Fly To Learn Student

Written By Tom Dubick

© 2011 by Fly To Learn. All rights reserved.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

First Flight .............................................................................................................................................. 3
May The Force(s) Be With You ........................................................................................................ 9
Lift – A Real Pick Me Up .................................................................................................................... 17
What a Drag, Man ............................................................................................................................... 23
Thrust – It’s all about altitude ....................................................................................................... 29
Flight Controls and Stability.……………………………………………………………………………………32
Aspect Ratio ......................................................................................................................................... 44
Wing Loading ....................................................................................................................................... 49
Power Loading .................................................................................................................................... 57
AirplaneDesign ................................................................................................................................... 65


1

First Flight
“The Wright brothers were engineers first, pilots second.”

Introduction
Before you can take off, you need to learn a little more about how to set up the right flight
conditions for a new pilot. Then, you will learn about airplane instruments, techniques for taking
off, and how to change views of the airplane while flying. After you have a good grasp on flying,
you will run different trials to learn how airspeed and altitude are related. Before flying in X-‐
Plane, please read through this handout and watch the corresponding videos. You can always re-‐
watch the videos if you need a helping hand.

Flight Conditions
It’s important to take into consideration the aircraft, airport, and weather conditions for your
first flight. Planes, as well as runways, vary in difficulty, and the more you practice, the more
options you will have. Once you gain more experience, you will be able to fly at night and in
windy conditions. For now use the following Quick-‐Flight Setup instructions. It is a good fit for a
new pilot; this lesson has a great corresponding video that goes into detail on how to set these
options.

Under Settings chose Quick-‐Flight Setup:

Airport: Enter the airport ID of LOWI to select Innsbruck airport and then select RWY08
(runway 8), Takeoff.
Plane: Click on Open Aircraft, select General Aviation, and double-‐click Cessna 172SP,
172SP.acf
Weather: Set all Clouds (Upper, Mid, and Lower) to clear. Visibility should be full.
Precipitation, Thunderstorms, Wind and Turbulence should all be none. Rate of Change
should be stagnant, or halfway. Temperature and Barometric pressures should be 50° F
and 29.92 in HG, respectively.

Click the X at the top left corner to exit Quick-‐Flight Setup.

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1

Instruments
In X-‐Plane you can see your instruments in the bottom half of the screen. The corresponding
video will point out each one of these on the control panel so you can match up each with its
function.

Airspeed Indicator: indicates how fast the airplane is moving relative to the surrounding air.
Attitude Indicator: shows the attitude of the airplane relative to the horizon.
Altimeter: shows how high the airplane is above sea level—the large hand represents
hundreds and the small hand represents thousands.
Coordinated Turn Indicator: indicates the rate and direction of turn.
Heading Indicator: shows the heading of the airplane compared to geographical north.
Vertical Speed Indicator: reports the rate that the aircraft is climbing or descending.
Compass: reports the heading of the airplane relative to magnetic north.
Tachometer: shows the number of times the engines turns per minute.

Takeoff
1. Open X-‐Plane and follow the Quick-‐Flight Setup instructions above.
2. Press "P" to pause the simulator so you can ready the plane without it moving.
3. Click on the red break light to release the brakes (or press "B").
4. Push the throttle, the black knob in the bottom-‐right corner of the screen, all the
way in using the mouse. You can also use the center wheel on your mouse or press
and hold the F2 key to control the throttle.
5. Click on the center of the windshield to make the cross hairs and control box appear.
6. Move mouse pointer to the right of the cross hairs to get the plane started down the
runway (otherwise it will drift left).
7. Press "P" to un-‐pause.
8. As the plane rolls forward, make small corrective movements with the mouse to
keep the plane rolling straight down the runway, moving the pointer closer and
closer to the cross hairs.
9. At 75 knots, move the pointer to the bottom of the cross hairs and the plane should
take off.

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1

Flight Views
X-‐Plane offers many different camera angles to see the plane and observe your flight. Press P to
pause so you can concentrate on learning the different views without worrying about flying.

e: Cycles clockwise through views out the plane – the little orange plane and triangle
show you which way you are looking out.
q: Cycles counter-‐clockwise through views out the plane.
w: The standard view straight out the plane.
a: Following behind the plane – Pressing q or e in this view allows you to circle around
the plane, counter-‐clockwise and clockwise, respectively. You can also use the arrow
keys to rotate the view around the aircraft. Press + and -‐ to zoom in and out.

Climbing Higher -‐ Potential vs. Kinetic Energy
As a pilot, you need to be concerned about energy management. Energy exists in the universe
in different forms. It cannot be created or destroyed. It simply changes form.

Your airplane runs on aviation fuel. This fuel has a great deal of potential energy. Once you
start the plane, the engine converts the potential energy of the fuel into the moving or kinetic
energy of the propeller turning in the air. As you add more fuel (push in the throttle), the
engine turns even more potential energy into kinetic energy (tachometer increases). The plane,
pulled by the propeller, will move faster down the runway and then liftoff.

If you continue to apply full throttle (black knob pushed all the way in), the plane will do one of
the following: go faster or go higher. If you decide to go faster, the plane is converting the fuel
or potential energy into kinetic energy or speed.

If you decide to go higher, the plane is converting the fuel or potential energy into altitude or a
different form of potential energy.

It is the same thing as when you pedal your bike down a hill. You are using potential energy of
gravity at the top of the hill and converting it into kinetic energy of motion as you ride down.

Unfortunately, not all the potential energy becomes kinetic energy. For example, some of the
potential energy becomes heat and does not contribute to speed.

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1

Let’s do a quick demonstration of what we have been discussing.

Under Settings chose Quick-‐Flight Setup:

Airport: Select Innsbruck airport, RWY08 (runway 8), Final Approach 3nm.
Plane: Click on Open Aircraft, select General Aviation, and double-‐click Cessna 172SP,
172SP.acf
Weather: Set all Clouds (Upper, Mid, and Lower) to clear. Visibility should be full.
Precipitation, Thunderstorms, and Wind and Turbulence should all be none. Rate of
Change should be stagnant, or halfway. Temperature and Barometric pressures should be
50° F and 29.92 in HG, respectively.

Level Flight
1. Open X-‐Plane and follow the Quick-‐Flight Setup instructions above.
2. Press "P" to Pause the simulator so that you can ready the plane with out it moving.
3. Click on the center of the windshield to make the cross hairs and control box appear.
4. We should take a look at our top three instruments and jot down what they read.

Air Speed Indicator Attitude Indicator Altimeter

What is the air speed? What does the artificial horizon look like? Where are the big and little
hands on the altimeter? Fill in the circles above. Don’t worry about writing down all the
numbers — just draw the arrows.

