Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112325

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Progress in atmospheric water generation systems: A review

Nafise Shafeian a, *, A.A. Ranjbar a, Tahereh B. Gorji b
a
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Noshirvani University of Technology, Babol, Iran
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mazandaran Institute of Technology, Babol, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In recent years, freshwater reserves have been severely depleted. Demand is outpacing supply, and supply is
Global water crisis being impacted in terms of both quantity and quality. Therefore, freshwater scarcity is regarded as one of the
Atmospheric water generating greatest challenges of our time. During recent decades, the concept of generating fresh water from atmospheric
Hybrid/integrated systems
air has been emerging as a promising solution to overcome the global water crisis. The present review attempts to
Solar assisted AWG
Round-the-clock
provide a novel and comprehensive classification of various AWG technologies and materials. Each technology
has been summarized and discussed. Solar assisted AWG systems with a reliable and cheap energy source are
thoroughly explained. Over the last few years, most AWG studies have been shifted towards hybrid/integrated
systems which utilize several cooling approaches in order to increase water productivity. The present paper is
primarily focused on reviewing hybrid systems with portable and round-the-clock (RTC) application capability.
Performance indicators of each system; including water production and energy consumption, thermal efficiency,
and coefficient of performance were evaluated and compared. Finally, possible future perspective of imple­
menting atmospheric water generating technologies is proposed.

economically efficient only when used on a large scale, and all must be
adjacent to a water source and water transporting costs should also be
1. Introduction considered for the final price. Therefore, for remote areas, the price of
water per cubic meter increases dramatically. Because of the noticed
Nowadays, water scarcity is regarded as one of the most important issues, the performance of such systems in providing freshwater is
challenges in the world. Water covers up to 70% of our planet, however, limited [7].
only 2.5% of all water is fresh for drinking, growing crops and most More recently, many efforts have been made to extract air moisture,
industrial uses. This limited resource will need to support a projected which is naturally abundant in the atmosphere and on its conversion
population of 9.7 billion in 2050. In addition to population growth, into potable water by dehumidification systems. The atmosphere around
overconsumption also affects water scarcity, so that, the world’s popu­ the earth contains more than 12.9 × 1012 m3 of renewable water. That is
lation tripled in the 20th century, but water consumption increased six- even more than all the freshwater in marshes, lagoons, and rivers [8].
fold. By 2050, water demand for domestic and industrial use is expected In the conversion of ambient moisture to freshwater, about 2450 J of
to increase dramatically [1–4]. Climate change and global warming are energy is released under standard temperature and pressure conditions
also contributing in reducing freshwater resources [5]. for condensing each gram of water. The amount of extracted water de­
One cannot rely solely on precipitation as a source of freshwater pends heavily on the size and structure of the dehumidifier system.
since most surface waters are easily contaminated and not suitable for Climatic conditions including temperature, pressure, and relative hu­
human consumption. In humid areas, such as Australia’s west coast, midity, play an important role in determining the amount of energy
traditional rainwater harvesting is regarded as a simple but effective required. These design parameters determine the equilibrium con­
way to collect water from rooftops. Fog water is another source of water straints, water harvesting threshold, energy consumption and cost of
harvesting. In Canada, Chile, and South Africa, many efforts have been produced water [9].
made to collect fog using large meshes mounted on mountains [6]. With respect to the steady increase in energy costs, utilization of
The most abundant source of water is undoubtedly seawater. In renewable forms of energy has made significant progress in the recent
recent decades, extensive progress has been made in seawater desali­ decades. On the other hand, the widespread use of fossil fuel resources
nation technologies. However, some water desalination methods are

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: n.sh@nit.ac.ir (N. Shafeian), ranjbar@nit.ac.ir (A.A. Ranjbar), gorji.tahereh@mit.ac.ir (T.B. Gorji).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112325
Received 7 June 2021; Received in revised form 23 February 2022; Accepted 24 February 2022
Available online 24 March 2022
1364-0321/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
N. Shafeian et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112325

Nomenclature SG Silica gel

TEC Thermoelectric cooler
A Surface (m2) T Temperature (K)
AC Activated carbon VCR Vapor compression refrigeration
COP Coefficient of performance (dimensionless)
H Intensity of solar radiation (W/m2) Greek symbols
hr Hour η Efficiency (dimensionless)
I Current (A) τα product of the coefficients of transmittance and absorption
L Litre (dimensionless)
Lev Latent heat of evaporation (kJ/kg) Subscripts
ṁ Rate of water production (kg/s) a Ambient air
MOF Metal organic fiber
P Power (W) C Cold side of TEC
PV Photovoltaic da Dry air
Q̇ Heat flux (W/m2) dp Dew point
R Electrical resistance (ohm) H Hot side of TEC
RH Relative humidity (%) w Produced water
S Seebeck coefficient (V/K)

for energy has led to irreparable environmental pollution, greenhouse or snow, does not meet alone the large volume of global freshwater
phenomenon, and as a result, rising global temperature. To overcome demand. Several solutions have been proposed to address the challenge
both of these challenges, special attention has been given to various of freshwater shortage, such as desalination, wastewater purification
renewable energy resources. Among them, solar energy is considered the systems, and rainwater harvesting tanks. However, the implementation
most important, abundant, and accessible one. of each of these technologies has faced economic, social, and environ­
Several recent reviews have been dedicated to the study of various mental constraints. Due to the limitations of the proposed solutions to
atmospheric water generation (AWG) systems, which are listed in address freshwater scarcity, generation of water from atmospheric air
Table 1. While most of these former studies focused on a myriad of has garnered significant attention in recent years as a viable solution.
different AWG technologies, the present review is intended to exclu­ Nature uses various methods to survive very dry environmental condi­
sively evaluate cost effective, portable AWG systems with round-the- tions. Among various plants and animals that live in such areas, we can
clock (RTC) water production capacity. In recent years, most of the mention the Namib Desert beetle. This beetle spreads its body on a foggy
AWG studies have concentrated on hybrid/integrated systems that uti­ surface, and because of its special surface, water droplets collect and
lize several cooling approaches in order to increase water productivity. flow towards its mouth [7].
The present paper is primarily focused on reviewing hybrid systems with The idea of collecting water dates back centuries ago. Since time
portable and RTC application capability. immemorial, humans have considered dew as a source of freshwater.
Generally, an optimized AWG setup requires the precise design of a The ancient Greeks first used dew condensers to provide fresh water in
water extraction system with an ideal material and a cheap energy the 600s BC. Between 1905 and 1912, F.I. Zibold built a bowl-shaped
source. Firstly, a novel and comprehensive classification of various AWG stone condenser and for many years, his invention inspired many
technologies and materials is provided. Secondly, previous works based works in this field, which culminated in installations such as “air
on each technology have been summarized and discussed. Thirdly, solar springs” or “steam absorbers.” [10]. Existing methods for extracting
assisted AWG systems, which utilize a reliable energy input, are thor­ water from air is presented based on the different forms of water in the
oughly explained. Afterwards, hybrid systems, which in recent years air in Fig. 1.
have been gained considerable attention due to their higher productiv­
ity, are discussed. Finally, possible future works on AWG systems are 3. Dew water collection
suggested.
Among various proposed methods, the collection of dew water is an
2. Classification of AWG systems ideal method; because compared to the fog collection, geographical and
weather restrictions have the least impact on it [10]. There are two main
As mentioned in the first section, rainfall, whether in the form of rain types of this technology: passive radiation condensers and active con­
densers. A passive radiation condenser does not require any additional
input energy to collect dew water. The surface of the radiant condenser
Table 1 has a high emission coefficient in the infrared region, so it cools faster
Reviews on AWG systems. than other surfaces during the night. Thus, to reach the suitable dew
Focus of study Authors point temperature and accordingly collect dew water; environmental
Application of AWG in evaporative cooling, such as electronic Tu et al. [10]
conditions must be favorable for cooling, and the condenser surface
cooling, power plant cooling and passive building cooling must be optimized to increase the cooling effect. Low efficiency and
Various technologies for AWG systems with the focus on the Salehi et al. [11] environmental conditions required for dew production are the disad­
water-energy nexus vantages of passive condensers. Therefore, an active condenser can be a
Innovative technologies and challenges Tu and Hwang
good alternative; but active systems usually consume a lot of energy
[12]
Energy harvesting and conversion coupled with AWG Chen et al. [13] [16]. AWG is based on the separation of water molecules from air; that
Advances of AWG technologies Raveesh et al. is, taking moisture out from the environment and turning water vapor
[14] into liquid water. Therefore, AWG system is essentially based on drying
Adsorption based AWG, analyze challenges and provide Ejeian and Wang or dehumidification [16]. There are two major types of dehumidifiers.
solutions [15]
The first category is based on the condensation of water vapor within the

