Thermoelectric

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Table of Contents

Introduction to Thermoelectrics...........................................................2 Thermoelectric coolers have several advantages over alternate

cooling technologies. They have compact form factors and are
Thermoelectric Cooler Series...............................................................4 ideal for low heat load applications. They have no moving parts,
Structure and Function.........................................................................4 so if designed correctly can achieve long life operation in the
field with minimal to no maintenance. Thermoelectric coolers
Temperature Control................................................................................5 are capable of cooling to well below freezing temperatures.
Thermal Wizard..........................................................................................6 Multistage coolers for example can reach temperatures below
-90°C in a vacuum environment under no load. The polarity
Sealant Options..........................................................................................7
to the thermoelectric cooler can be reversed enabling thermal
Thermoelectric Array................................................................................7 cycling or precise temperature control, where up to +/-0.01°C can
be maintained under steady-state conditions. In heating mode,
Design Selection Checklist ....................................................................7
thermoelectric coolers are more efficient than conventional
Thermoelectric Multistage (Cascade) Coolers...............................9 resistant heaters because they generate heat from the input
Typical Device Performance..................................................................9 power plus additional heat generated by the heat pumping
action that occurs on the cold side. Thermoelectric coolers are
Assembly Tips............................................................................................10 also environmentally friendly as no HCFC’s are emitted to the
Procedure For Assembling Lapped Modules To Heat ozone.
Exchangers...................................................................................................11
A typical thermoelectric cooler footprint ranges from 2 x
Reliability & Qualification Testing.......................................................12 2 mm up to 62 x 62 mm and is light in weight. This makes
thermoelectrics ideal for applications with tight geometric
space constraints commonly found in many medical, analytical,
industrial and telecom applications when compared to much
larger cooling technologies, such as conventional compressor-
based systems.

When should you use thermoelectrics?

Thermoelectrics are ideal for applications that require cooling
below ambient temperatures and low heat loads, typically less
than 400 Watts. Control temperature requirements to ambient
can be solved with passive thermal solutions, such as a heat
sink and fan and larger cooling capacities are better served by
compressor-based systems because they have larger cooling
capacity capabilities with higher COP. A design engineer should
consider using TECs when the system design criteria include
such factors as precise temperature control, high reliability,
compact form factors, low weight requirements and zero global
warming potential. Thermoelectric products are ideal for many
of the medical, analytical, telecom and industrial applications
requiring active cooling.

Introduction to Thermoelectrics

Semiconductor materials with good electrical conductivity and

thermal insulation are ideal properties for thermoelectric or
Peltier coolers. Bismuth Tellurium is commonly used because
it provides the best performance of these properties in room
temperature environments. Thermoelectric devices became
commercially available in the 1960’s with the development
of advanced semiconductor processing in combination with
ceramic-based substrates.

Thermoelectric coolers (TECs) are solid-state devices that

pump heat. It generally requires a heat transfer mechanism such
as a heat exchanger to absorb and dissipate heat. The device
operates on DC voltage and when powering on the current flows
through the thermoelectric cooler and carries electrons from one
Figure 1: Thermoelectric Coolers utilize the Peltier effect to
side of the ceramic to the other. This causes one side of substrate
transfer heat from one side of the module to the other.
to get cold, while the other side gets hot. A standard single-
stage thermoelectric cooler can achieve temperature differentials
of approximately 70°C at room temperature environment (Th
~27° C). Newer thermoelectric materials have come to the market
and incrementally improved performance to 74°C. This has been
accomplished through primarily enhancing material growth
processes to limit degradation of the semiconductor materials.