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1

Let’s trade off potential energy for kinetic energy.

Point the nose of our plane down. After descending for a short time (3 sec), press pause and
take another look at our instruments. Note the changes and fill in the instruments below.


Point the nose up for a short while until you are higher than you were when you started. Then
press pause. Again, note the changes and fill in the instruments below.


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Investigative Questions
You as the pilot want to go faster, do you point the nose up or down?

You are flying faster and faster. Is your kinetic energy going up or down?

In terms of energy, why does your plane slow down as you climb?

You don’t touch the throttle; can you climb and fly faster?

Why is it dangerous to fly low and slowly?

Flying Higher
You are in a dive going faster and faster. At some point the airspeed will stop increasing. Why?

8

2

May The Force(s) Be With You

Introduction
Ok, now you have been flying a little while and you realize two things: Flying is fun! And there
is a lot to learn to pilot a plane. The good news is the more you learn, the better the pilot you
will be. In this lesson you will begin to learn about the four forces that act on an airplane. You
will also get your first chance to do more than just fly; you can actually make changes to your
airplane. As always, please read through this handout and watch the corresponding videos.
You can always re-‐watch the videos if you need a helping hand.

Force
Force is a push or a pull. It is composed of magnitude (how large the force is) and the direction
of the force. We represent forces by drawing vectors (arrows) that tell us the magnitude and
the direction of the force.

Weight
Let’s look at weight as a force on an airplane. Weight is the result of mass times gravity. This
means that if you were to stand on the moon or another planet you would weigh a different
amount because gravity has changed, even though your mass is still the same. The mass of the
airplane includes the airplane structures (wings, tail, landing gear, etc), fuel, and payload. The
payload includes cargo (mail and packages), crew, and passengers. The direction of this force in
level flight is down or perpendicular to the flight path.

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2
Test Flight: Weight vs. Takeoff Distances

Now let’s conduct some test flights to study the impact of weight on take off distances. This is
important for two reasons: to see the impact of weight on the performance of the airplane and
to learn the importance of takeoff distance.

Quick – Flight Setup
Airport: LOWI
Aircraft: Cessna 172_P
Weather: CAVOK

Collect Test Data
1. Click on Settings.
2. Select Data Input & Output.
3. Choose the Data Set Tab.
4. Click on the last two checkboxes at speeds (line 3).
5. Click on the last two checkboxes at loc, vel, distance (line 21).
6. Click on the last two checkboxes at landing gear vert force (line 66).
7. Click on X to return to the plane.

Set Payload
1. At the top menu, select Aircraft.
2. Click on Weight and Fuel.
3. Choose the Fuel/Payload Tab.
4. Make a note of the payload weight. It should be 298 lbs. Do not change it for now.
5. Click X to return to the plane.

Takeoff
1. Press "P" to pause.
2. Press “B” to release the brake.
3. Push in the throttle.
4. Click on the center of the windshield.
5. Move the mouse pointer to the bottom of cross hairs.
6. Press "P" to un-‐pause.
7. As the plane rolls forward, make small corrective movements with the mouse to try
keep the plane rolling straight down the runway.
8. The plane lifts off.

Repeat these steps, completing the following table by taking off with different weights.
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2

Test Piloting
If you have not already, please watch the Weight vs. Takeoff Distance video. The plane
normally has a load of 298 lbs. Fly it three times. Be sure to keep the pointer on the crosshairs,
and the plane will takeoff. Try to fly as consistently as possible. Record the Vtrue airspeed and
Takeoff Distance for each flight in the table below. Change the load to 600 lbs and takeoff
three more times. Repeat again with the load at 900 lbs.

Load: 298 lbs
Trial Load VtrueArspeed Takeoff Distance
1 298
2 298
3 298

Average Takeoff Distance ________________

Load: 600 lbs
1 600
2 600
3 600


Load: 900 lbs
1 900
2 900
3 900


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Once you have completed the Test Flying tables, please complete the bar graph below.

Please note: Vtrue indicates the true airspeed. Vind means indicated airspeed. The plane’s
instruments give us an indicated airspeed, which is affected by altitude and temperature. Vtrue
gives us the actual airspeed independent of altitude and temperature.

Payload vs. Average Takeoff Distance

Average

Takeoff

Distance

(ft)

Payload (lbs)
As the payload increases, does takeoff distance increase or decrease?

Does a longer takeoff distance indicate more or less payload?

Does the airspeed go up or down as you increase the payload?

Do larger airplanes require larger airstrips?

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2
Weight as a Force

As stated before, weight equals mass times gravity. We can’t change gravity, but by reducing
mass, we can reduce weight to improve performance. This is true in every aircraft whether it’s
a jet airliner or a model plane.

We have focused on the impact of magnitude of weight on flight performance. Since weight is
a force, it has a directional component. The direction of the weight force will always point to
the center of the earth. During level flight, this force is pointed 90 degrees off the flight line.

Flying Tip: You can reduce the payload of any flight by getting your talkative friend out of the
airplane. It also means a quieter flight.

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When the airplane climbs, part of the weight vector falls back towards the tail. This slows
down the plane.

When the airplane descends, part of the weight vector falls forward towards the nose. This
speeds up the plane.

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Test Flight: Fly me to the moon
You learned that weight equals mass times gravity. We can reduce mass simply by having a
smaller payload, but what if we can’t reduce the payload? We could reduce gravity! OK, unless
we leave the earth, we really can’t change gravity in a meaningful way, but we can change it in
X-‐Plane! Let’s imagine that we have outposts on the moon and that the moon has an
atmosphere. This is important because without an atmosphere, an airplane cannot fly.
(Remember, we are imagining the moon with an atmosphere. The moon does NOT have an
atmosphere.)

Confirm Payload is still 900 lbs.
4. Make a note of the payload weight. It should be at or near 900 lbs.

Change Gravity
1. Click on Special at top of the menu.
2. Select Set Environmental Properties.
3. Change planet mu (mass) to 00.660, the mass of the moon. The gravity is now 1.6225.

Review Quick-‐Flight Setup
Airport: LOWI
Weather: CAVOK

Takeoff

Please record the takeoff distance:

Please record the takeoff speed:

Did the takeoff distance increase or decrease compared to the takeoffs on Earth?

Did the takeoff speed increase or decrease compared to the takeoffs on Earth?

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2
You did not change the mass of the airplane; you changed gravity. Thus, the weight was
reduced dramatically, and the performance increased substantially.

Be sure to set change planet mu (mass) back to 3.986, the mass of the Earth. The gravity is now
9.7986.
Don’t forget the payload weight. Make sure and return the payload weight to at or near 298 lbs.