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N. Shafeian et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112325

Fig. 1. A general classification of AWG systems.

ambient air using cooling surfaces or coils; the second group, on the absorption capacity. Fig. 3 shows the vapor pressure changes of a typical
other hand, uses different sorbents (desiccants) in order to adsorb water desiccant in the dehumidification and regeneration processes. This cycle
vapor molecules [6]. A summary of the methods for AWG is illustrated in includes four processes between different desiccant concentrations and
Fig. 2. vapor pressures [23].
Solid desiccants are cheap, safe, and environmentally friendly and
have no chemical interaction with ambient moisture. Solid desiccants
3.1. Sorption-based AWG (Desiccants) perform better than liquid desiccants in a dehumidification system. They
are more easily cleaned; however, they need more heat to regenerate.
Sorption-based dehumidification by desiccants occurs due to the
difference in water vapor pressure at the desiccant level and ambient air.
The vapor pressure of the desiccant surface is initially lower than that of
the ambient air, thus, desiccant absorbs the ambient humidity, and this
process will continue until the two vapor pressure levels of air and
desiccant are balanced. By heating the desiccant to a temperature be­
tween 50 and 260 ◦ C, the vapor pressure at the desiccant level becomes
higher than the ambient temperature, and as a result; water vapor
molecules are separated from the desiccant, and the so-called desiccant
is regenerated. The heated moisture flows over the cold surfaces, which
condenses the water vapor and turns it into liquid water. After removing
moisture from the desiccant and drying it, the desiccant should be
exposed to ambient air or water in order to cool down and regain its
moisture absorption capacity [22].
The sorbents that change physically or chemically in the process of
moisture sorption from the ambient air are called absorbents, such as
liquid desiccants. In contrast; the sorbents that do not change phase
during the process are named adsorbents, such as solid desiccants [22].
Liquid desiccants are inexpensive, non-toxic, non-flammable and odor­
less. Lithium chloride (LiCl), lithium bromide (LiBr), and calcium
Fig. 3. The work cycle of a typical desiccant in dehumidification and regen­
chloride (CaCl2) are the most commonly used desiccants because of their
eration processes [23].
low vapor pressure. Among these materials, CaCl2 has the least

Fig. 2. Summary of the methods discussed for extracting moisture from the ambient air [17–21].

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Against the liquid desiccants, two mentioned processes are performed

simultaneously. Activated carbon, silica gel (SG), titanium silicates,
alumina, Zeolite (natural and synthetic), molecular sieves are some
commonly used solid desiccants [23]. Zeolite and molecular sieves are
solid crystal frameworks with pore structure. The internal pores can
adsorb molecules, and the molecules can be selectively adsorbed ac­
cording to the size of the internal pores [24]. The adsorption of water on
zeolite surfaces at low humidity is accompanied by high adsorption
enthalpies of more than 70 kJ/mol, requiring temperatures above
150 ◦ C for desorption, making this process energy consumptive [25,26].
Activated carbon has a very dense porous structure, therefore, its large
specific surface area makes it an excellent adsorbent applied in water
adsorption [24].
SG can also adsorb various materials due to its open porous structure.
SG has an internal nano-scale microporous structure with a large
amount of hydroxyl groups on its surface. As a matter of fact, water Fig. 4. Water adsorption isotherms [36] (Reused with permission
molecules have a tendency to be absorbed into these hydroxyl groups from Elsevier).
due their chemical affinity [24].
Metal-Organic Framework materials (MOFs) can easily adsorb water The three main categories of new desiccants are composite desic­
from air at approximately 10% RH and release it at temperatures below cants, nanoporous inorganic material desiccants, and polymeric desic­
100 ◦ C. Compared to other adsorbents such as zeolite, SG or hygroscopic cants. Composite desiccants are obtained by saturating porous
salts; MOFs can capture more water at lower ambient air RH and require desiccants with hygroscopic salts. The water uptake of composite des­
a lower regeneration temperature to release. The major problem of iccants, such as activated carbon fiber (ACF)/LiCl and SG/LiCl, increases
materials that harvest water through adsorption on the material surface with partial water vapor pressure [10]. Water absorption performance
is the low gravimetric water uptake of about 25 wt %. So far, it has been of polymeric materials, such as AlPO4-LTA, Co2Cl2 (BTDD), MIL-101,
proven difficult to synthesize most of suitable MOFs on a scale that al­ MOF-801, MOF-303, PIZOF-2, nanoporous material zeolite 13X and
lows for significant, cost-efficient water production [27]. mesoporous molecular sieves MCM-41, can change in a very limited RH
Kim et al. synthesized MOF-801 with moisture absorption of 0.28 gr/ range because of the high stability of their microstructures. SG and
gr MOF-801 [27]. Farhad et al. developed MOF-303, which has UiO-66 have higher water absorption with a higher RH [10]. Advanced
enhanced thermal properties and water adsorption performance and desiccant materials are presented in Fig. 5 [36].
lowers synthesis cost. The water adsorption capacity is 0.48 gr/gr By comparing the isotherms of some of the aforementioned desic­
MOF-303 under the condition of 30 ◦ C and 20% RH [28,29]. MIL-101 cants at 25 ◦ C, it can be conjectured that ACF/LiCl composites, in arid
(Material Institute Lavoisier- 101) is another MOF, which is composed areas with RH of less than 30% and under the same RH conditions, have
of nanoparticles with uniform size, large unit cell volume and large the highest water absorption. SG/LiCl composites also have much higher
specific surface area and porosity. water absorption rates under humid conditions [10]. The characteristics
Eman et al. [30] found that MIL-101(Cr) show superior water of a good sorbent are: (1) during the sorption process (temperatures less
adsorption uptake 1.47 gr water/gr MIL- 101 in lab-scale. Besides, metal than 25 ◦ C), their water sorption capacity should increase linearly with
sites on MOF can enhance water adsorption capacity of MOF. After RH; and (2) in the desorption process (the temperature above 35 ◦ C);
doping Cr in the MOF, the water absorption capacity of Cr-soc-MOF-1 their water absorption capacity should decrease steeply with increasing
reaches 2 gr/gr Cr-soc-MOF-1 at the humidity of 70% at 25 ◦ C [31]. temperature, which is shown by S-type isotherms. These two conditions
In addition, cation exchange can modify the hydrophilicity of MOF, such are very difficult to establish in a common laboratory or by commercial
as Co2Cl2 (BTDD) and Ni2Cl2 (BTDD). Ni2Cl2 (BTDD) is created by desiccants. Many researches today focus on the development of desic­
doping Ni in MOF, at 25 ◦ C, can adsorb 1.07 gr water/gr Ni2Cl2 (BTDD) cants with high water absorption capacity and low regeneration heat.
at 32% RH [32,33]. On the other hand, it should be emphasized that the regeneration rate of
Absorption can also be based on the hydration of salts. One of the desiccants has a significant effect on the system total operating costs.
most promising salts is calcium chloride, because of its excellent water In addition to selecting choosing an ideal sorbent; selecting an ideal
sorption properties in combination with a natural and industrial abun­ energy source, such as solar energy, also reduces the cost of producing
dance. Salts are commonly able to absorb water more than 95% of their water using AWG systems. For this purpose, solar collectors and solar
own weight. However, hygroscopic salts face the challenge of increased stills, which operate based on the greenhouse effect, can be effectively
particle density during hydration, which reduces their gas permeability. utilized.
In addition, passive layers form on the surface of salt particles, which In 2017, Wang et al. [37] designed a highly efficient semi-open
reduce their absorption capacity. However, composites of matrix ma­ system for producing water from atmospheric air by employing a new
terials that can adsorb water on their surface and hygroscopic salts that integrated composite adsorbent. Their system extracts 14.7 L of water
absorb water through hydration reactions have shown promising results. using 40.8 kg of integrated adsorbents on a bed with a size of 0.6 m ×
The salt is distributed within the matrix to prevent agglomeration while 0.4 m × 0.4 m. The sorbent substrate with a wavy surface was a com­
at the same time, increasing the amount of water that can be taken up by bination of activated carbon with LiCl absorbent, which demonstrated a
the composite. A general problem for these materials is their macro­ high adsorption capacity, excellent heat transfer performance, and good
scopic structuring [34,35]. Sorption isotherms are used to study the mass transfer channels. The performance of this system in adsorption
dehumidification and regeneration capacity of desiccant materials, and regeneration phases in different experimental conditions was
which show the changes of water vapor uptake during different investigated. During adsorption, 14.7, 13.6 and 12.5 L of water was
isothermal processes with respect to different RHs. IUPAC (International adsorbed at 85%, 75%, and 65% of RH; respectively, and in the regen­
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) presented a classification for eration phase, at temperatures of 90, 77 and 60 ◦ C; 14.5, 13.6 and 0 L of
water sorption isotherms including six main types of isotherms (shown water was obtained, respectively. This system offered highest adsorption
in Fig. 4). A suitable desiccant must have a high water absorption (mass capacity at 23 ◦ C and 90% of RH.
of water vapor per mass of desiccant), good regenerability, long life,
non-toxicity, and reasonable price [36].