2
Thermoelectric Cooler Series Structure and Function

CP Series is a standard thermoelectric cooler for refrigeration A thermoelectric cooler is composed of semiconductor material,
applications commonly found in the medical and analytical ceramic substrates and solder. It is considered a heat pump or
markets. Cooling capacity ranges from 2 to 118 watts. This solid-state device with no moving parts. The semiconductor
product series has many configurations and is available in material is unique in its properties as it is one of the few materials
numerous heat pumping capacities, geometric shapes, and input that is highly electrically conductive yet thermally insulating.
power ranges. These modules are often grouped together in an The high thermal resistance properties allow for a temperature
array to support refrigeration applications in lab environments at differential to be achieved across the module. Thermoelectric
room temperature. The maximum operating temperature of this material is grown into semiconductor rods and sliced and diced
series is 80°C. into P and N elements and then soldered in series between
two ceramic substrates. At the cold junction, energy (heat) is
absorbed by electrons as they pass from a low energy state in the
OptoTEC™ OTX/HTX Series is a premium miniature p-type semiconductor element, to a higher energy state in the
thermoelectric cooler product series using advanced n-type semiconductor element. The power supply provides the
thermoelectric materials to boost cooling performance. It is energy to move the electrons through the electric circuit. At the
commonly used to temperature stabilize small optoelectronic hot junction, energy is expelled to a heat sink as electrons move
devices such as laser diodes and image sensors, while ambient from a high energy state (n-type element) to a lower energy state
temperatures may fluctuate greatly. It offers the smallest sizes (p-type element).
with footprints less than 13 x 13 mm, while cooling capacities
are typically low ranging from 0.4 to 9.5 Watts. This Series is An analogy often used to help comprehend a thermoelectric
available in two solder constructions. The OTX Series has a cooling system is that of a standard thermocouple used to
maximum operating temperature of 120°C and HTX Series has a measure temperature. Thermocouples of this type are made by
maximum operating temperature of 150°C. connecting two wires of dissimilar metal, typically copper and
constantan, in such a manner that two junctions are formed. One
junction is kept at some reference temperature and the other is
HiTemp ETX Series is a premium thermoelectric cooler designed attached to the control device measurement. The system is used
for high temperature applications. The construction of this when the circuit is opened at some point and the generated
product series is designed to survive in temperatures up to voltage is measured. Reversing this train of thought, imagine
150°C. It features advanced thermoelectric materials to boost a pair of fixed junctions into which electrical energy is applied
performance and robust construction to prevent degradation causing one junction to become cold while the other becomes
in high temperature environments. This product series can be hot.
used in all markets, but is commonly found in analytical, telecom,
automotive (autonomous systems) and industrial (machine Thermoelectric cooling couples (Fig. 2) are made from two
vision) applications. elements of semiconductor, primarily Bismuth Telluride, heavily
doped to create either an excess (n-type) or deficiency (p-type)
of electrons. Heat absorbed at the cold junction is pumped to the
Multistage MS Series is a standard product series offering hot junction at a rate proportional to current passing through the
the highest temperature differential (∆T). Each stage is a circuit and the number of couples.
thermoelectric cooler stacked on top of each other creating a
multistage module. This product series is available in numerous
footprints, temperature differentials and cooling capacity ranges.
It is designed for lower heat pumping applications for image
sensing or detector cooling to minimize thermal noise.

PowerCycling PCX Series is a premium thermoelectric cooler

using advanced thermoelectric materials to boost performance.
It features a unique construction to survive in harsh thermal
cycling applications with high frequency. This product series
has both square and rectangular shapes commonly found in
molecular diagnostic applications. This product series can also
be used for thermal test socket applications to burn-in chips.

Figure 2: Cross Section of a typical TE Couple

UltraTEC™ UTX Series is a premium thermoelectric cooler series
using advanced thermoelectric materials to boost performance.
It features the highest heat pumping density and is commonly
used to cool industrial laser applications. Heat pumping
capacities range from 69 to 299 Watts. The UTX Series can also In practical use, couples are (Fig. 3) connected electrically in
be used for industrial applications requiring a high coefficient series, and thermally in parallel. By adding couples, the cooling
of performance (COP) if low cooling power is sufficient for the power (Qc) increases and nominal voltage input power to
application. thermoelectric cooler also increases.

Annular Series is a standard thermoelectric cooler with a hole

in the middle to accommodate light protrusion for optical
applications, mechanical fastening or access for a temperature
probe.

3
 The third and often most difficult parameter to accurately
quantify is the amount of heat to be removed or absorbed by the
cold surface of the thermoelectric cooler, (Qc). All thermal loads
to the thermoelectric cooler must be considered. These thermal
loads include, but are not limited to, the active heat load (I2R)
from the electronic device to be cooled and passive heat load
where heat loss can occur through any object in contact with
ambient environment (i.e., electrical leads, insulation, air or gas
surrounding objects, mechanical fasteners, etc.). In some cases,
radiant heat effects must also be considered.