Climbing Higher
The day the moon has an atmosphere, pigs will fly! Well, maybe… Scientists have come up with
a scheme to put an atmosphere on the moon. The sun does not shine directly on the dark side
of moon. Scientists believe frozen water may be found at the bottom of deep craters. If you
close the top of the crater with a giant sunroof and heat the ice, you will create an atmosphere.
Pigs will not fly, but humans might. The moon’s low gravity means people with artificial wings
would be able to flap their arms and fly like birds!

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3
Lift – A Real Pick Me Up

Introduction
In this lesson, you will learn about lift. Lift is a force that helps pilots and engineers overcome
weight. If you lose lift in flight, your aircraft will fall out of the sky. You will fly like a rock. I
hope that got your attention. No lift, no flying, no way. Please read through this handout, and
watch the corresponding videos. You can always re-‐watch the videos if you need a helping hand.

Force
Force is a push or a pull. It is composed of magnitude(how large the force is) and the direction of
the force. We represent forces by drawing vectors (arrows), which tell us the magnitude and the
direction of the force.

Lift
The direction of this force in level flight is up, or perpendicular to the flight path. Lift results from
the differences in air pressure along the wing. The amount of lift is very sensitive to the speed of
the air traveling over the wing. When there is not enough air traveling over the wing, lift suffers,
and the plane begins to fall out of the sky or stalls. Sounds like fun; let’s try it!

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3

Test Flights: Stalls vs. Airspeed

Quick-‐Flight Setup
Airport: LOWI
Weather: CAVOK
Final Approach: 3 NM (This will start you in the air.)
Click X to return to the plane.
Press “P” to pause the simulation.

Collect Test Data
5. Click on the last two checkboxes at lift (line 92).

Show Lift Vectors
1. Select Special.
2. Click on Show Flight Model.
3. Green lines should be projecting out of the top of the wing. These represent lift.

Set Payload
4. Make a note of the payload weight. It should be 298 lbs. Do not change it for now.
6. If you are not in a Chase view, press “A”.
7. Press “Q” and circle around the plane. Please note the white arrows around the prop.

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Test Piloting
If you have not already, please watch the Stalls vs. AirSpeed video. Fly the plane level for 3
seconds. Watch the green lift arrows on the wings and the Vtrue airspeed in the left top corner
of the screen.

Put the plane in a 3 second climb, and then pause the simulation, but do not change the
throttle.

What does the airspeed do as you climb?

What do the lift arrows do as you climb?

Now continue climbing until the lift arrows nearly disappear or disappear, but do not change
the throttle. Pause the simulation.

What is the airspeed now?

Is there much lift occurring on the wing?

Continue the simulation. What happens to the plane?

The wings are no longer producing enough lift to support the weight of the plane; the plane
begins to fall.This is known as a stall. The good news is it is easy to recover. You need to gain
airspeed again, so what do you do with the nose of the airplane to gain airspeed?

Level the wings, and point the nose down. Once your airspeed approaches 80 knots, pull the
nose up slightly. Watch the lift vectors.

Did the lift vectors increase as the airspeed increased?

Did the lift vectors increase when the airspeed increased and the nose was pointed up?

Please fly, stall, and recover several times. Watch the lift vectors throughout.

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Our test piloting should show us that lift is directly dependent on airspeed. Lift is also
dependent on the angle of attack. The angle of attack refers to the angle the airfoil makes with
the direction of airflow. This explains the fact that in a dive the airspeed was increasing, but
there was very little lift generated until we pulled up the nose. Then with both a better angle of
attack and airspeed, the lift vectors rose dramatically.

We have learned that lift is dependent on airspeed and the angle of attack. This angle of attack
is small. In fact, to maintain an angle of attack when flying level, engineers build into the wing a
small angle of attack. This is called the angle of incidence.

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Climbing Higher: What is Lift?

We have learned about the impact of airspeed and the angle of attack on lift, but what is lift?
Lift is the result of a difference in air pressure. The pressure on the top of the wing is less than
on the bottom of the wing. Most scientists and engineers agree on this point. But what causes
the difference? Listed below are several explanations.

The Longer Path or Equal Transit Theory
The air flowing over the top of the airfoil (wing shape) travels faster than the air
underneath the bottom of the airfoil. The airfoil is a curved shape. Air molecules
traveling across the top travel a longer distance than on the bottom. As the air
molecules move over a greater distance, the air molecules spread out and travel faster
than the air flowing under the bottom of the airfoil. As air speed increases, the pressure
drops. This is also sometimes known as the Bernoulli Principle of Lift.

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The Skipping Stone Theory
Due to the angle of attack, the airflow strikes the bottom of the wing and bounces off.
The resulting force is lift. This is also sometimes known as Newton’s 3rd Law.

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4

What a Drag, Man

Introduction
In this lesson you will learn about drag. Drag is a force that resists the movement of the airplane
through air. Drag slows down planes, and drag results in lower fuel economy. Generally,
engineers design planes to reduce drag.

Force
Force is a push or a pull. It is composed of magnitude (how large the force is) and the direction
of the force. We represent forces by drawing vectors (arrows) which tell us the magnitude and

Drag
Drag is directed along and opposed to the flight direction. Drag is a force that resists the
movement of the airplane through air. Drag is unavoidable. Dang! Let’s look at an example.

The good news is that we are going to fly a new plane. This baby is sweet. She’s a King Air with
two engines. That is right, and two engines mean three times the fun! It also has retractable
gear. Once you take off, you can pull up or retract the landing gear.

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4

Test Flights: Air Speed vs. Drag (Deployed Landing Gear)

Open X-‐Plane and follow the Quick-‐Flight Setup instructions below:

Airport: LOWI
Aircraft: King Air B200
Weather: CAVOK
Final Approach: 3 NM (This will start you in the air)
Press “A” to bring up the Chase view.

Collect Test Data
10. Click on the last two checkboxes at landing gear deployment (line 67).

Test Piloting
If you have not already, please watch the Air Speed vs. Drag (Deployed Landing Gear) video.
Fly the plane level for 3 seconds. Be sure that the landing gear is up. Please observe the
airspeed.


Now press “G” to lower the gear. Fly the plane level for 3 seconds. Be sure that the landing gear
is down.


What is your hypothesis to explain what happened?

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4

Flaps
Sometimes we want to slow down an airplane, like any airplane that is taking you back to
school. Actually, you will find it easier to land if you slow down the plane. Careful, though! If
you slow down the plane too much, you’ll stall and fall out of the sky. How do we add drag?
Stick your hand out the window of the airplane? Drag you feet across the clouds? How about
making the wing bigger? Actually, engineers have developed a way to make the wing bigger by
using flaps. Flaps extend the wings trailing edges back and change the airfoil, or shape of the
wings. This increases drag. It also increases lift. As you land, the flaps slow down the plane
while increasing the lift on the wing, so lift is maintained at slower air speeds to avoid stalling.