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N. Shafeian et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112325

Fig. 5. Classification of advanced desiccants materials [36] (Reused with permission from Elsevier).

3.2. Refrigeration-based AWG

In 1993, Khalil [38] extracted water from air using the refrigeration
cycle and conducted an analytical study in the UAE coastal areas. Ac­
cording to the reported results, the amount of produced water depended
on the characteristics of humid air, wind speed, the cross-section of the
cooling coil, and the arrangement of the heat exchanger. It is noteworthy
to state that their system used chlorine-impregnated fluorocarbon
compounds (CFCs) that play an important role in the depletion of the
ozone layer [38].
Many researchers have studied the performance of TECs applied for
AWG. In 2011, Milani et al. [22] evaluated the performance of a TEC
dehumidification system to produce fresh water. In order to express the
relationship between various important parameters in their study, an
algorithm was proposed. It was reported that more than 95% of the cost
of water production was related to energy consumption rather than the Fig. 6. (a) AWG system with two input fans located at the top of the device and
cost of system implementation. 4 TEC modules with 4 active heat sinks to dissipate heat from the hot surfaces of
In 2017, Joshi et al. [39], designed and built an AWG system based the TECs to the environment [41] (Reused with permission from Elsevier).
on the thermoelectric cooling effect. Their system included a cooling
channel with a length of 0.7 m along with 10 TECs. In order to increase 1.584 L/day, respectively. The equations for cooling capacity and input
the heat transfer rate, an internal heat sink with a cross-section of 0.2 m2 power were as follows:
and a length of 0.65 m was placed on the cold side of the modules. Based [ ( ) ]
1 2
on the observations made from the experiment, employing an internal Q̇C = n (S TC I) − RI − K(TH − TC ) (1)
2
thermal sink increased the amount of water produced every 10 h by
81%. The maximum water generated was found to be 0.240 L for 10 h [ ]
P = n S I(TH − TC ) + RI 2 (2)
running of the system.
In 2017, Liu et al. [40], designed and evaluated a 7 kg portable AWG where n is the number of thermocouples.
with two TECs. The amount of produced water was enhanced with
increasing RH and airflow rate. They reported that condensation rate is
4. Solar AWG systems
directly related to RH and inversely related to airflow flow. The
maximum amount of water production with a condensation surface of
In the two previous sections, two main methods for AWG based on
0.216 m2 and an input energy of 58.2 W is 2.78 L/m2. day. The system
dew water collection were mentioned: sorption and refrigeration. Each
was small and could operate at low currents; therefore, suitable for
of these methods can be active or passive, depending on their de­
outdoor use.
pendency on energy source. In order to make AWGs more cost-effective;
In 2018, Shourideh et al. [41] designed, built, and tested an AWG
researchers are looking for implementation of solar energy in AWG
system with four TECs (as displayed in Fig. 6). The effect of three factors
systems.
of airflow velocity, ambient air humidity, and the electric current
In one of earlier studies, Hamed [42], performed an economic
passing through TEC in different conditions on water production rate
evaluation of the two described methods. He used solar energy for
and energy consumption was investigated. In most cases, using a fan and
running a vapor absorption refrigeration system using LiBr and
increasing inlet air velocity, had a negative effect on the water pro­
absorption-evaporation system with a CaCl2 desiccant. Comparing the
duction rate. In addition, enhancing humidity and electric current
two systems, he observed that the second method; the
through the TECs increased the water production rate. The water pro­
absorption-evaporation system, was a more economical and
duction rate of this system at 60 and 80% of RH was reported 0.768 and
cost-effective method. In addition, the design and implementation of the

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second method was reported easier. from air with low RH (20%). For this purpose, (MOF)-801 was used,
which is capable of adsorbing water from atmosphere under low hu­
midity conditions. The water production rate of this system was 2.8 L/kg
4.1. Sorption-based solar AWGs
day at low RH levels of 20% without needing any additional input
energy.
In 1987, Alayli et al. [43] presented a water extraction device with
In another study in 2017, Wang et al. [46], designed and imple­
composite material, which was a combination of natural wool and
mented two solar-powered, adsorption-based systems for generating
polyester coated with CaCl2. This composite material with type S
atmospheric water. The open type device used 2.25 kg of ACF-CaCl2
isotherm adsorbs humidity from ambient air during night, and due to the
composite adsorbent with a solar collector surface of 0.77 m2 area and a
sun heat during daytime, water molecules inside the device evaporated
rolled-up sorbent bed produced 0.32 L of water. Meanwhile, the
and condensed on a cold surface. The extracted liquid water was
semi-open type system which consisted 40.8 kg of ACF-LiCl and a solar
collected in a tank.
collector of 4 m2 area, was able to produce 9 L of water. They concluded
In 2000, Hamed [44] introduced and tested an experimental unit for
that the mass of water extracted from air strongly depends on the
producing water driven by solar energy and a new sorbent. The pro­
amount of adsorbent, the solar collector heat, and the mass transfer
duction rate of freshwater of this unit was equivalent to 1.2 L/m2 of solar
capacity of the adsorbent bed. Also, flat and corrugated states during
collector surface.
absorption and desorption processes were more suitable than the roll
In 2007, Wang et al. [35] proposed a selective composite adsorbent
state. The semi-open system can also have better absorption and
for production of freshwater from atmospheric air driven by solar en­
regeneration phases; therefore, it offers a safer way to produce water
ergy. The adsorbent was synthesized by a crystalline material with from the atmosphere.
extremely large pores and MCM-41 as host matrices and CaCl2 as a
In 2018, Fathieh et al. [28] designed a system to produce water from
hygroscopic salt. The adsorption capacity of new composites was 1.75 air in desert climates. In this study, an experimental unit was first
kg in terms of one kg of dry adsorbent, which was more than the com­
evaluated in a laboratory unit using 1.2 kg of (MOF) − 801 frame and
posites synthesized by SG and CaCl2. Experimental results showed the then tested in the Arizona desert of the United States. 0.1 L/kg day of
possibility of fresh water production with a rate of more than 1.2 L/m2.
water was produced only using natural cooling of the environment and
day. solar energy as a source of energy.
In 2014, Milani et al. [45] presented a validated experimental model
In 2018, Srivastava and Yadav [47] implemented three solid desic­
for AWG using a solar desiccant dehumidification system. Their pro­
cants of SG, activated alumina, and 13X sieve molecular desiccant ma­
posed system consisted of a small-scale air-cooled dehumidifier desic­
terials, as well as a Scheffler reflector to extract water droplets from air
cant wheel (as shown in Fig. 7). The experiment was performed
(as displayed in Fig. 8). The cross-section of the reflector was equal to
continuously in the last 9 days of autumn. In moderate climates such as
1.54 m2. This system was also implemented in two phases of adsorption
Sydney, cooling and air conditioning systems are performed in less time
(night) and evaporation (day). The Scheffler reflector is a type of fixed
than hot and humid regions (such as the Middle East). This is because
focal concentrator that is a small part of a conical section and focuses
higher ambient temperatures during the day are often associated with
sunlight at a fixed point. Maximum amount of extracted water from SG,
lower levels of RH. In most coastal cities, the humidity level is often
13X sieve molecular and activated was reported 0.155, 0.043, and
high, especially during evening and early morning. The mean ambient
0.038 L/kg day, respectively. In addition, the water produced by this
temperature and RH during the experimental period were reported
system is clean and potable.
35 ◦ C and 64.8%, respectively. Therefore, as noted by several previous
In 2018, Wang et al. [48] designed a system with a sinusoidal hon­
studies; desiccant-based methods are capable of producing more water
eycomb sorbent bed. By applying this feature, the contact surface of the
than refrigeration methods; due to the fact that desiccants are less
sorbent with ambient air increased. A separate condenser was also used
affected by changes in ambient temperature.
to condense the extracted vapor into liquid water. Water extraction was
In 2017, Kim et al. [27] designed a system that could extract water

Fig. 7. Schematic of dehumidification system with solar thermal PV collectors [45] (Reused with permission from Elsevier).