Single stage thermoelectric coolers are capable of producing a

“no load” temperature differential of approximately 70°C.
Figure 3: Typical TE Module Assembly
Temperature differentials greater than this can be achieved by
stacking one thermoelectric on top of another. This practice is
Thermoelectric coolers are available in a variety of footprints, often referred to as cascading. The design of a cascade device is
operating currents, input voltages and heat pumping capacities, much more complex than that of a single stage device and is
Qc. Often to reach maximum performance for end user beyond the scope of these notes. Should a cascade device be
application a custom configuration is engineered to optimize required, design assistance can be provided by a Laird Thermal
geometry of element and number of couples. This is matched to Systems’ engineer.
application constraints, such as cooling capacity requirements,
desired control temperature, thermal resistance of heat Once the three basic parameters have been determined, the
dissipation mechanism and available input power budget. selection process for a particular module or array of TECs may
begin. Some common heat transfer equations are attached for
There is usually a “need” to use thermoelectrics instead of other help in quantifying cooling capacity (Qc) & hot side temperature
forms of cooling technologies. The “need” is usually going below (Th) or user can reference Laird Thermal Systems Thermal Wizard.
ambient, geometric space constraints, environmental condition
or preferred DC operation. There are many different thermoelectric coolers or module arrays
that could be used for a specific application. One additional
Once it has been decided that thermoelectrics are to be criteria that is often used to pick the “best” module(s) is
considered, the next task is to select the thermoelectric(s) that Coefficient of Performance (COP). COP is defined as the heat
will satisfy the set of attribute requirements. Three specific absorbed at the cold junction, divided by the input power (Qc /
system parameters must be determined before device selection P). The maximum COP case is the point at which minimum input
can begin. power is used and therefore, minimum total heat to be rejected to
the heat exchanger (Qh = Qc + P). These advantages come at a
These are: cost, which in this case is the additional or larger thermoelectric
• Tc = Cold Surface Temperature cooler required to operate at COP maximum. It naturally follows
that the major advantage of the minimum COP case is the lowest
• Th = Hot Surface Temperature
initial cost.
• Qc = The amount of heat to be absorbed at the Cold Surface
of the TEM

In most cases, the cold surface temperature is usually given

as part of the problem – that is to say that some object is to
be cooled to a specified temperature. Generally, if the object
to be cooled is in direct contact with the cold surface of the
thermoelectric cooler, the desired temperature of the object can
be considered the temperature of the cold surface of the TEC
(Tc). There are situations where the object to be cooled is not
in intimate contact with the cold surface of the TEC, such as
volume cooling where an air heat exchanger is required on the
cold surface of the TEC. When this type of system is employed,
the cold surface of the TEC (Tc) may need to be several degrees
colder than the ultimate desired object temperature.

The Hot Surface Temperature is defined by two major

parameters:
1. The temperature of the ambient environment to which the
heat is being rejected. Figure 4: Typical Temperature Relationship in a TEC

2. The thermal resistance of the heat exchanger between the

hot surface of the TEC and the ambient environment.
3. These two temperatures (Tc & Th) and the difference
between them (∆T) are very important parameters and
therefore must be accurately determined if the design
is to operate as desired. Figure 4 represents a typical
temperature profile across a thermoelectric system.

4
Temperature Control and/or cooling systems where the temperature must stay constant
(with no change) regardless of the ambient temperature. For
example, a thermoelectric liquid chiller system used to control the
When designing a thermoelectric system, power supplies, temperature of a detector plate in a medical imaging system.
temperature controllers, and temperature sensors are
components that also require careful consideration. Regardless of the controller used, the easiest feedback parameter
to detect and measure is temperature. The sensors most used
Thermoelectric devices require a DC power source to operate. by temperature controllers are thermocouples, thermistors,
The power supply output should be matched to the operational and RTD’s. Depending on the system, one or more temperature
voltage of the thermoelectric modules and fans. It is not sensors may be used for the purpose of control. The temperature
recommended to operate thermoelectric devices above sensor feedback is compared by the controller to a set point or
the specified maximum voltage. Doing so will degrade the another temperature to determine the power supply output. The
performance of the thermoelectric coolers and operate less temperature feedback sensor(s) will most likely be determined by
efficiently. The power supply should also have a small ripple the controller specified. Some controllers even include a sensor
voltage with a maximum of 10% of full output power. The ripple with purchase.
voltage is a fluctuation of the power supply output voltage
and therefore is an AC component of the DC power source. To begin selection of a thermoelectric controller, consider the
AC power will degrade the operational performance of the following questions:
thermoelectric coolers. The degradation in performance due to
ripple voltage can be approximated by: 1. What is the maximum voltage & current of thermoelectric
coolers used in the application? (also needed for selecting a
power supply)
∆T / ∆Tmax = 1 / (1+N2), where N is a percentage of current 2. Does the system need to Heat, Cool or Heat & Cool?
ripple, expressed as a decimal. Laird Thermal Systems
3. Can the system tolerate a temperature swing of 3°C?
recommends no more than a 10% ripple.
Once answered, the selection of the basic functions of a
temperature controller can be identified. The controller
selected needs to be capable of handling the maximum
Temperature control can be accomplished by using one of voltage and current to properly control the thermoelectric
two control methods: Open Loop (manual) and Closed Loop cooler and power fans.
(automatic).
In the Open Loop method, an operator adjusts the output of If the answers to question 2 is “Heat” or “Cool” and the answer to
the power supply to achieve and maintain a steady control question 3 is “Yes” then the required controller is single directional
temperature. In the Closed Loop method an electronic controller and thermostatic.
runs an algorithm that utilizes feedback data from a temperature
sensor within the system to vary the output of the power supply If the answers to question 2 is “Heat” or “Cool” and the answer to
to control the temperature. question 3 is “No” then the required controller is single directional
and proportional.
Temperature controllers can have a single directional or a
bidirectional output. A temperature controller that has a single If the answers to question 2 is “Heat & Cool” and the answer to
directional output can operate only in Heating or Cooling question 3 is “Yes” then the required controller is bidirectional and
mode depending on connection polarity. Controllers with thermostatic.
a single directional output are used to maintain a constant If the answers to question 2 is “Heat & Cool” and the answer to
temperature within a system surrounded by a relatively constant question 3 is “No” then the required controller is bidirectional and
ambient temperature (i.e., refrigeration or hot food storage). A proportional.
temperature controller with a bidirectional output can operate in
both heating and cooling modes. Controllers with a bidirectional Temperature controllers also can accommodate more advanced
output are used for maintaining a constant temperature within options to trip alarms, control fan speeds and interface remotely
a system surrounded by an ambient environment with large with PC or UI, but these are beyond the scope of this handbook.
temperature fluctuations (i.e., back-up battery storage or However, some basic questions to consider for temperature
climate control enclosure during winter and summer months). controller designs are:

