ETHICS

ETHICS IN GENERAL
ETHICS AND MORALITY
Ethics is derived from the Greek word “ethos” which
What does morals mean?
means “characteristic way of acting.” Ethics is a system
• A person’s idea of morals tends to be shaped by
of moral principles. They affect how people make
their surrounding environment (and sometimes
decisions and lead their lives. Ethics is concerned with
their belief system). Moral values shape a
what is good for individuals and society and is also
person’s ideas about right and wrong.
described as moral philosophy.
• Morality is the quality of human acts by which
they are constituted as good, bad or indifferent.
Ethics covers the following dilemmas:
• Morality- speaks of codes/system of behavior
• how to live a good life;
in regards to standards or right or wrong
• our rights and responsibilities;
behavior.
• the language of right and wrong; and
They often provide the guiding ideas behind ethical
• moral decisions - what is good and bad? systems. Morals are the basis for ethics. A moral person
wants to do the right thing, and a moral impulse usually
The importance of Ethics to Man means best intentions.
1. Ethics is an indispensable knowledge What does ethics mean?
2. Ethics teaches man to act in accordance with his
• Ethics is a branch of philosophy that studies
rational nature by giving him the rules of human
morality or the righteousness or wrongness of
conduct
human conduct. Ethics stands to queries about
3. Ethics enables man to live together in harmony
what there is reason to do. Dealing with human
actions and reasons for action, ethics is also
Approaches to Ethics
concerned with character.
1. Meta-ethics deals with the nature of moral
judgment. It looks at the origins and meaning of
Some questions that are ethical in nature are:
ethical principles.
1. What is good?
2. Normative ethics is concerned with the content
2. Who is a moral person?
of moral judgments and the criteria for what is
3. What are the virtues of a human being?
right or wrong.
4. What makes an act right?
3. Applied ethics looks at controversial topics like
5. What duties do we have for each other?
war, animal rights and capital punishment.
Rules in Society
The Role of Ethics
Rules refer to explicit or understood regulations or
• Ethics can provide a moral map principles governing conduct within a specific activity
• Ethics as source of group strength or sphere. Rules tell us what is or is not allowed in a
particular context or situation. In many ways, rules
Two Ethical Systems serve as a foundation for any healthy society. Without
Atheistic Theistic rules society would likely to fall into anarchy.
There is no God who God is the Supreme,
creates and rules the Creator and Law giver. Rules benefit social beings in various manners:
universe. There are absolute a. Rules protect social beings by regulating
The concept of good and principles of morality
behavior
evil is relative and which do not change.
b. Rules help to guarantee each person certain
changeable. Man has immortal soul
Man is a matter and does that cannot die. rights and freedom
not have spiritual Man is free and must use c. Rules produce a sense of justice among social
dimension. his freedom to promote beings
Man is free and must his personal and social d. Rules are essential for a healthy economic
exercise his freedom to interests along with his system
promote the welfare of fellowmen. Society could not soundly function without rules and
society. regulations. Rules are necessary to protect the greater
good. Even the freest societies ought to have rules in
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order to avoid exploitations and tyranny while

upholding the common welfare. transgressing a moral principle. At the very least, a
MORAL AND NON- MORAL STANDARDS, moral dilemma involves conflicts between moral
requirements.
AND MORAL DILEMMA
Moral standards involve the rules people have about The key features of a moral dilemma are these:
the kinds of actions they believe are morally right and 1. Agent is required to do each of two actions
wrong, as well as the values they place on the kinds of 2. Agent can do each of the actions, but cannot do both
object they believe are morally good or bad. Some of the actions
ethicists equate moral standards with moral values and
moral principles. Moral standards are the sum of Three Levels of Moral Dilemmas
combined norms and values. In other words, norms a. Personal Dilemmas are experienced and
plus values equal moral standards. resolved on the personal level; most ethical
decisions are personally made; thus, many
Non-moral standards refer to rules that are unrelated moral dilemmas fall under this level. There are
to moral or ethical considerations. Either these many examples of personal dilemmas. If a
standards are not necessarily linked to morality or by person makes conflicting promises, he faces a
nature lack ethical sense. Basic examples of non-moral moral conflict; when an individual has to
standards include rules of etiquette, fashion standards, choose between the life of a child who is about
rules in games, and various house rules. Non-moral to be delivered and the child’s mother, he faces
standards refer to standards by which we judge what an ethical dilemma.
is good or bad and right or wrong in a non-moral way. b. Organizational Dilemmas refer to ethical
cases encountered and resolved by social
The following six (6) characteristics of moral organizations. This category includes moral
standards further differentiate them from non- dilemmas in business, medical field, and public
moral standards: sectors.
c. Structural Dilemmas refer to cases involving
a. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or network of institutions and operative
significant benefits. theoretical paradigm as they usually
b. Moral standards ought to be preferred to other encompass multi- sectoral institutions and
values. organizations, they may be larger in scope and
c. Moral standards are not established by authority extent than organizational dilemmas.
figures.
d. Moral standards have the trait of Types of Dilemmas
‘universalizability.’ • There are several types of moral dilemmas but
e. Moral standards are based on impartial the most common of them are categorized into
considerations. the following
f. Moral standards are associated with special a) first epistemic and ontological dilemmas
emotions and vocabulary. b) second self-imposed and world-imposed
dilemmas
Moral Dilemma c) third obligation dilemmas in prohibition
The term “dilemma” refers to situation in which a dilemmas and
tough choice has to be made between two or more d) fourth single agent and multi person
options, especially more or less equally undesirable dilemmas
one. Not all dilemmas are moral dilemmas.
Epistemic moral dilemmas involve situations wherein
Also called “ethical dilemmas”, moral dilemmas, are two or more moral requirements conflict with each
situations in which a difficult choice has to be made other and that the moral agent hardly knows which of
between two courses of action, either which entails the conflicting moral requirements takes precedence
transgressing a moral principle. At the very least, a over the other, in other words the moral agent here does
moral dilemma involves conflicts between moral not know which option is morally right or wrong.
requirements.
 ETHICS