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4

Test Flights: Air Speed vs. Drag (Flaps)
Open X-‐Plane and follow the instructions below:

Airport: LOWI
Aircraft: King Air B200
Weather: CAVOK
Press “A” to bring up the Chase view.

Collect Test Data
5. Click on the last two checkboxes of trim/flap/slat/s-‐brakes (line 13).
6. Click on the last two checkboxes of wing lift (line 92).
7. Click on the last two checkboxes of wing drag (line 93).
9. Press “W” to return to cockpit view.

Try to fly as consistently as possible for 3 seconds. Record the airspeed, lift and drag for each
flight in the table below.

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4

Flaps Up
Trials Flaps Vtrue Airspeed Lift wing1 Drag wing1
1 Up
2 UP
3 Up

Average Vtrue Airspeed _______
Average Lift wing1 _______
Average Drag wing1 _______

Flaps Down
Trials Flaps Vtrue Airspeed Lift wing1 Drag wing1
1 Down
2 Down
3 Down

Average Vtrue Airspeed _______
Average Lift wing1 _______
Average Drag wing1 _______

Please answer the following questions:

When you deploy or lower flaps, what does drag do?

When you deploy or lower flaps, what does airspeed do?

When you deploy or lower flaps, what does lift do?

Why would it be dangerous to land a plane with flaps if the flaps only increased drag, but did
not increase lift?

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Kinds Of Drag

Much like homework, drag comes in different forms.

Parasitic Drag
Parasitic drag is created from dragging a body (fuselage, wing, flap, landing gear) through
the air. You can see this by making a fist and putting it out the window of a car doing
60. This drag varies with the square of the speed of the plane. A simplified equation
would be Speed = Drag2, so changing airspeed means an even greater change in drag.
Engineers try to shape or change the body of the plane to reduce this kind of drag. For
example, engineers developed retractable landing gear to reduce this kind of drag in fast
airplanes. Automobile engineers try to reduce drag in cars to increase performance and
fuel economy.

Induced Drag
Induced drag is the result of lift. Yes, induced drag is caused by the creation of lift.
Engineers spend a great deal of time looking at different airfoils or shapes of a wing that
will give them the greatest amount of lift with the least amount of drag for a wing under
certain conditions. Any part of the plane that generates lift generates this form of drag.
This includes the wing, tail surfaces, and the body.
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5

Thrust – It’s all about altitude

Introduction
In this lesson you will learn about Thrust. Thrust is a force that helps pilots overcome drag.
Thrust also determines the altitude of the airplane. You climb or descend by adding or
subtracting thrust. In this lesson, you will learn how the plane makes thrust and understand how
thrust will help you land an airplane. Yes, that’s right you get to practice landings. Takeoffs are
optional, but landings are mandatory, so we need to understand and practice landing procedures.
As always, please read through this handout and watch the corresponding videos. You can
always re-‐watch the videos if you need a helping hand.

Force
Force is a push or a pull. It is composed of magnitude or how large the force is and the direction
of the force. We represent forces by drawing vectors (arrows), which tell us the magnitude and

Thrust
The direction of this force is forward in the flight path. Thrust in an airplane comes from the
propeller pulling or pushing the airplane through the air. The propeller acts like a rotating wing.
The blades on the propeller create lift, which creates the propulsive force. Usually a gas engine
provides the power to turn the propeller in an airplane.

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Test Flights: Landings

Airport: LOWI
Weather: CAVOK
Click on X to return to the plane.

Test Piloting

If you have not already, please watch the Landing video.
Landing – Basic
1. Put the plane into level flight.
2. Reduce the throttle until the engine runs at 1600 RPM.
3. Keep the wings level.
4. Maintain the airspeed around 85 knots.
5. Be sure to watch your altimeter and your vertical speed indicator.
6. Watch the PAPI – Precision Approach Path Indicator:
a. All red – you are too low on your approach.
b. Half red and half white – you are on the right approach.
c. All white – you are too high on your approach.
7. Once you touch down, throttle down and apply brakes.
8. Repeat until you can land the plane on the runway every time.

Landing – Full Flaps
1. Put the plane into level flight.
2. Reduce the throttle until the engine runs at 1500 RPM.
3. Keep the wings level.
4. Reduce the airspeed to less than 85 knots.
5. Deploy full flaps.
6. Watch the PAPI – Precision Approach Path Indicator:
7. Add or remove throttle to stay on the proper approach according to the PAPI
8. Repeat until you can land the plane on the runway every time.

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Do we use the throttle or change the pitch of the airplane to control altitude?

If you come in too low, instead of adding throttle, why not pull the nose up?

What are the advantages of landing at a slower speed?

Can you land at a slower speed with full flaps?

Can you land on a shorter runway with full flaps?

Why not fly all the time with full flaps?

Taking It Higher
Landing an airplane on land can be both fun and challenging. Imagine landing at sea on an
aircraft carrier? Here is your chance!
1. Follow the Quick-‐Flight Setup instructions below:
a. Airport: KSAN (San Diego International)
b. Final Approach: 3 NM (This will start you in the air.)
c. Aircraft: Cessna 172_P
d. Time: 8:00
e. Weather: Clear
2. Press “X” to exit
3. Click on File
a. Select Load Situation
b. Select Aircraft Carrier Approach
4. Go for it. Fly navy!

Want a bigger challenge? Try making a night carrier landing.

Still too tame? Try landing in rough seas.
a. Select Environment
b. Click on Weather
c. Select Water Tab
d. Change wave height to 10 ft.
e. Press “X” to exit
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Flight Controls
“The Wright Brothers were engineers first, pilots second.”

Introduction
We have learned about the four forces that act on an airplane. The Wright Brothers were the
first to fly because they were brilliant engineers; they were brave (they were test pilots after
all), and they persevered. Maybe the most important factor in their success was that they
recognized flight’s real challenge was control and stability.

Control
The Wright Brothers described flight in three axes — roll, pith and yaw.

Roll
Roll describes the rotation of the wings along the longitudinal axis (nose to tail). The ailerons
control roll by increasing lift on one side of the wing and decreasing lift on the other side of the
wing. Unfortunately, this also causes the nose of the airplane to turn in the opposite direction
of the roll or bank. A nose turning the wrong way is called adverse yaw. We use the rudder to
counteract adverse yaw and point the nose in the same direction as the bank.