Temperature controllers can also have two regulation modes: 1. What alarms/indicators are required for User Interface?
thermostatic (On/Off) or proportional control. Thermostatic 2. Does the controller need to interface with a PC?
controllers operate by turning on the thermoelectric coolers in
order to heat or cool to a set point. The set point temperature 3. Does the TEM controller provide fan control?
tolerance is defined by a hysteresis range. Once the set point is 4. Does the temperature set point need to be changed by the
achieved the controller shuts off the thermoelectric cooler. When end user?
the control temperature changes to outside the hysteresis range
the controller turns on power to the thermoelectric coolers
Other design considerations may exist and should be considered
and restarts the cooling or heating mode process. This cycle
during system level design.
continues until the controller is shut down. Thermostatic control
is often used in climate control or refrigeration, where narrow
Laird Thermal Systems offers a variety of Closed Loop
temperature swings can be tolerated.
Temperature Controllers. The controller offering includes single
and bidirectional output controllers that employ thermistor
Proportional controllers use proportional regulation to maintain a
temperature sensor feedback, fan controls, alarms, and a range
constant temperature with no swing in the control temperature.
of control algorithms ranging from thermostatic (ON/OFF) to
This is often accomplished by using a Proportional Integral
PID. Laird Thermal Systems also has the ability to customize
Derivative (PID) algorithm to determine the output value and a
and design temperature controllers to meet unique application
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) output to handle the physical
requirements. Consult with a Laird Thermal Systems Sales
control. When using a controller with a PWM output, a capacitor
Engineer on available product offerings or customized solutions
can be placed (electrically) across the output to filter the voltage
that may fit your design criteria.
to the TEM. Proportional controllers are often used in heating
5
Thermal Wizard

Engineers of all disciplines more frequently need a Thermal

Wizard, someone who can solve their heat dissipation or
critical thermal management problems. Laird Thermal Systems
developed the Thermal Wizard to solve all of these issues.

The Thermal Wizard is a web-based solution, which links product

search to thermal calculators to product availability. This means
it is available on any web browser and on any computing
platform (PC, Mac, Iphone, Android) running a web browser.
Thermal Wizard requires only two specifications, Qc (Cooling
Power) and ∆T (Temperature Change) to begin the selection
process

If you know these specifications, the main Thermal Wizard

product search quickly displays the available thermoelectric
cooler, thermoelectric cooler assembly or liquid cooling system
thermal solutions, ranging from a few tenths of a watt to more
than five kilowatts. If Qc and DeltaT have not yet been
determined, Thermal Wizard provides five calculators (Device
Cooling, Enclosure Cooling, Air Cooling, Liquid Cooling and
PCR), each with three preprogrammed examples to quickly get
your design underway.

Design engineers can use these calculators to model new

product designs in order to observe how the trial design
performs under various What-If scenarios. Linking actual thermal
products and their real-world performance to application models
accelerates trial design results, shortening design times.

The Thermal Wizard displays the quickest means of obtaining Figure 6: Thermal Wizard Enclosure Cooling Calculator
samples for prototyping. Whenever the Thermal Wizard displays
a product, either in a selection list or in an active datasheet, a
Buy Now >> button is always there to indicate a source with
inventory. The Thermal Wizard Request a Quote form is also
available if you require a firm quote from Laird Thermal Systems.