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N. Shafeian et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112325

sorbent evaporated. Finally, water vapor touched the cool wall and was
condensed and collected.
In 2020, Ejeian et al. [51] demonstrated that LiCl/MgSO4/ACF
composite can be a suitable choice in adsorptive atmospheric water
harvesting, especially in areas with moderate RH. Their solar-powered
device was prepared and tested successfully on a hot summer day, and
harvested 0.92 L/kg day with at RH of 35%.

4.2. Refrigeration-based solar AWGs

In 2014, Nandi et al. [52] introduced a water extraction system based

on the Peltier effect, using a TEC. They used a single solar cell unit to
supply energy. This study was carried out in India and in a relatively
humid area; the system was capable to produce 24 L/day, which can be
increased by using more solar cells and more efficient TECs. Generally,
the first step in using energy to condense air humidity in devices is to
obtain the dew point temperature and control this temperature. The dew
point temperature is obtained according to the following relation:

(3)
1
Fig. 8. Schematic of a system designed to produce water from desiccant uti­ Tdp = (RH/100)8 .(112 + 0.9 Ta ) + 0.1 Ta − 112
lizing a Scheffler reflector [47].
where is the dew point temperature (◦ C), RH is the relative humidity (%)
and Ta is ambient humid air temperature (◦ C).
performed in two phases: vapor sorption at night and condensation with In 2016, Kabeel et al. [53] numerically studied a simple, new design
water collection during day. This system produced 38.5 L/day using 7.2 to provide a reliable water production. A thermoelectric module was
MJ of heat/kg of water. Performance evaluation showed that this system used to increase the temperature difference between condensation and
has a good performance in water extraction. evaporation surfaces and to solve the low thermal conductivity chal­
In 2018, Kim et al. [49] reiterated that refrigeration-based AWGs lenge of the system. In their proposed design, solar panels were used to
consume very high energy to cool large volumes of air below the dew supply input electrical energy. To simplify their modeling, the simula­
point temperature and ultimately, condense water in desert and arid tion was conducted inside a dehumidification duct. To increase the
climates. As a result, the most appropriate solution is to use sorption surface involved in heat and mass transfer, 250 fins were installed inside
systems driven by solar energy to extract water from air. By choosing an the duct. The freshwater production of the system reached about 3.9
ideal sorbent and using the sun’s heat, a stable and reliable appliance L/m2 hr.
can be proposed to extract water in conditions of very low RH. Hence, In 2016, Suryaningsih and Nurhilal [54] presented a TEC-based
they designed and implemented an air-cooled AWG device using AWG devise using solar energy for remote areas of Indonesia facing
MOF-801. The thermal efficiency of this system, which is equal to the water scarcity. The sample was examined experimentally and numeri­
product of the latent heat of evaporation and the mass of water produced cally, and the results were compared with other commercial setups. This
per unit of incident solar energy, in dry desert conditions (low RH AWG device can be installed in urban areas and produced 14.6 L/day
10–40%) and dew point temperature below zero, was approximately fresh water from the atmosphere.
14%. This system was able to produce water more than 0.25 L/kg day. In 2018, Eslami et al. [55] theoretically designed a system consisting
In 2019, Qi et al. [50] chose a hydrophilic carbon fiber membrane of a number of TEC modules, a fan to generate the required airflow, two
(CFM) as interfacial solar absorber and a highly hygroscopic ionic liquid hot and cold air ducts, thermal sinks, and solar cells to power the TECs
(1 ethyl 3 methyl imidazolium cation ([EMIM]+) and an acetate anion and the fan. The effect of different design parameters was investigated
([AC]-)) as liquid sorbent.[EMIM][AC] can absorb 0.1, 0.18, 0.27, 0.63, and discussed. It was shown that 18 TEC modules for placement in the
1.18 g water/gram [EMIM][AC], in 10, 20, 40, 60, 80% RH, respec­ channel could optimize other output parameters. The system could
tively. In this device (as shown in Fig. 9), the center is the desorption produce 0.624 L/day at a temperature of 318 K and RH of 75% with a
area and the surrounding part is connected to the atmosphere, from consumption of only 20 W of electricity.
which the liquid sorbent absorbs water. In the desorption area, the In 2018, Salek et al. [56] designed a new solar AWG system that
surface of the liquid sorbent is floating with an interfacial solar absorber. could produce more water with less energy consumption. Their pro­
Vapor was absorbed from air by the liquid sorbent and subsequently, posed system consisted of three cycles: ammonia absorption refrigera­
transferred to the central region due to pressure difference and con­ tion, saltwater distillation, and air dehumidification driven by solar
centration gradient. Afterwards, the absorber heated the solution by energy. In fact, this system was capable of producing freshwater
receiving incoming solar energy. As a result, the water in the liquid simultaneously using two huge sources of air and saltwater. The cooling
created by the ammonia absorption refrigeration cycle, was absorbed by
the dehumidification system and lead to the dehumidification of air and
consequent water vapor condensation. However, not all of the energy
entering the adsorption cycle was converted to cooling effect, and part of
it was removed as dissipated heat from the cycle. A heat exchanger was
installed at the generator output of the absorption cycle to receive the
dissipated heat energy from the cycle and deliver it to the saltwater and
saltwater was distilled by absorbing this heat [56].
The chronological summaries of studies on AWGs based on refrig­
eration and sorption are given in Table 2 and Table 3, respectively.

Fig. 9. Schematic of designed system by Qi et al. [50].

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N. Shafeian et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112325

Table 2
Summary of researches on refrigeration-based AWGs (E: Experimental, N: numerical study).
Reference/Year Dehumidification Performance indicators Remarks
method

Nandi et al. (2014) [52] TEC and Solar cells Production rate: - Inefficiency of this system at night or in the shade
E+N 24 L/day - Failure to report reliable values for the amount of water produced and the
efficiency of the proposed system
Kabeel et al. (2016) TEC and Solar cells Production rate: - Adding 250 fins inside the TEC duct to increase the level involved in heat and mass
[53] 3.9 L/m2.hr transfer
N - Increasing the temperature difference of evaporation and condensation regions in
this system
- Numerical study of the system only in summer weather conditions and the inability
to generalize the results for different seasons
- Failure to provide an acceptable model for reporting the performance of the
studied system
Suryaningsih and TEC Production rate: - Low system efficiency
Nurhilal (2016) [54] 14.6 L/day - Only 14% of the total mass of evaporated water was condensed
E+N
Joshi et al. (2017) [39] TEC Production rate: - Design and test of a portable AWG system using a TEC channel
E+N 0.57 L/day - Application of 10 TEC modules and an internal heat sink on the cold side of the TEC
Maximum COP: 0.437 to increase heat transfer
- Low production rate and COP
Liu et al. (2017) [40] TEC Production rate: - The system was small and could work under low currents; therefore, it was suitable
E+N 2.78 L/m2.day with 58.2 W of electricity only for outdoor use.
consumption - Low system efficiency
- Does not use any renewable energy source to save energy costs
- Reduction in the amount of extracted water due to water droplets sticking to the
condensation surfaces
- Small condensation surface
- Low cooling capacity
Eslami et al. (2018) TEC and solar cells Production rate: - Inserting 18 TEC modules in the channel optimizes other output parameters.
[55] 0.624 L/day at 318 K, RH 75% and 20 W
N of electricity consumption
COP: 1.5 for temperature difference of
20 K
COP: 0.4 for temperature difference of
40 K between hot and cold sides of TEC
Shourideh et al. (2018) TEC Production rate: - Investigating the effect of three factors of air flow velocity, ambient air humidity
[41] 0.768 L/day at RH 60% and electric current passing through TEC in different conditions on water
E+N 1.584 L/day at RH 80% production rate and energy consumption
Maximum COP: 2 - Lack of providing a suitable solution for effective heat exhaust from the hot section
of TECs