ROLL
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Pitch
Pitch describes the plane’s nose moving up and down. Think of a boat “pitching” in the ocean.
The elevator — the part of the horizontal tail section that moves up or down — controls the
pitch of the airplane. Pitch also impacts the angle of attack of the wing.

PITCH

Yaw
Yaw describes the plane rotating left or right. The rudder — the part of the vertical tail section
that moves left or right — controls yaw. The rudder also prevents adverse yaw. We will learn
about adverse yaw in a moment.

YAW

Let’s look at a plane on a runway. By moving our mouse around the cursor, we will see the
movement of the control surfaces on the airplane. The pilot uses these control surfaces
(ailerons, elevator, and rudder) to control the airplanes in the three axes — roll, pitch, and yaw)
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Test Piloting
We are going to take a closer look at the movable control surfaces on the airplane.
1. Click on settings and follow these Quick-‐Flight Setup instructions.
Airport: LOWI
Takeoff: Runway 08
Aircraft: Cessna 172P
Time: 8:00
Weather: Clear
2. Click X to return to the runway.
3. Press A and use the arrow keys so you are looking from directly behind the
airplane.
4. Click on the cross and move your cursor down. Observe the parts of the airplane
that move. Move your cursor up, left, and then right. Be sure to observe which
surfaces move on the wings and the tail. Otherwise, the airplane should be sitting
still on the runway.

If I move my cursor down (decreasing pitch), what does the elevator do on the tail?

If I move my cursor up (increasing pitch), what does the elevator do on the tail?

If I move my cursor left (rolling left), what does the rudder do on the tail?

If I move my cursor left (rolling left), what happens to the left wing and to the right wing?

If I move my cursor right (rolling right), what happens to the left wing and to the right wing?

Stability
Stability describes the tendency of the airplane to return to its original condition after a
disturbance. For example, if a gust of wind pitches the airplane up, a stable airplane will react
by pitching down. If the plane is unstable, the plane will continue to pitch up instead of
returning to its original condition.

Let me try to explain this in another way. Why does an arrow have feathers on its tail? The
head of the arrow is heavy and sharp and does the damage. What do the feathers do? Shoot
34

6

an arrow without feathers, and very quickly the arrow is traveling sideways out of control
because any disturbance (wind, rain, etc.) causes the arrow to change direction.
Add feathers and the arrow flies straight. This is because the feathers dampen the effects of
any disturbance helping the arrow fly straight. The feathers give the arrow stability by keeping
the tail in the back. The tail of the airplane acts like the feathers on an arrow. The tail
(horizontal and vertical stabilizers) gives the plane stability.

What if the pilot had worked all day before embarking on a late night flight? On a stormy
night? When tired? The point of stability is to reduce the pilot’s workload and make it easier
to fly the aircraft. The pilot wants to be able to look down at a map or let go of the controls for
a second to adjust the microphone without the plane’s trying to roll inverted due to a gust of
wind or bump of turbulence. Engineers design stability into aircrafts. They recognize that no
amount of pilot control can overcome an inherently unstable airplane. We will look at two
important examples of ways we can increase the stability of an airplane.

Roll and Yaw Stability
Many airplanes incorporate a dihedral angle in the wings. Look below, and you will see several
wings. Notice the wings are higher at the tips than where they join the fuselage.

Dihedral helps to keep a plane’s wings level. For example, a gust of wind causes a plane to roll,
dropping the left wing down and raising the right wing up. Dihedral causes the lower wing to
rise and the higher wing to sink, restoring stability to the flight path.
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Pitch Stability
Imagine the airplane as a teeter-‐totter. The nose of the airplane is at one end of the teeter-‐
totter, and the tail is at the other end. The fulcrum or balancing point of our airplane/teeter-‐
totter is the wing. The distance between the tail and the wing can be thought of as a lever arm
that acts like a teeter-‐totter. We can control the pitch of the airplane by varying the amount
of force applied to the tail. In physics, the application of force to rotate an object about a
fulcrum is called torque.

You have already learned and experienced changing the pitch of the airplane using the elevator,
the part of the horizontal tail section that moves up or down. We can also increase pitch by
adding a force (like weight) to the end of the tail. This newly added force multiplied by the
distance from the end of the tail to the wing would cause the nose to pitch up!

We need the plane to be stable, so we locate the C.O.G in front of the wing and put the tail
behind the wing. The C.O.G pushes down pitching the nose down and the tail pushes down
which holds the nose up making the plane stable. Let’s look at these forces in action.

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6

Test Piloting
1. Follow these Quick-‐Flight Setup instructions.
Airport: LOWI
Time: 8:00
Weather: Clear
2. Press the “/” twice to bring up the lift vectors.
3. Establish level flight. Gently climb up, and dive down several times.

In which directions are the lift vectors pointing on the wing as the plane dives?

In which directions are the lift vectors pointing on the tail as the plane dives?

Is the lift created by the tail the same in all flying situations—level, dive, and climb?

Would I achieve the same result if I added weight to the tail? If so, why don’t we add weight to
the tail?

The Importance Of Balance And Safe Flying
The load and balance of an airplane are very important to safe flying. According to the British
newspaper The Telegraph, a small airplane crashed in Africa when a crocodile got loose on
board the plane. It seems that an animal smuggler had stored a crocodile in his luggage. The
croc got loose, causing the passengers to panic and run to the front of the airplane. In spite of
the pilot’s pulling desperately on the controls, the plane pitched downward and crashed.

Luckily, this is a very rare incident. On every flight, pilots make sure the plane is loaded and
balanced properly with all items properly secured.

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Climbing Higher

Airplanes, Teeter-‐totters, and Torque
As we said earlier, torque is the application of force to rotate an object about a fulcrum. To
better understand how torque impacts airplanes, let’s take a closer look at a teeter-‐totter.

These two frogs are sharing a teeter-‐totter. I guess the frog pond was getting a bit dull. The frog
on the left side weighs 5 lbs and is 2 ft from the fulcrum (triangle). This frog produces 10 ft-‐lbs
of torque or moment. 5 lbs x 2 ft = 10 ft-‐lbs. Let’s calculate the torque or moment of the frog
on the right.

The weight of the frog on the right = 10lbs
The distance of the frog on the right = 1ft
Torque or moment =

Isn’t that cute? Both frogs are producing the same amount of torque. What does this mean?
Will the teeter totter rotate clockwise or counterclockwise? Please explain your anwer.

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What about a frog that weighs 2 lbs? How far would this frog need to be from the fulcrum to
produce 10ft-‐lbs of torque or moment?

What about a hefty 20 lb frog? How far would this frog need to be from the fulcrum to produce
10 ft-‐lbs of torque or moment?