Learn more about the Thermal Wizard in our Technical Paper:

How to make the Laird Thermal Systems Wizard Your Thermal
Wizard

Figure 5: Selecting Qc and ∆T for Thermal Wizard Product Search Figure 7: Thermal Wizard Device Cooling Calculator

6
Sealant Options Thermoelectric Array

Most applications operate in a room temperature environment Wiring multiple thermoelectric coolers together is commonly
and cool to below dew point. As a result, moisture in the referred to as a TE array. The decision to wire thermoelectric
environment will condense onto the cold side heat exchanger coolers in series or in parallel is primarily based on available input
and may accumulate around mounting hardware and eventually power requirements. No additional performance benefit will be
penetrate to the thermoelectric cooler. The presence of achieved by wire arrangement. TE arrays are commonly used for
moisture will cause corrosion that will degrade the useful higher heat pumping capacities and can be more efficient than a
life of a thermoelectric module. Two perimeter sealants are single thermoelectric cooler by taking advantage of dissipating
generally used because they provide moisture protection against heat over a larger surface area. When mounting a TE array onto a
condensation, have high dielectric strength and low thermal heat exchanger, the recommended lapping tolerances are ± 0.025
conductivity. mm for two thermoelectric coolers and ± 0.0125 mm for three or
more. This is done to maximize the thermal contact between the
Silicone (RTV) is an all-purpose sealant that exhibits good thermoelectric cooler and mating heat exchangers.
sealing characteristics and retains its elastomeric properties
over a wide temperature range, -60 to 200°C. The sealant is One advantage of wiring a TE array in parallel versus in series is
non-corrosive to many chemicals and exhibits good electrical that the entire TE array will not fail if one thermoelectric cooler
properties with low thermal conductivity. It is suitable for has an open circuit. This can be beneficial for applications that
high volume applications for ease of use and is cost effective. require redundancy.
However, over time it is impervious to vapor migration that can
trap small amounts of moisture inside the thermoelectric cooler
once the vapor condenses. This may or may not be a problem
dependent on life expectancy of application and environmental
conditions. This sealant is also better suited for thermal cycling
applications

Figure 8: Thermoelectric Cooler with RTV (translucent or white) sealant. Figure 10: Thermoelectric Cooler Array

Epoxy (EP) is an effective barrier to moisture that exhibits a

useable temperature range of -40 to 130°C. When cured the
material is completely unicellular and therefore the moisture
absorption is negligible. The material exhibits a low dielectric
Design/Selection Checklist
constant, low coefficient of thermal expansion and low If you are looking for a custom thermoelectric device, we will ask
shrinkage. Epoxies are ideal for applications requiring long life you to fill out the specifications in the Prototype Thermoelectric
expectancies. However, applying epoxy onto thermoelectric Cooler Requirements form on the website. These specifications,
coolers can be cumbersome as multiple fillers are required to be including cooling capacity, size constraints, and available input
mixed and working life tends to be short, which makes it more voltage, are taken into consideration when designing your
difficult to automate for higher volume production runs. This thermoelectric cooler. Reference image on next page.
sealant is recommended for refrigeration applications, but not
thermal cycling.

Figure 9: Thermoelectric Cooler with Epoxy (black) sealant.

It should be noted that since sealants come in contact with the

top and bottom ceramic, they act as thermal paths and transfer
heat. The thermal conductivity of RTV and Epoxy is low, but it
still can diminish the cooling performance of a TEM by up to
10%. However, it is necessary to specify for applications that may
be susceptible to condensation.
7
8
Thermoelectric Multistage Coolers

A multistage thermoelectric cooler should be used only when Laird Thermal Systems offers a line of MS Series cascades though
a single stage module does not meet temperature control there are no standard applications. Each need for a cascade is
requirements. Figure 11 depicts two graphs: the first shows unique, so too should be the device selected to fill the need. Laird
the ∆T vs. Normalized Power input (Pin/Pmax) of single and Thermal Systems has developed a proprietary computer aided
multistage modules. The second graph shows the ∆T vs. COP. design selection tool called the Thermal Wizard to help select
COP is defined as the amount of heat absorbed at the cold side a device. The three parameters listed are used as inputs to the
of the TEM (in thermal watts) divided by the input power (in programs. Other variables such as physical size, and operating
electrical watts). voltage or current can, within limits, be used to make the final
selection. More than 40,000 different cascades can be assembled
These figures should help identify when to consider cascades
utilizing available ceramic patterns. This allows near custom
since they portray the effective ∆T range of the various stages. A
design, at near “standard” prices. When the three parameters
two- stage cascade should be considered somewhere between a
have been defined, please contact a Laird Thermal Systems sales
∆T of 40°C and 65°C. Below a ∆T of 40°C, a single stage module
engineer for assistance in cascade selection.
may be used, and a ∆T above 65°C may require a 3, 4 or even 5
stage module.