5. Integrated/hybrid AWG systems condensation areas increases and, as a result, water production rate
improves. Active solar stills can use the waste heat from other processes
Recent studies have shown that in order to improve the performance or devices to increase the water evaporation rate as well.
of conventional AWG systems, they can be combined with each other or Many studies have been conducted to evaluate and improve the
with additional equipment; such as solar desalination setups, which can performance of active solar stills. Solar collectors have been effectively
be used to increase the humidity of the inlet air and provide thermal used to improve the evaporation process in solar stills. In 2008, Abdallah
energy to the system. In this case, integrated/hybrid AWG systems were et al. [58] used a solar tracking system to increase the productivity of the
introduced, which are discussed below. still, and the production of the still was increased by 22%. In 2008,
There are many types of solar desalination setups. One of the Kumar and Tiwari [59] designed and tested a hybrid PV thermal-active
simplest and most common systems is the basin solar still. Single basin solar still. They used the waste heat generated by photovoltaic panels to
solar still consists of a black pool containing saline or seawater. A heat water and found that the system was 3.5 times more effective than a
transparent cover such as glass or plexiglass covers the still. When passive solar still. In 2009, Basel [60] built a portable hemispherical
sunlight passes through the transparent cover, it is absorbed by the black solar still with four wheels and this device could produce 2.28–5.71
plates of the still. As a result, the water in the pool heats up and evap­ L/m2 day distilled water.
orates under saturated conditions. The water continues to evaporate One of the most important issues in the optimization of solar stills is
until it contacts the inner surface of the cover, where it condenses and their portability. For this purpose, the size of the system must be
turns into distilled water, which is then collected. The two main ad­ reduced. However, as the size decreases, the incoming solar radiation,
vantages of using solar distillers are being clean, utilizing free energy as the size of the condensation and evaporation surfaces, and consequently,
well as being environmentally friendly. However, their main drawback the production and efficiency of the solar still decrease. Some studies
is the low output of distilled water compared to other desalination have been conducted to solve this problem and increase the efficiency of
systems. The production capacity of a simple type desalination appli­ solar stills.
ance is only in the range of 2–5 L/m2. day. This makes this system very Thermoelectric modules are not sensitive to movement and motion
uneconomical [57]. and are small and light; as a result, they are very suitable to be employed
Solar stills are usually classified into two general categories: active in portable systems. In 2011, Esfahani et al. [61] built a portable solar
and passive systems. In the passive type, sunlight is the only parameter still. Due to its portability, it was designed smaller than other typical
affecting evaporation; but in an active solar still, with utilizing of an devices. Therefore, in order to solve the problem of declining produc­
additional equipment such as a fan, pump, solar tracking system or solar tivity; they used a small portable solar collector to raise the water
collectors; temperature difference between the evaporation and temperature and a TEC to condense water vapor. The average

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N. Shafeian et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112325

Table 3
Summary of studies on sorption-based AWGs (E: Experimental, N: numerical study).
Reference/Year Applied parameters Performance indicators Remarks

Milani et al. (2014) desiccant wheel made up of SG and PV panel Production rate: - The mean ambient temperature and RH were 35 ◦ C and 64.8%.
[45] 0.5 L/m2.day -Numerical analysis of the system using TRNSYS software
E+N -The imbalance of latent and tangible heat in the system
-Solar panels used during long working hours were not able to
respond to the air conditioning process and additional energy
source were required.
-Failure to provide an acceptable theoretical model for
predicting system performance
Kim et al. (2017) MOF-801 and solar collector Production rate: -System implementation at low RH (20%)
[27] 2.8 L/kg.day or 0.9 L/m2.day for 1 mm -Investigated the effect of different thicknesses of the desiccant
E thickness and 0.4 L/m2.day for 5 mm layer on water extraction rate
thickness -Use of TEC to cool the condenser surface
-Restrictions on desiccant synthesis
-Failure to provide an acceptable theoretical model for
predicting the system efficiency
Wang et al. (2017) ACF-CaCl2, ACF-LiCl and Solar collector Production rate: open system 0.415 L/ -T = 30–33 ◦ C, RH = 65–85%
[46] m2.day or 0.142 L/kg.day -The open type device using 2.25 kg of ACF-CaCl2 composite
E semi-open system 2.25 L/m2.day or adsorbent with a solar collector surface of 0.77 m2 and a rolled-
0.22 L/kg.day up sorbent bed.
-The semi-open system using 40.8 kg of ACF-LiCl and a solar
collector of 4 m2 area
-Unavailability of the adsorbent as a commercial material
-The system was bulky and non-portable
Fathie et al. (2018) MOF-801/G, MOF- 303/G and Solar Production rate: -T = 18–25 ◦ C, RH = 30–50%
[28] collector 0.1 L/kg with MOF-801/G -Unavailability of absorbent materials as commercial materials
E 0.174 L/kg with MOF-303/G -The system was bulky and non-portable
Strivastava and Three solid desiccants of SG, activated Production rate: -The cross-section of the reflector was 1.54 m2.
Yadav (2018) alumina, and 13X sieve molecular and the 0.155 L/kg day with SG
[47] Scheffler reflector 0.043 L/kg day with Activated alumina
E 0.038 L/kg day with 13X molecular
sieve
Kim et al. (2018) MOF-801 and Solar absorber Production rate is greater than 0.25 L/ -System implementation at low RH (10–40%)
[49] m2.day -Using a heating pipe to reduce the condenser temperature
E Thermal efficiency: 14% -Unavailability of adsorbents as commercial materials
-Failure to provide a solution to increase the water collection
rate produced by the condenser
Qi et al. (2019) [50] Liquid sorbent (1- ethyl-3-methyl- Production rate: -T = 25 ◦ C and RH = 80%
E imidazolium acetate) with carbon fiber 2.8 L/m2.day -Utilizing [EMIM][Ac] as a liquid sorbent and a carbon fiber
membrane membrane as an interfacial solar absorber
-The device is based on simultaneous adsorption/desorption
with a good outdoor water harvesting performance at different
RHs
Ejeian et al. (2020) LiCl/MgSO4/ACF composite sorbent and Production rate: -A new composite was synthesized and applied as a moisture
[51] Solar collector 0.92 L/kg or 1.1 L/m2 absorber medium from air
E -The device received 5.9 kW h/L incident solar thermal energy
-The device was tested on a hot summer day, under maximum
RH of 35%

production of the system in 9 summer days was reported 1.2 L/m2 day. minimum and maximum water productivity of the system under 20500
In another study in 2012, Rahbar and Esfahani [62] designed a and 25500 J/m2 of solar radiation intensity was reported 0.225 and
portable thermoelectric solar still (PTSS) with the aim of increasing the 0.500 L/day, respectively.
productivity. In their PTSS, a thermoelectric module was used to in­ In 2018, Pounraj et al. [65] designed a PV/T integrated/hybrid solar
crease the temperature difference between the evaporation and still based on the peltier effect and evaluated its performance. TECs
condensation areas. They also used a heat pipe cooler to cool the hot side usually require a small input voltage; as a result, they can work with the
of the thermoelectric module. It was shown that by using thermoelectric energy generated by PV panels. Numerous studies have shown that
technology, the rate of productivity improved. Efficiency and maximum increasing the temperature of the panels due to incident solar radiation,
production in winter days were reported 13% and 1.2 L/m2 day, has a negative effect on their output voltage and consequently, output
respectively. current. In order to eliminate voltage decrease due to temperature
In 2015, Dehghan et al. [63] presented a thermal model and exergy elevation of the PV panel, a PV panel cooling system was implemented.
analysis of the thermoelectric solar still. By applying some modifica­ Furthermore, in order to heat the basin water and enhance evaporation,
tions, the production rate, as well as energy and exergy efficiency, have and also, to cool the glass cover to improve condensation; they utilized
reached 2.4 L/m2 day, 19.8%, and 0.95%, respectively. two thermoelectric modules. Production rate of 8.77 L/m2. day with
Following their studies in the field of portable solar stills, in 2016, hourly efficiency of 60% has been reported.
Rahbar et al. [64] presented an experimental assessment of the pro­ Due to the importance of integrated/hybrid systems, many recent
duction and performance of their new design: the symmetric portable studies have focused on this type of AWG systems. Some of these studies
solar still using thermoelectric modules (as demonstrated in Fig. 10). are mentioned below.
The results showed that despite the smaller surface area of TEC Many researchers have designed systems based on the absorption-
compared to that of the glass, production of the system had increased 3.2 evaporation-condensation process by combining the functional princi­
times. Also, condensation on the TEC surface started 3 h earlier than the ples of solar stills, that is employing solar energy in the evaporation-
glass surface, which is due to lower temperature of TEC surface. The condensation process for freshwater production and the properties of

