workshop manual

Identification of insects, spiders and mites in vegetable crops: workshop manual

The workshop will consist of at least 8 hours of training, including:

In the laboratory/classroom sessions, you will learn about:

Identification of insects, spiders and mites in vegetable crops: workshop manual

Identification of insects, spiders and mites in vegetable crops: workshop manual

Killing the insects

Mounting and preserving your insects

Identification of insects, spiders and mites in vegetable crops: workshop manual

Collecting and preserving equipment

Typical collection labels A pinned eggfruit caterpillar moth with collection

Identification of insects, spiders and mites in vegetable crops: workshop manual

Identification of insects, spiders and mites in vegetable crops: workshop manual

Important arachnid orders include:

Identification of insects, spiders and mites in vegetable crops: workshop manual

Examples include silverfish and springtails.

Examples include bugs, grasshoppers, thrips, earwigs and dragonflies.

Identification of insects, spiders and mites in vegetable crops: workshop manual

First stage nymph

Third stage nymph

An example of incomplete metamorphosis—life cycle of the Rutherglen bug

First instar larva

Second instar larva

Pupa in earthen cocoon

An example of complete metamorphosis—life cycle of the potato moth

Identification of insects, spiders and mites in vegetable crops: workshop manual

View from below

Identification of insects, spiders and mites in vegetable crops: workshop manual

Four wings Two wings No wings

Membranous Ends of wings membranous Scaled

Feathered Leathery forewing Hard forewing 11

Identification of insects, spiders and mites in vegetable crops: workshop manual

Held roof-wise over abdomen

Held flat over abdomen Membranous hind wings folded

Identification of insects, spiders and mites in vegetable crops: workshop manual

Pumpkin beetle damage to Cutworm damage to seedlings Cabbage moth damage

Identification of insects, spiders and mites in vegetable crops: workshop manual

Damage from viruses transmitted by insects

Identification of insects, spiders and mites in vegetable crops: workshop manual

Insects undergoing complete metamorphosis

Identification of insects, spiders and mites in vegetable crops: workshop manual

Wasps, bees and ants (Hymenoptera)

Identification of insects, spiders and mites in vegetable crops: workshop manual

Identification of insects, spiders and mites in vegetable crops: workshop manual

Bugs, leafhoppers, aphids, whiteflies, mealybugs

Identification of insects, spiders and mites in vegetable crops: workshop manual

Identification of insects, spiders and mites in vegetable crops: workshop manual

Feeding habits of leafhoppers, aphids, whiteflies, mealybugs

Dragonflies and damselflies (Odonata)

Grasshoppers and crickets (Orthoptera)

Identification of insects, spiders and mites in vegetable crops: workshop manual

Identification of insects, spiders and mites in vegetable crops: workshop manual