Typical Device Performance

When PERFORMANCE vs. INPUT POWER is plotted for any
thermoelectric device, the resultant curve will appear as in figure
12 below. Performance can be ∆T (Th - Tc), heat pumped at the
cold side (Qc), or as in most cases, a combination of these two
parameters.
Input power can be current (I), voltage (V) or the product of IV.
When we refer to the ∆Tmax or Qc max, we are referring to that
point where the curve peaks. The same is true when referring
to either Imax or Vmax. Since operating at or near the peak is
inefficient, most devices operate somewhere between 40% and
80% of Input Power MAX.
As stated, devices are normally operated on the near-linear,
upward sloping portion of the curve. When automatic or closed
loop temperature control is being used, current or voltage limits
should be set below the MAX intercepts.

Figure 11: Multistage Temperature Differential

There is another very significant factor that must always be

considered and that is cost. As the number of stages increases,
so does the cost. Certain applications require a trade-off
between COP and cost. As with any other thermoelectric system, Figure 12: Performance vs Input Power
to begin the selection process requires the definition of at least
three parameters:

• Tc Cold Side Temperature

• Th Hot Side Temperature
• Qc The amount of heat to be removed (absorbed by the
cooled surface of the thermoelectric cooler)
(in watts)

Once ∆T (Th - Tc) and the heat load have been defined,
utilization of Figure 4 will yield the number of stages that
should be considered. Knowing COP and Qc, input power can
also be estimated. The values listed in Figure 11 are theoretical
maximums. Any device that is manufactured will rarely achieve
these maximums but should closely approach this value.
9
Assembly Tips
The techniques used in the assembly of a thermoelectric system In addition, we have enclosed step-by-step procedure for
can be as important as the selection of the thermoelectric assembling Laird Thermal Systems modules, Solderable or Lapped
cooler (TEC). It is imperative to keep in mind the purpose of the modules to heat-exchangers.
assembly – namely to transfer heat. Generally, a thermoelectric
cooler, in cooling mode, moves heat from an object to ambient
environment. All of the mechanical interfaces between the
If you should require any further assistance, please contact
device to be cooled and ambient are also thermal interfaces.
one of our engineers. Our many years of experience in
Similarly, all thermal interfaces tend to inhibit the transfer of heat
working with customers ensuring reliable and efficient
or add thermal resistance to system, which lowers COP. Again,
application of our products has proven to be essential to
when considering assembly techniques every reason- able effort
product success.
should be made to minimize the thermal resistance between hot
and cold surfaces.

Mechanical tolerances for heat exchanger surfaces should

not exceed .025 mm/mm with a maximum of .076 mm
total Indicated Reading. If it is necessary to use multiple
thermoelectric coolers in an array between common plates, then
the height variation between modules should not exceed 0.025
mm (request tolerance lapped modules when placing order).
Most thermoelectric cooler assemblies (TEAs) utilize thermal
interface materials, such as grease. The grease thickness should
be kept to 0.025 ± .013 mm to minimize thermal resistance. A
painter’s ink roller and screen work well for maintaining grease
thickness. When these types of tolerances are to be held, a
certain level of cleanliness must be maintained to minimize
contaminants.

Once the thermoelectric coolers have been assembled between

the heat exchangers, some form of insulation should be used
between the exchangers surrounding the modules. Since the
area within the module, (i.e. the element matrix), is an open DC
circuit and a temperature gradient is present, air flow should be
minimized to prevent condensation. Typically, a thermoelectric
cooler is about 5.0 mm thick, so any insulation that can be Figure 12: Assembly Tips Drawing
provided will minimize heat loss between hot and cold side
heat exchangers. The presence of the insulation/seal also offers
protection from outside contaminants.

The insulation/seal is often most easily provided by inserting

a die cut closed cell polyurethane foam around the cavity and
sealing with either an RTV type substance or, for more physical
integrity, an epoxy coat. Whatever form is used, it should provide
the protection outlined above. It is often desirable to provide
strain relief for the input lead wires to the thermoelectric cooler,
not only to protect the leads themselves, but to help maintain
the integrity of the seal about the modules.

We have included an Assembly Tips drawing (Fig. 12). This

drawing shows the details of the recommended construction of
a typical assembly. The use of a “spacer block” yields maximum
heat transfer, while separating the hottest and coldest parts of
the system, by the maximum amount of insulation. The “spacer
blocks” are used on the cold side of the system due to the lower
heat flux density. In addition, the details of a feed thru and vapor
sealing system that can be used for maximum protection from
the environment are shown.

If you follow the recommendations shown in these drawings

than you will see a significant improvement in performance.
When testing an assembly of this type it is important to monitor
Figure 13: Assembly Procedures Drawing
temperature. Measuring temperature of the cooling fluids, inlet
and outlet temperatures as well as flow rates is necessary. This is
true if either gas or liquid fluids are used. Knowing input power
to the thermoelectric cooler, both voltage and current, will also
help in determining the cause of a potential problem.

10
Procedure For Assembling Lapped
Modules To Heat Exchangers

IMPORTANT: When two or more thermoelectric coolers (TECs)

are mounted between a common heat exchanger base, the TECs T = (C x D x P x m2) / (# of screws)
thickness tolerance should not vary more than ± 0.025 mm.
Contact our sales engineer for more information on tolerance
lapping requirements for thermoelectric coolers in an array.