Ontological moral dilemmas on the other hand involve

situations where in two or more moral requirements Strengths and Weaknesses of the
conflict with each other yet neither of these conflicting Filipino Character
moral requirements overrides each other, this is not to
say that the moral agent doesn't know which moral Strengths Of the Filipino Character
requirement is stronger than the other the point is that • Pakikipagkapwa-Tao (regard for others).
neither of the moral requirements is stronger than the • Family Orientation
other hence the moral agent can hardly choose between • Joy and Humor
the conflicting moral requirements. • Flexibility, Adaptability and Creativity
• Hard work and Industry
Self-imposed moral dilemma is caused by the moral • Faith and Religiosity
agent’s wrongdoings. • Ability to Survive

World-imposed moral dilemma on the other hand Weaknesses Of the Filipino Character
means that certain events in the world plays the agent • Extreme Personalism
in a situation of moral conflict. • Extreme Family-Centeredness
• Lack of Discipline
Obligation dilemmas are situations in which more • Passivity and Lack of Initiative
than one feasible action is obligatory while • Colonial Mentality
Prohibition dilemmas involved cases in which all • Kanya-Kanya Syndrome
feasible actions are forbidden • Lack of Self-Analysis and Self-Reflection

Single agent dilemma the agent “ought all things Human acts
consider to do A, ought all things consider to do B and ✓ Good acts = commends and approves → Right
she cannot do both A and B.”, in other words the moral × Evil acts = blames and disapproves → Wrong
agent is compelled to act in two or more equally the Consciously Performs knowingly, freely and Voluntary.
same moral options but she cannot choose both. Results of conscious knowledge and control of the will,
multi-person dilemma, the situation is such that one thus, these actions are deliberate, intentional or
agent, P1 ought to do A, a second agent, P2 ought to do voluntary.
B and though each agent can do what he ought to do, it
is not possible for P1 to do A and P2 to do B.” The multi Acts of Man
person dilemma occurs in situations that involve Unconsciously Instinctive actions are not within the
several persons like a family an organization or a control of the will.
community who is expected to come up with ➢ Biological and physiological movements such
consensual decision on a moral issue. as
✓ Metabolism, respiration, fear, anger, love and
The Challenge of Cultural Relativism jealousy.

The Morality of Human Acts

• Acts that are freely chosen in consequence of a
judgement of conscience, can be morally
evaluated, either good or evil
• Acting is morally good when the choices of
freedom are in conformity with man’s true good
and in accordance to God
Essential attributes of Human Acts
Knowledge – performed consciously and aware of its
consequences
Freewill – performed freely by own volition and powers
Intention – performed willfully to do the act
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a real good is something which has an intrinsic value.

Good acts and habits are examples of real good. Real
Kinds of Human Acts good includes both essential and accidental.
Elicited acts– performed by the will and are not bodily 3. Perfective and Non-perfective
externalized perfective good contributes to the perfection of a
Commanded acts – either internal (reasoning, person. Examples are education, virtue, food. Non-
recalling, encouraging oneself) or external actions perfective good merely contributes to the external
appearance of a person.
Elicited Acts 4. Perfect and imperfect good
1. Wish tendency of the will towards something, also called absolute and relative good. Perfect good has
whether it can be realized or not. the fullness of qualities enabling it to fully satisfy
2. Intention tendency of the will towards something human desire. Only God, in the absolute sense, is
attainable but without necessarily committing oneself to perfect good. Imperfect good has only certain qualities
attain it. so that it does not fully satisfy human desire. All earthly
3. Consent tendency of the will of those needed to carry goods are imperfect.
on the intention.
4. Election selection of the will of those means effective
enough to carry on the intention.
5. Use command of the will to make use of these means
elected to carry out the intention.
6. Fruition enjoyment of the will derived from the
attainment of the thing he had desired earlier.

The End of Human Acts

A. End of the agent/doer
➢ goal which the agent or doer intends to achieve
➢ Motive
➢ It is the force that sustains the act and brings it
to completion
B. End of the act
➢ natural termination of an activity.

Kinds of Ends
Proximity
a) proximate end is the purpose which a doer wishes
to accomplish immediately by his action.
b) Remote end is the purpose which the doer wishes
to accomplish in a series of acts.
Ultimacy
a) ultimate end is the purpose which is desired for its
own sake and not because of something else.
b) Intermediate end is the purpose which is desired
as a means for obtaining another thing. The
attainment of ultimate end completes an act and
stops all further acts.

Kinds of Goods
1. Essential and Accidental
those goods that fit the natural needs of man as man are
essential. Those that fit the wants of an individual are
accidental.
2. Real and Apparent