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N. Shafeian et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112325

sorbents or desiccants in moisture sorption from atmospheric air. In this both theoretically and experimentally and the results showed that it was
method, during night or in shadow, desiccants take moisture from capable to produce up to 1.2 L/m2 day in the often-humid climate of
ambient air and during daytime, using the sun heat, evaporation occurs, Tanta, Egypt.
and water is extracted from the desiccant. Desiccant is cooled overnight In 2007, Kabeel [71] investigated the effectiveness of a pyramid glass
or in shadow to reactivate and participate in subsequent processes [10]. multi-layer solar system in extracting water from humid air. Two pyr­
In an early study in 1966, Hall [66] presented an AWG system using amids with different types of substrates were used (as displayed in
ethylene glycol as the desiccant and regeneration medium in a solar still. Fig. 12). The substrates were saturated with 30% CaCl2 solution. The
The effects of temperature and humidity variation on the amount of pyramid sides were opened at night to allow the bed saturated with
extracted water were presented as a structure-psychrometric diagram; moist air and closed during daytime in order to remove moisture from
but information about the mass of water produced was not reported. the bed by solar radiation. The bed in the first pyramid was made of saw
In 1997, Abualhamayel [67] designed a system to produce water wood, while it is made of only cloth in the second pyramid with the same
from air. The system consisted of a sloping black flat surface covered by dimensions. The system was experimentally investigated under different
a polished layer. During night, the concentrated absorbent flowed in a climatic conditions to study the effect of pyramid shape on the adsorp­
thin layer onto the glass cover in contact with ambient air. Moisture tion and regeneration processes. Their results showed that the fabric
absorption was done during night, therefore, the absorbent became substrate adsorbs more solution (9 kg) than the sawdust substrate (8 kg).
water-rich and needed heating during daytime in order to remove water By adopting this method, the system was capable of producing 2.5 L/m2.
from the solution. Afterwards, a weaker desiccant was applied in a thin day. System efficiency was calculated by the following equation:
layer on the absorbent surface which was heated by incoming solar
ṁ Lev
energy. The accumulated water vapor was collected by the convection η= (5)
τα HA
phenomenon on the glass cover and was then condensed on the under­
side of the glass cover. The absorbent leaving the device finally returned where ṁ is the rate of water production, H is the intensity of solar ra­
to its initial concentration. The performance of the device at night diation (W/m2), Lev is the latent heat of evaporation at the average bed
depended on the mass transfer capacity, i.e., the difference in water temperature (kJ/kg); A is the pictured surface of the pyramid (m2) and
vapor pressure present between the desiccant and the ambient air. τα is the product of the transmittance and absorption coefficients of the
In 2001, Gad et al. [68] evaluated the performance of an integrated coating surface.
solar desiccant/collector system consisting of a layer of thick, corru­ In 2015, Kumar and Yadav [73] presented an experimental study on
gated cloth to absorb water vapor from the air during night and simul­ the design parameters of a solar desiccant glass box system for atmo­
taneously regenerate the desiccant during daytime. Their device spheric water generation (as shown in Fig. 13). Three fiber-reinforced
consisted of three main parts: a flat plate collector with a movable glass plastic containers were employed due to their durability and
cover, a corrugated bed, and an air-cooled condenser consisting of two longevity. Two windows were provided for the overnight adsorption
parallel flat plates. Their recorded results showed that the proposed process. This is an advantage of the system over other designed models
solar driven system could produce about 1.5 L/m2. day. in which the glass cover is removed during adsorption and reinstalled
Economic assessment of solar desiccant systems is very crucial for during the regeneration process. A mild sloping tray was installed in the
water production specifically in arid regions. In addition, the relatively front to collect the droplets formed after condensation on the glass
high cost of desiccant beds limits implementation of these systems on a surface. The glass thickness of 3 mm was used, which acts as a condenser
large scale. In desert areas, combining a layer of sand from the ground during the regeneration process. A mesh of steel wire was used to hold
with desiccant is considered a promising solution to minimize the cost of the desiccant. In this experiment, one kg of SG, as a solid desiccant, was
a water vapor adsorbent bed, a method proposed by Hamed [69]. used and the maximum amount of water produced by the system was
In 2006, Kabeel [70] designed a solar collector system consisting of a 0.2 L/kg. day.
sandy bed impregnated with 30% CaCl2 solution, that could extract In 2015, William et al. [74] designed and built a fiberglass four-sided
water from air (as illustrated in Fig. 11). The system was investigated trapezoidal solar collector to produce water from atmospheric air. This
collector had a multi-layer bed (including the desiccant) to maximize the
bed surface inside the collector, and enhance the absorption and evap­
oration surfaces. In the experimental study, the effect of weather con­
ditions on system performance, at both day and night, was evaluated.
For each functional condition, the absorption and regeneration pro­
cesses were evaluated. Different host materials (sand and fabric) were
examined with CaCl2 solution, and a comparison was made between
them. The system efficiency for fabric and sand bed was reported 29.3%
and 17.76%, respectively.
In 2019, Kumar et al. [75] using the same system as in the previous
paper (Kumar and Yadav in 2015 [73]) and considering optimal design
parameters, evaluated a new composite desiccant containing 37% CaCl2.
Vermiculite/saw wood, jute, and gray clay were employed as host ma­
terials, and CaCl2 was used as the hygroscopic salt. The maximum in­
tensity of radiation during daytime was 792 W/m2. According to their
obtained results, the highest adsorption rate was 0.09744 kg/h, which
was obtained for the vermiculite/saw wood and CaCl2 composite
desiccant and the maximum amount of water produced during that test
reached 0.13 L/kg day.
In 2020, Essa et al. [76] designed and evaluated a semi-cylindrical
dual-slope solar basin (DSHCBSS) (as presented in Fig. 14). Changes
were made in the solar still by using longitudinal fins and hydroscopic
SG coating on the fins and basin liner. Moreover, two small vents were
Fig. 10. Schematic of a symmetric solar still with thermoelectric modules [64] placed on the opposite side of the basin to allow cold air to flow inside
(Reused with permission from Elsevier).

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N. Shafeian et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112325