T = torque per screw (N-m)

Step 1. Prepare cold plate and heat sink surfaces as follows:
C = torque coefficient (0.20 as received, 0.15 lubricated) D =
• Grind or lap flat to within +/- 0.025 mm in module area.
nominal screw size (M3 = 0.003, M4 = 0.004,
• Locate mounting holes as close as possible to opposite
M5 = 0.005)
edges of module (3.18 mm clearance recommended, 12.7
mm maximum), in the same plane line as the heat exchanger P = Force (N-m2)
fins. This orientation utilizes the additional structural
m2 = Module surface area (length x width)
strength of the fins to prevent bowing. Drill clearance
holes on one surface and drill and tap opposite surface Check torque after one hour and retighten if necessary.
accordingly (see sketch in Assembly Tips). If a spacer block Use Stainless Steel Screws, fiber insulating shoulder washers, and
is used to increase distance between surfaces, performance steel spring (Belleville or split lock type) washers
is greater if the spacer block is on the cold side of system.
(see sketch in Assembly Tips).
• Remove all burrs, chips and foreign matter from
thermoelectric module mounting area.
CAUTION
Step 2. Thoroughly clean and degrease thermoelectric cooler, To ensure good thermal grease performance, there should be
heat exchanger and cold surface. no bowing of either surface due to torquing. To prevent bowing,
apply less torque if one or both surfaces are less than 3.18 mm
Step 3. Apply a thin continuous film of thermal grease (Laird thick copper or 6.35 mm thick aluminum.
Thermal Systems grease type 1500) to module hot side surface
and to module area on heat exchanger.

Step 4. Locate module on heat exchanger, hot side down.

Step 5. Gently oscillate module back and forth, exerting uniform

downward pressure, noting efflux of thermal compound around
edges of module. Continue motion until resistance is felt.

Step 6. Repeat Step #3 for cold side surface and cold plate.

Step 7. Position cold plate on module.

Step 8. Repeat Step #5, sliding cold plate instead of module.

Be particularly careful to maintain uniform pressure. Keep the
module centered between the screws, or uneven compression
will result.

Step 9. Before bolting, best results are obtained by preloading

in compression the cold plate/heat exchanger/module assembly,
applying a light load in line with center of module, using clamp
or weights. For two-module assemblies, use three screws located
on module center line, with middle screw located between
modules. To preload, torque middle screw first. Bolt carefully,
by applying torque in small increments, alternating between
screws. Use a torque limiting screwdriver. The recommended
compression for a thermoelectric assembly is 10 to 21 kilograms
per square centimeter (150 - 300 PSI) of module surface area.
Using the following equation, you can solve for torque per screw:

11
Reliability & Qualification Testing Mechanical Testing
MTBF is difficult to determine and highly dependent on Mechanical testing is more commonly conducted on smaller
application conditions. Thermoelectric devices can be highly OptoTEC™ or Multistage parts used in various optoelectronic
reliable if design considerations for application have been fully applications where the cold side surface is used to mount
vetted and proper qualification testing has been conducted an optical component or thermistor. Larger form factor
to assure worst case attributes. Most customers create their thermoelectric coolers generally do not conduct mechanical
own qualification requirements based on accelerated or severe testing unless they are used for aerospace or automotive
environmental testing that goes beyond worst case application applications. Common mechanical testing is vibration and shear
conditions. force testing.
To ensure proper long-term performance of a thermoelectric
cooler in an application, performance measurements and
qualification testing must be conducted to validate full Vibration Testing
compliance in an application:
• Functional testing – verifies that the thermoelectric cooler Assures thermoelectric coolers are not affected by careless
meets expected performance specifications handling during transportation. It is typically required for
• Reliability testing – determines the thermoelectric cooler’s miniature thermoelectric coolers used in telecom and aerospace
mechanical integrity and ability to survive in extreme applications due to their sensitive module construction.
environmental conditions
• Compliance –ensures that the product meets applicable How is the test performed?
industry standards • The thermoelectric cooler is mounted on the test fixture
which is then mounted on the test equipment platform in one
of three axes.
Functional Performance Testing • The thermoelectric cooler is subjected to vibrations during
multiple sequences.
Thermoelectric coolers undergo performance testing to
ensure they deliver the expected cooling capacity. A vacuum
temperature difference tester is used to measure electrical Shear Force Testing
current and voltage input.

Even though thermoelectric coolers can withstand a high level of

How is the test performed? compression stress, sheer strength is relatively weak and proper
• The thermoelectric cooler is placed on a heatsink with the mounting is critical to ensure durability. This test is typically
cold side facing upwards in a vacuum environment. A copper performed on smaller thermoelectric coolers as larger units allow
block is put on the cold side as thermal load. for stronger and more reliable construction.