Another frog is sitting 2.5 ft away from the fulcrum. How much does this frog weigh if she is
producing 10 ft-‐lbs of torque or moment?

If you solved those problems, you have a pretty good understanding of both teeter-‐totters and
torque. Now, let’s return to airplanes.

In reality, there are several moment arms at work here in the airplane, but for our purposes, we
are going to simplify the situation and assume that two lever or moment arms are impacting
the pitch stability.

The distance from the wing to the Center Of Gravity (C.O.G) is the C.O.G Moment Arm. C.O.G
Moment Arm multiplied by the Airplane Weight will give us the C.O.G. Torque or C.O.G.
Moment.

C.O.G Moment = C.O.G Moment Arm X Airplane Weight
The C.O.G. Moment always tries to rotate the aircraft’s nose down. The tail must counteract
the C.O.G. Moment to hold the nose up.

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The distance from the wing to the tail is the Tail Moment Arm. The Tail Moment Arm
multiplied by the force generated by negative lift will give us the Tail Torque or Tail Moment.

Tail Moment = Tail Moment Arm X Lift Generated By Tail

The C.O.G. Moment equals the Tail Moment when the nose is NOT pitching up or down, but will
it will be in equilibrium.

If the plane is pitching up, which is greater — the C.O.G Moment or the Tail Moment?

If the plane is pitching down, which is greater—the C.O.G Moment or the Tail Moment?
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Test Piloting
Next, we are going to collect some data during the following test flights.
3. If it’s not already present, select the Data Set Tab.
4. Click on the last two checkboxes of each of the following:
Center Of Gravity (line 63)
Defs:elevator (line 74)

Quick Flight Setup
1. Open X-‐Plane and follow these Quick-‐Flight Setup instructions.
Airport: LOWI
Takeoff: RWY 08
Time: 8:00
Weather: Clear

Select Aircraft
2. Set Center Of Gravity at -‐17.0 inches.
3. Set Payload at 2805.0 lbs.
5. Open Quick-‐Flight Setup:

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Flight
Establish and maintain level flight for 3 second. Use the Vertical Speed Indicator to help you
determine level flight. Record the Elevator Deflection appearing in the cockpit window (You do
not need to review the graph). Repeat three times.
Please complete the following table.

Center Of Gravity (-‐17.3) and Elevator Deflection

Trial Center of Elevator Average
Gravity Deflection Deflection
1 -‐17.3 N/A
2 -‐17.3 N/A
3 -‐17.3 N/A

Average

Set the Center Of Gravity to 22.1 inches and repeat the flight three times as before and
complete the following table.

Center Of Gravity (22.1) and Elevator Deflection

Trial Center of Elevator Average
Gravity Deflection Deflection
1 22.1 N/A
2 22.1 N/A
3 22.1 N/A
Average

Which Center Of Gravity (COG) resulted in the greatest elevator deflection?

If I added even more payload weight, would that be the equivalent of increasing the COG
Moment? Please explain your answer?
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Tail Moment Arm Questions
Please answer the following questions using these drawings.

Airplane A

Airplane B

Airplane C

The amount of lift generated by the tail is the same for all three airplanes. True of False? Why?

Which of the three airplanes has the longest Tail Moment Arm?

Which of the three airplanes has the largest Tail Moment?

Which of the three airplanes has the lowest Tail Moment? Why?
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Aspect Ratio

Introduction
As defined by Webster, Aspect Ratio is the ratio of span to mean chord of an airfoil. (You might
hear this term when discussing TVs. Aspect Ratio in this case refers to the width to height ratio
of the screen.)

This ratio is an important concept in designing airplanes. Aspect Ratio is the wingspan divided
by the mean width of the wing or chord. Let’s investigate how changing the Aspect Ratio of our
plane impacts takeoff performance.

We will do some calculations before we begin. (We are, after all, engineers.) Then, we will
select the appropriate wings and test the plane.

Mathematical Modeling
We will change the wingspan of our airplane without changing the airfoil. This will change the
aspect ratio of our plane. Listed below are different wingspans with the same mean chords.
Please calculate the Aspect Ratio (AR) for each wingspan. This is important because we do not
want to try to take off in a plane that won’t fly, and we don’t want to waste fuel and time.

Remember, engineers are concerned about resources (time and money). We need the AR to
stay in a range of 1.0 – 12. Please feel free to do this on a spreadsheet or use a calculator.

Wingspan (ft) Mean Chord (ft) Aspect Ratio (AR)
4 4.8
10 4.8
20 4.8
30 4.8 6.25 or 30/4.8
40 4.8
50 4.8
60 4.8

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After you complete your calculations, please eliminate (strike a line through the row) any of the
options that do NOT fall within the AR range of 1.0-‐12

Plane Construction
1. Open Plane Maker
2. Click on File
3. Select Airplane
Plane: Click on Open Aircraft, select General Aviation, and double-‐click Vans RVs, RV-‐
10.acf. See example below.
4. Save the file five times with the following five names:
Plane: yourfirstname10, yourfirstname20, yourfirstname30, yourfirstname40, and
yourfirstname50
5. Select Standard, click on Wings and modify the wing of each plane according to the
table below.

Plane Wingspan Wing1 semi-‐ Wing 2 lat Wing 2 vert arm
length arm
firstname50 50 25 24.95 0.25
firstname40 40 20 19.95 -‐0.05
firstname30 30 15 14.95 -‐0.35
firstname20 20 10 9.95 -‐0.65
firstname10 10 5 4.95 -‐0.95

Please note: firstname10 is yourfirstname10. For example, your name is Terry, then you would
save RV10 as terry10. Next we are going to collect some data during these test flights.

Data Collection
3. If not already present, select the Data Set Tab.
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Test Piloting
Once you have built your five airplanes, fly each plane three times. Try to fly as consistently as
possible. Remember to keep the pointer on the crosshairs until the plane lifts off. This will
insure a consistent angle of attack. Be sure to record the Takeoff distance for each flight in the
table below. Use your aspect ratio calculations from the previous table in the table below.

Wingspan 50
Trial Wingspan Mean Chord Aspect Ratio Takeoff Distance
1 50 4.8
2 50 4.8
3 50 4.8

Average Takeoff Distance _______

Wingspan 40
1 40 4.8
2 40 4.8
3 40 4.8


Wingspan 30
1 30 4.8
2 30 4.8
3 30 4.8


Wingspan 20
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1 20 4.8
2 20 4.8
3 20 4.8


Wingspan 10
1 10 4.8
2 10 4.8
3 10 4.8


Test Results
Once you have completed the Test Flying table, please complete the bar graph below,

Average Takeoff Trials

Average

Takeoff

Distance
(ft)

Wingspan (ft)
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As the Aspect Ratio increases, takeoff distance increases or decreases?