WE-TSS) (Fig. 15). CaCl2 was used under low RH of 12%. This study
introduced a small and compact water extraction device that could be
used directly in desert areas without any infrastructure. The WE-TSS
equipped with a small air circulation fan was able to increase the pro­
ductivity from 0.23 to 0.467 L/m2. day for natural, and 4 m/s air speed
conditions, which correlates to a 50.8% increase.
In a further study, Elashmawy and Alshammari [79] introduced a
new application of the tubular solar still (TSS) using a parabolic solar
concentrator for use in low humid regions. The trough was designed in a
rectangular shape and utilized black cotton cloth impregnated with
CaCl2 desiccant solution of 30% initial concentration. Adding the
parabolic solar concentrator (PC) was considered a very promising
method for AWG in desert conditions. Their proposed device increased
the productivity of the TSS from 0.13 to 0.51 L/kg. day (292.4%). The
main limitation of their study was the extremely low humidity condi­
tions (RH = 16%). However, adding the PC helped to force water
evaporation from the desiccant with high concentrations under RH
conditions of lower than 16%.
In 2020, Elashmawy and Alatawi [80] investigated a solar still with
trapezoidal prism geometry for AWG in low RH conditions (similar to
William et al. study [74]). The experiments were performed at Hail city,
Saudi Arabia, under average RH values and ambient temperature of
Fig. 11. Schematic of the apparatus operated by Kabeel [70]. 26.5% and 28 ◦ C, respectively. The device contained five shelves packed
with black cotton material and CaCl2 as the liquid desiccant. During the
the DS-HCBSS at night. During experiments, ambient temperature and mentioned conditions, 1.06 L/m2. day of water was achieved.
RH were measured 28–40 ◦ C and 45–62%, respectively. By imple­ In 2021, Wang et al. [81] utilized a solar-powered nanostructured
menting longitudinal fins and longitudinal fins with gravel, the pro­ biopolymer hygroscopic aerogel (NBHA) for atmospheric water har­
ductivity of DS-HCBSS with SG increased by about 72% and 166%, vesting. The structural features of NBHA enabled it to easily absorb
respectively. Maximum productivity of 0.4 L/m2 day was obtained. moisture (even at an extremely low RH of ~18%), it also had a
In 2020, Li et al. [77] developed a new nano-vapor absorbent con­ high-water storage capacity, and required little energy from natural
sisting of a hollow nano-carbon capsule containing LiCl solution at its sunlight for vapor conversion. Liquid water was successfully harvested
core. The absorber could absorb water vapor from ambient air within outdoors in natural sunlight of 100–560 W/m2 intensity.
just 3 h at a RH of 60%, up to 100% of its weight, and quickly release the In 2021, Kumar et al. [82] investigated a method for recovering
absorbed water in half an hour under 1000 W/m2 of sunlight radiation. potable water from atmospheric air by utilizing of a desiccant based
Their proposed AWG system was able to run three absorption/de­ solar recuperation system. Orange SG was employed as the desiccant
sorption cycles during 10 h of day under ambient conditions and pro­ material. The experiments were conducted during three similar solar
duce 1.6 L/kg day water. They reported that the design is capable of days during the month of April 2020 in Coimbatore, India. Their system
being implemented on a large scale and for practical purposes. produced 0.098 L/kg. day of potable water under average solar irradi­
In 2020, Elashmawy [78] experimentally tested a water extraction ation of 780 W/m2.
system which worked under extremely low humidity air conditions and Some other integrated/hybrid system studies have used thermo­
employed tubular solar still (Water Extraction-Tubular Solar Still: electric cooling and combined it with other elements such as solar still

Fig. 12. Schematic of the system designed by Kabeel [71] (Reused with permission from Elsevier).

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N. Shafeian et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112325

Fig. 13. Schematic of solar glass desiccant box system (SGDBS) designed by Kumar and Yadav [73].

Fig. 15. 3D-CAD model of WE-TSS [78] (Reused with permission

from Elsevier).

the system is relatively high; however, since solar energy is a free

resource and system components do not require maintenance, the pro­
posed device could be considered as a viable long-term cost saving
system.
In 2020, Yang et al. [84] designed and fabricated a hygroscopic
aerogel material that integrates a cationic polymer, poly (dia­
Fig. 14. Schematic of experimental setup [76] (Reused with permission llyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDDA), and a negatively charged
from Elsevier). reduced graphene oxide (rGO), denoted as G-PDDA, that had high
water-sorption capacity, fast sorption kinetics, and excellent
and/or desiccants. photo-thermal properties. Furthermore, with this aerogel, they proofed
In 2012, Jradi et al. [83] combined a solar still with a the concept of a dual-function system that simultaneously generates
thermoelectric-PV appliance to design a new solar thermoelectric cool­ electricity while extracting fresh water from air. The dual-function
ing system for dehumidification and freshwater production. This system system achieved this by combining AWG with thermoelectric technol­
consisted of three main elements: a thermoelectric cooling channel, PV ogy and using natural sunlight as the sole energy input. The device for
solar panels, and a solar still to humidify the ambient air (as depicted in their practical outdoor experiment was fabricated by connecting nine
Fig. 16). The TEC channel was the key component of the proposed small devices (4 cm × 4 cm), giving a final size of 12 cm × 12 cm. In
system since was responsible for cooling, dehumidifying, and producing order to reduce heat dissipation, an expanded polystyrene foam sur­
freshwater. It is worth noting that the electrical energy produced by PV rounded the aerogel. An aluminum heat sink was chosen as the base to
panels varies significantly from month to month, depending on the efficiently dissipate heat and maintain the temperature of the cold side
available solar radiation and ambient weather conditions. PV panels also of TEC. During the moisture capture process, a poly methyl methacrylate
do not require any electrical converters, because equipped TEC modules (PMMA) framework (covered with aluminum foil) was placed around
require a DC voltage source. The proposed system was computationally the device to block the sun’s radiation entirely (as shown in Fig. 17). For
evaluated and production rate of at least 10 L/day during summer was water generation evaluation, a transparent PMMA framework was
obtained. It was conjectured that although the initial investment cost of employed to allow the solar irradiation in and subsequently, condensed

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N. Shafeian et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112325

water with a rate of 0.92 L/m2. day was collected. 6. Concluding remarks and future perspective
Some other studies have also utilized refrigeration cycles in their
integrated/hybrid systems. The present work attempts to review the latest developments in the
In 2019, Tu and Hwang [85] proposed a novel AWG device which field of AWG systems. Based on reviewing different designs and con­
combined multi-stage desiccant wheels and VCR cycle. An air figurations, we can conjecture here that integrated/hybrid AWG systems
pre-treatment stage with multi-stage desiccant wheels composed of SG are the best choices to achieve high production and efficiency. Studies
was applied to increase the humidity of the incoming air. Regeneration on integrated/hybrid systems were described and their results and
was performed by heat generated from the condenser of the VCR system. remarkable notes were listed in Table 4. By carefully reviewing Table 4,
A mathematical model was developed to predict the best configuration the following remarks can be drawn:
of the stages required for dehumidification. At the best configuration, Among reviewed integrated/hybrid AWG systems, a number of
the model predicted that an ambient temperature of 40 ◦ C, humidity studies numerically evaluated VCR-integrated/hybrid systems, and their
ratio of 5 g/kg, and water harvesting efficiency of 1.26 kg/kW.hr; water estimated water production was much higher than other systems. These
productivity of 32.5 L/h was gained. numerical outcomes are expected to be replicated in laboratory studies.
In 2019, Heidari et al. [86] proposed a desiccant wheel-based Although VCR-integrated/hybrid systems are highly efficient, they are
evaporative cooling system, which can generate water along with not cost-effective in terms of input energy. As a result, the utilization of a
providing a cooling effect. Simulation of their innovative system was renewable, cost-effective, reliable and safe energy resource such as solar
done inside a building of 60 m2 space with an indoor temperature of energy is one of the most important issues for achieving an optimum
25 ◦ C and 50% RH. A desiccant wheel made up of SG was initially uti­ system. Therefore, solar-driven VCR-integrated/hybrid AWG systems
lized to capture the moisture out of the entering air. Then the dried air is have a great prospect for further research and development. Further­
passed through an evaporative cooling system. Finally, the resulted dry more, desiccant materials have a great potential to be implemented in
and cool air in provided to the room. The temperature requirement for arid areas. The synthesis of new materials with very high sorption ability
desorption of the desiccant was supplied by the heat dissipated from the under low RH environments and low regenerative heat are highly
condenser and also by a solar boiler. The simulations concluded that the crucial issues, which requires initial studies and implementation mea­
total generated water was 3.48 L/h, while the water consumption by the sures in both laboratory and outdoor conditions.
evaporative cooler was 1.76 L/h. Therefore, an excess water of 1.72 L/h The most important challenges in atmospheric water generation can
could be utilized for household use. be explained by the following points:
In 2021, Tu et al. [87] modeled a desiccant wheel system for atmo­
spheric water harvesting and compared it with traditional direct cooling - There is a greater need to use AWG systems in remote areas, hence,
methods. The energy consumption of the humidification and vapor efficient operation, easy transportation, as well as low maintenance
condensation processes were calculated based on the ideal Carnot cycle expenses are critical issues. Solar-driven systems can ensure wider
and ideal reversible Carnot cycle. It was found that the water harvesting adaptability as well.
rate of the desiccant wheel system was always higher than that of the - The cost of construction and operating such system is an important
direct cooling method under a wide range of ambient working condi­ evaluation factor. The design of an ideal system should be such that
tions. Furthermore, the desiccant wheel system, made up of SG, was selecting appropriate elements with desired quality and reasonable
reported to outperform the direct cooling when ambient RH is lower cost, leads to an optimal efficiency.
than 60%. Furthermore, they reported that with the assistance of solar - As mentioned in the Tables 2–4, minimizing the heat loss is a very
thermal energy, water harvesting efficiency of the desiccant wheel sys­ important factor to achieve better outcome.
tem was higher than those of the direct cooling method, specifically - Several indicators such as the amount of water produced, coefficient
when the ambient RH is high. of performance and thermal and exergy efficiency are needed to be
Table 4 represents a chronological summary of the latest studies on precisely assessed and compared. Moreover, offering clear and valid
integrated/hybrid AWG systems (see Table 5). mathematical models to achieve these indicators is another impor­
tant point that should be considered as well.
- Several indicating parameters, such as temperature, RH, energy
consumption, airflow rate, desiccant weight, type of desiccant etc.
affect the quality of results. Therefore, care must be taken in
measuring these factors.