• Current will be applied to the thermoelectric cooler to reach

the calculated Imax that produces the maximum possible
temperature differential (∆Tmax).
• Current of thermal load will then change so the temperature
of the hot and cold side is equal, resulting in ∆T= 0
• The maximum cooling capacity (Qmax) is determined by the
required power input to thermal load

How is the test performed?

Reliability Testing • The thermoelectric cooler will be attached to the module

holding fixture.
Standard mechanical or environmental testing is conducted • With one plate of the thermoelectric cooler held in place, a
to Telcordia GR-468 Core or MIL-STD. Standard testing shear force will be applied to the other plate according to the
does not accommodate all application criteria and often customer specification.
custom environmental testing is conducted based on OEM
specifications. The most common method to assess the health
of a thermoelectric cooler is by measuring AC-resistance (ACR)
before and after the qualification test has been conducted.
A significant drop of AC resistance indicates that the
Environmental Testing
thermoelectric cooler has degraded and may not be functioning
properly. If the ACR change is greater than 5% it will not pass Environmental testing is more commonly conducted to qualify
testing. thermoelectric coolers for customer specific applications. These
types of tests thermally stress the construction of the TEC to
validate its integrity in end use applications. There are more types
of tests that can be done including high temperature storage,
power cycling and thermal shock testing.

12
High Temperature Storage HALT/HASS Testing
Will determine the effect of long-term storage of thermoelectric HALT-Highly Accelerated Life Test aims to identify the operating
coolers at a specific condition. This testing induces thermal limits of the thermoelectric cooler. By identifying weaknesses
stress on the thermoelectric cooler in a non-operation state. early in the product development process, HALT can reduce cost
and time-to-market. This type of test is typically performed when
assessing failure modes or estimating MTBF of a thermoelectric
How is the test performed?
cooler.
The thermoelectric cooler is placed in a storage chamber at
a temperature and time specified by a certain standard or
HASS-Highly Accelerated Stress Test will detect flawed
customer application requirement. There is typically a low or
thermoelectric coolers caused by poor manufacturing processes.
high temperature storage requirement
The testing procedure is similar to HALT but stress levels are less
• Low temperature storage testing is commonly conducted at a extreme.
temperature between 80 to 100°C
• High temperature storage testing is commonly conducted at
How is the test performed?
a temperature between 120 to 150°C
• The thermoelectric cooler is powered on and placed in a
hot oven.

Power Cycling • The thermoelectric cooler is subjected to mechanical stress by

increasing temperature changes. For HALT testing, extreme
conditions will lead to failure of the thermoelectric cooler.
This test will determine the effect of inducing electrical and
thermal stress to the thermoelectric cooler caused by sudden • The test analysis will determine if the module construction
changes between power conditions. must be enhanced (HALT) or if potential defects have been
caused by poor manufacturing processes (HASS)

How is the test performed?

• On/Off Power Cycling – Thermoelectric cooler is placed
in a fixture and powered on and off to a set duration for a
Compliance
specified number of cycles. Typical testing requires minimum
cycle condition of 5000 cycles or more. Regulatory requirements are needed to confirm products are
following safe operating conditions and are not harmful to the
• Reverse Power Cycling – the thermoelectric cooler is exposed
environment.
to thermal stress generated by sudden changes between
positive and negative power conditions. This is often used
Thermoelectric coolers may need to comply with
for PCR applications when heating and cooling occurs
alternately. Typical testing requires up to 200K cycles or • RoHS - the Restriction of Hazardous Substances
more, with rapid temperature swings between 10~100°C.
• REACH - the Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and
Restriction of Chemicals (Europe).

Thermal Shock • TSCA - Toxic Substances Control Act (US)

• CA PROP 65 - Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement
Act (US, California)
A frequently used method to measure survivability of a product
• Telcordia GR-468 Core Issue 2
under thermal stress. The purpose is to simulate hot and cold
temperature conditions exceeding the intended application.
Thermoelectric coolers operating in harsh environments are
typically required to meet Telcordia General Requirements (GR)
How is the test performed?
to ensure product reliability. Telcordia (previously Bellcore) is a
The thermoelectric cooler will be exposed to high and low company that provides technical analysis, testing, and consulting
temperatures in non-operational mode. As the module contracts services to product suppliers and service providers for the
and expands from repeated cooling and heating cycles over a telecom market.
long period of time, the thermoelectric cooler will be subjected
Due to lack of industry standards in other markets, OEM’s
to mechanical and thermal stresses.
have adopted Telcordia standards in reliability testing for
thermoelectric products used in other critical applications, such as
machine vision, autonomous and optoelectronic applications.

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time to time, a copy of which will be furnished upon request.

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