Shorter takeoff time indicates more or less lift?

What are the advantages of higher Aspect Ratio?

How could we increase the Aspect Ratio without changing the length of the wingspan?

More Test Flying
If you have not already, watch the landing Aspect Ratio video. You will land your 10 ft wingspan
airplane three times. Next, land your 50 ft wingspan three times.

Which plane is easier to land?

Which plane feels more precise at landing?

Why do sailplanes and gliders NOT have landing gear attached to the wings?

Do World War II fighter planes have a small or large Aspect Ratio? Why?

The engineering design process is almost always a series of tradeoffs. What are the advantages
and disadvantagesof increasing the Aspect Ratio of an airplane?
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Wing Loading

Introduction
We learned that weight impacts takeoff performance. Generally, the greater the airplane
weighs, the longer the runway needs to be. What do airplane designers do when they need to
carry a larger payload, but still take off on the same runway length?

All these issues are related to wing loading. Wing loading is the ratio of the plane’s gross weight
(W) divided by the surface area of the wing (S). This is similar to density, except it uses surface
area, NOT volume. This ratio is an important concept in designing airplanes. Let’s investigate
how changing the wing loading of our airplane impacts flight performance.

We will begin by using the most important tools of scientists and engineers: critical thinking and
math.

Mathematical Investigations
We will increase the wing area of the plane to see the impact on wing loading. Listed below are
different wingspans with the same length chords. Please calculate the wing loading (w/s) for
each wingspan. Please pay attention to the trend. Feel free to do this on a spreadsheet or use
a calculator.

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Wing Loading – Constant Weight VS Decreasing Wing Area

Gross Weight lbs Wingspan ft Mean Chord ft Wing Area ft2 Wing Loading lbs/ft2
2500 50 5
2500 40 5
2500 30 5 150 or (30 x 5) 16.67 or (2500 / 150)
2500 20 5
2500 10 5

Complete the graph below.

Wing Loading vs Wing Area

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Now, please calculate wing load when the wing area stays constant, and the gross weight
decreases.

Wing Loading – Constant Wing Area VS Decreasing Gross Weight

Wing Area (S) ft2 Gross Weight (W) lbs Wing Loading W/S
150 2550
150 2250
150 2000 13.3
150 1750
150 1500


Wing Load vs Gross Weight

Gross Weight
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As the wing area increases, does wing load increase or decrease?

As the gross weight decreases, does wing load increase or decrease?

Fighter aircrafts usually have a low aspect ratio. If we increase the payload of the fighter
aircraft, will the wing load increase or decrease?

Our small private plane carries 6 passengers. The plane weighs 2900 lbs. The wingspan is 34 ft
and the cord is 4.75ft. What is the wing area of the plane? What is the wing load?

The wing load of our plane is 15 lbs./sqft. The chord is 5 ft. The wingspan is 30 ft. What is the
gross weight of the airplane?

I am building a plane that will weigh 8,000 lbs. The wing load is 17lbs/sqft. What is the wing
area?

The wing load of our plane is 20 lbs/sqft. The gross weight of the airplane is 2,400 lbs. The
chord is 4 ft. What is the wingspan?

Plane Construction
1. Open Plane Maker.
2. Select Airplane.
10.acf. Save the file three times with the following three names: namewl15, namewl30,
and namewl60.
Plane: Please note: namewl15 is yourfirstnamewl15. WL stands for wing load. For
example, your name is Terry, and then you would save RV10 as terrywl15.
3. Select Standard, click on Wings, and modify the wing of each plane according to the table
below. Please note: The chord is the same for both Wing1 and Wing2.

Plane Total Chord Wingspan Wing Maximum Wing1 semi-‐ Wing 2 Wing 2
Weight ft ft Loading Weight length lat arm vert arm
lb/sqft
Namewl30 2,500 5 30 2800 15 14.95 -‐0.35
Namewl15 2,500 10 15 2800 7.5 7.45 -‐.85
namewl60 10,000 10 60 11,000 30 29.95 0.55
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Test Piloting
Next we are going to collect some data during these test flights.

Data Collection

Select Aircraft
2. Select namewl15.
3. Take off 3 times. Be as consistent as possible.
4. Repeat for all three airplanes.

Be sure to record the takeoff distance for each flight in the following tables.

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Test Piloting Data Collection

Wingspan 30ft.
Trial Total Weight Chord Wingspan Aspect Wing Area Wing Load Takeoff
ft ft Ratio sqft Lbs/sqft Distance
1 2,500 5 30
2 2,500 5 30
3 2,500 5 30

Average Takeoff Distance_________

Wingspan 15ft.
1 2,500 10 15
2 2,500 10 15
3 2,500 10 15

Wingspan 60ft.
1 10,000 10 60
2 10,000 10 60
3 10,000 10 60


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Test Results
Once you have completed the Test Flying table, please complete the graph below,

Takeoff Distance vs. Wingspan with a Constant Wing Load

Average
Takeoff
Distance
(ft)

Wingspan with a Constant Wing Load of 16.67 lbs/sqft


Do all three planes have the same aspect ratio, wing load or wingspan?

Which plane reached 100 knots per hr the quickest? (This change in speed is known as
acceleration.)

Which plane needed the shortest takeoff distance?

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Which plane needed the longest takeoff distance?

Why did the planes behave differently? Consider all four forces.

Remember, the engineering design process is almost always a series of tradeoffs. This table
summarizes these tradeoffs.

Wing Load High Low
Takeoff and landing distance Longer Shorter
Stall speed Higher Lower
Flight performance Higher Lower
Payload Greater Lesser

As you can see from the table above, a higher wing load means greater flight performance and
larger payloads. It also means longer runways and higher stall speeds. Engineers have to
consider all factors when designing an airplane and determining the wing load. In the next
lesson, we will consider power loading, the ratio of weight to power.
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Power Loading

Introduction
Power (or thrust) works to overcome drag and pull or push the aircraft along. We will learn
about horsepower, specific fuel consumption, and range. We will also examine power loading,
which is the ratio of weight to power. Just as they do with wing loading, engineers use this ratio
to predict airplane performance. Finally, we will examine the performance tradeoffs associated
with power loading.

Horsepower is a measure of power. An engine creates horsepower by changing the potential
energy of fuel into the kinetic energy of turning pistons. These pistons turn a shaft that turns
the propeller, which acts like a wing to pull the plane forward. The power of the engine is
called brake horsepower. The prop converts about 80% of this power pulling the airplane
forward. This is referred to as Thrust Horsepower. Finally, engines wear out quickly and gas
mileage is diminished when they run at full power; therefore, airplanes are usually flown at 75%
of Thrust Horsepower. We refer to this power setting as Cruise Horsepower.