Fig. 17. Schematic illustration of the apparatus used for outdoor experiments
Fig. 16. The design of proposed system by Jradi et al. [83]. [84] (Reused with permission from Elsevier).

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N. Shafeian et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112325

Table 4
Summary of studies on integrated/hybrid AWG systems (E: Experimental, N: numerical study).
Reference/Year Applied systems Performance Remarks
indicators

Gad et al. (2001) Solar still and CaCl2 bed Production rate: - Selected a corrugated fabric substrate for desiccant to increase the
[68] 1.5 L/m2.day mass transfer surface
E Efficiency: 13–17% - The difference between the mass of evaporated water and
accumulated water, lack of complete sealing of the system and water
vapor leakage was reported
- The difference between numerical and experimental values due to
laboratory conditions and equations
- Adding a condenser to the system decreased the system efficiency
Kabeel et al. Solar still and sand layer impregnated with 30% CaCl2 solution Production rate: - Use of sandy bed as a host of desiccant
(2006) [70] 1.2 L/m2.day - Checking different angles for the slope of the solar still glass cover
E+N Efficiency: - There was a deviation between numerical and experimental
maximum 23% results.
- Heat transfer was considered only in one direction.
- Instability of the initial concentration of adsorbent solution on the
substrate on consecutive days of testing
Kabeel et al. Pyramidal glass multi-shelves solar still with the beds of 30% Production rate: - Designed a solar still different from the usual types by increasing
(2007) [71] CaCl2 2.5 L/m2.day the substrate area containing the desiccant and solar energy
E Efficiency: absorption surface for more water production
maximum 30% - Investigation of two substrates made of fabric and lumber
-Instability of the initial concentration of adsorbent solution on the
substrate on consecutive days of testing, due to environmental
conditions such as the intensity of sunlight, ambient temperature
and wind speed
Jradi et al. (2012) Solar still, PV panel and TEC module Production rate: - Using a solar still to increase the humidity of the air prior to
[83] 8 L/m2.day entering the TEC channel
N COP: 1.5 - The initial cost of implementing this system was reported to be
relatively high
- Failure to provide an acceptable model for calculating the
efficiency of the system and not considering the efficiency of the
solar still in the overall system efficiency
Kumar and Yadav Solar glass desiccant box type system with SG Production rate: - Installation of adjustable windows on the sidewalls of the pool in
(2015) [73] 0.2 L/kg day order to no longer need to remove or fix the glass cover
E - Failure to provide a theoretical model for predicting the amount of
water produced and the efficiency of the system
- Unreliable results due to no repeating the experiment
- Lack of examining the system under different weather conditions
William et al. Trapezoidal Solar Still with CaCl2 with cloth and sand bed Production rate: - T = 24–26 ◦ C and RH = 60–89%
(2015) [74] Maximum 0.91 L/ - Design and construction of a trapezoidal solar still with four sides
E m2.day made of fiberglass
Efficiency for fabric - A multi-storey system to maximize the bed surface inside the
bed: 29.3% collector and thus increase the adsorption levels
Efficiency for - There was a difference between steamed water and extracted liquid
sandy bed: 17.76% water duo to vapor leakage.
- The amount of liquid water produced was stuck to the fiberglass
surfaces and was not collect in the tank
- Failure to provide the amount of water extracted from the system
- low cost, easy operation
Tu and Hwang VCR based AWG with multiple desiccant wheels Production rate: - T = 40 ◦ C, Humidity ratio = 5 g/kg dry air
(2019) [85] 32.5 L/h - The proposed concept was described as a solution to apply VCR-
N AWG in dry climate.
- The desiccant wheel was made up of SG.
- Air was humidified from 3 to 12 g/kg to 20–50 g/kg using
desiccant wheels.
Heidari et al. Desiccant wheel-based evaporative cooling system Production rate: - T = 25 ◦ C and RH = 50%
(2019) [86] 3.48 L/hr - The desiccant wheel was made up of SG
N COP: 1.53 - The proposed system leads to 18.71% saving of CO2 emissions over
a summer month.
Essa et al. (2020) Tubular Solar Still with SG Production rate: - T = 28–40 ◦ C, RH = 45–62%
[76] 0.4 L/m2.day - A new design of solar still consisting of double slope top half with a
E+N cylindrical basin
- Integrated with a parabolic trough to increase temperature gain
- Inclusion of longitudinal fins and gravels in the basin
Li et al. (2020) Solar assisted AWG with nano sorbent composed of a hollow Production rate: - T = 22 ◦ C, RH = 60%
[77] carbon sphere and LiCl 1.6 L/kg.day - The nano-enhanced sorbent captured up to 100% of its weight at
E 60% RH in a short span of 3 h.
- With a solar intensity of 1000 W/m2, desorption occurred within
30 min
Elshmawy (2020) Tubular Solar Still (TSS) with CaCl2 desiccant Production rate: - The system operated under extremely low RH (12%)
[78] 0.230 L/m2.day - T = 29–36 ◦ C
E with fan - Black cotton cloth bed and tubular solar still with rectangular basin
0.467 L/m2.day - Equipped with fan on the tube side of still for increasing air
without fan circulation throughout the night
- Enhancement in water yield by 50.8% and efficiency by 51.2% by
(continued on next page)

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N. Shafeian et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112325

Table 4 (continued )
Reference/Year Applied systems Performance Remarks
indicators

increasing air circulation

- A small and compact water extraction device that can be used
directly in desert places without any infrastructure.
Elashmawy and Tubular Solar Still (TSS) with CaCl2 desiccant and solar Production rate: - Low humid desert climate, RH = 16%
Alshammari concentrator 0.51 L/kg.day - TSS powered by a parabolic solar concentrator
(2020) [79] - Black colored cotton cloth impregnated with CaCl2 solution of 30%
E initial concentration
- Using the PC increased water production capability of the TSS from
0.13 to 0.51 L/kg (+292.4% enhancement)
Elashmawy and Trapezoidal Solar Still with CaCl2 with black cotton material Production rate: - T = 28 ◦ C, RH = 26.5%
Alatawi (2020) 1.06 L/m2.day - Trapezoidal prism design with multi-shelves
[80] - Offered more desiccant-water contact area than the square prism
E design
- Compact design and with potential to be installed on rooftops
- Efficiency around 10% due to low RH conditions
Yang et al. (2020) G-PDDA aerogel (integrated form of poly Production rate: - RH 60%, T = 20 ◦ C
[84] (diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDDA) and graphene 0.93 L/m2.day or - Hygroscopic aerogel material had high water-sorption capacity.
E oxide (rGO)), solar absorber and TEC 1.74 L/kg.day -The system simultaneously generated electricity while extracting
fresh water from air
Wang et al. (2021) Solar still with nanostructured biopolymer hygroscopic aerogel Production rate: - Design and testing a new cost-effective solid bulk sorbent
[81] (NBHA) 0.15 L/m2.day or - Tests were performed under low RH of ~18%.
E 0.37 L/kg.day
Kumar et al. Solar still with SG Production rate: - Orange SG desiccant with solar recuperation system tested
(2021) [82] 1.5 L/m2.day or - The average solar radiation was 780 W/m2.
E 0.098 L/kg.day
Tu et al. (2021) Desiccant wheel and Solar collector Production rate: - The desiccant material was SG
[87] 8–33 L/h - Two systems for harvesting water were compared: desiccant wheel
N and direct cooling
- Desiccant wheel water harvesting exhibited a larger water
harvesting potential and greater efficiency.

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