Horsepower Summary
Brake Horsepower required equals the power to overcome drag.
Thrust Horsepower required equals the Brake Horsepower divided by 0.80 (propeller efficiency).
Cruise Horsepower required equals the Thrust Horsepower divided by 0.75 (avoiding full
power).

You may be thinking right now, “Wow, it takes three calculations just to find out how much
power is needed to fly?”

Well, yes, engineering requires math, not a math genius, just a solid foundation in math. You
can do it. Then you can earn a lot of money doing cool work like designing and flying airplanes.

We will increase the horsepower of the plane to examine its impact on weight to power ratio or
power loading. Listed below are engines with different horsepower ratings. Please calculate
the power to weight ratio. Please pay attention to the trend. Feel free to do this on a
spreadsheet or use a calculator.
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Power to Weight Ratio or Power Loading

Horsepower (ft*lbs) Gross Weight (lbs) Power Loading
150 2500
200 2500
250 2500 0.1 or 250/2500
300 2500
350 2500


Power To Weight Ratio -‐ PowerΔ

Power
Loading

ΔHorsepower
Now, please calculate the power to weight ratio when the power stays constant and the gross
weight decreases.

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Wing Loading – Constant Horsepower VS Decreasing Gross Weight

Horsepower (ft*lbs) Gross Weight (W) lbs Power Loading
250 2500
250 2250
250 2000 0.125 or 250/2000
250 1750
250 1500


Power To Weight Ratio -‐ weight Δ

Power
Loading

Gross Weight

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As power increases, does power loading increase or decrease?

As the gross weight increases, does power loading increase or decrease?

Our 275 hp airplane has a gross takeoff weight of 2500. What is its power to weight ratio?

Our small private plane carries 4 passengers. The plane weighs 2400 lbs. The airplane’s
required Brake Horsepower is rated at 150 hp. What is the required Thrust Horsepower? How
powerful must our engine be to fly at 75% Thrust horsepower or Cruise Horsepower?

I have a power to weight ratio of .09hp/lb. The plane weighs 2600 lbs. What is the
horsepower of the aircraft?

Plane Construction
4. Open Plane Maker.
5. Select Airplane.
10.acf. Save the file three times with the following three names: namewp150,
namewp300, and namewp600.
Plane: Please note: namewp100 is yourfirstnamewp100. (wp stands for weight to
power ratio or power loading.) For example, if your name is Terry, then you would save
RV10 as terrywp100.
6. Select Standard, click on Wings and modify the wing of each plane according to the table
below.

Plane Horsepower Total Power to Maximum Wing1 semi-‐ Wing 2 lat Wing 2 vert
Weight Weight Weight length arm arm
namewp150 150 2,500 .06 3000 15 14.95 -‐0.35
namewp300 300 2,750 .11 3000 7.5 7.45 -‐.85
namewp600 600 3,000 .2 3,500 30 29.95 0.55

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Test Piloting
Next, we are going to collect some data during these test flights.

Data Collection

Flight Setup
1. Follow these Quick-‐Flight Setup instructions.
Airport: LOWI
Takeoff: RWY 08
Aircraft: namepsshorttail
Time: 8:00
Weather: Clear

Flight Instructions
1. Establish and maintain level flight for 3 minutes. Be as consistent as possible.
2. Repeat for all three airplanes. Be sure to record the true airspeed for each flight.
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Test Piloting Data Collection

30 ft. Wingspan
Trial Total Wingspan Chord hp Aspect Wing Wing Power/ True
Weight ft ft Ratio Area Load Weight Airspeed

1 2,500 30 5 150
2 2,500 30 5 150
3 2,500 30 5 150

Average True Airspeed ________

45 ft. Wingspan
Trial Total Wingspan Chord Hp Aspect Wing Wing Power/ True

1 5000 45 10 300
2 5000 45 10 300
3 5000 45 10 300


60 ft. Wingspan
Trial Total Wingspan Chord Hp Aspect Wing Wing Power/ True

1 10,000 60 10 600
2 10,000 60 10 600
3 10,000 60 10 600

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Test Results
Once you have completed the Test Flying table, please complete the bar graph below.

True Airspeed vs. Wingspan

Average

True

Airspeed

(knots)

Varying wingspans with

consistent power to weight ratios
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Do all three planes have the same aspect ratio, wing loading, or power to weight ratio?

Which plane reached the highest cruise speed?

Was this high cruise speed due more to wingspan (lift) or horsepower (thrust)?

If we double the thrust (horsepower), do we double the airspeed?

Power and Range
As we increase the horsepower of an airplane, we increase performance. We also increase fuel
consumption. Modern piston engines consume 0.50 pound of fuel each hour for each
horsepower. Please calculate the fuel consumption and range for the engines listed below.

Horsepower Fuel Consumption Per Hour Range with 360 lbs of fuel
150
200
250 360 lbs/125 lbs/hr = 2.9 hr
300
350

Performance Tradeoffs
As you have learned, increasing thrust (horsepower) means improved performance at a cost of
greater fuel consumption. Higher airplane performance typically means higher wing loading.
Remember, high wing loading means longer runways and higher stall speeds. You will need to
consider all these tradeoffs as you design your own airplane in the next lesson.
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AirplaneDesign
Putting It All Together
Introduction
You have learned a great deal about science, engineering, and aviation. You have flown a twin-‐
engine airplane and landed on a carrier deck. You lengthened a wing and shortened a tail. Now
let’s put it all together and design your own airplane.

You know how it’s sometimes hard to get started on a school project because you don’t know
where to begin? Plane design might seem that way right now, but we’ll guide you through the
steps so you can design and produce your own aircraft.

Engineering Design Process
The Engineering Design Process consists of these parts.

Research
Research includes studying the underlying engineering, math, and science principles. You have
been doing research with every Fly To Learn lesson you’ve completed. Research also includes
looking at what other people and businesses are designing and building. You can also study what
the public wants in an airplane. You might discover that people want an airplane that is faster
or more fuel efficient than those for sale presently, or you might discover a new way to build
airplanes that is cheaper than conventional methods. Remember, engineers are vey concerned
with costs, money, and time. If a project takes more time, usually costs increase; also, the
engineer may not have time to wait.

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Planning
Planning consists of these steps.

You begin the planning process by identifying an opportunity. In engineering, a need or problem
should always be considered an opportunity. That is not a bad philosophy for life in general. You
then brainstorm to generate several possible solutions. You select your favorite solution and
mathematically model your idea. It’s better to do some calculations before constructions
because you work smarter and faster with your brain than with your hands. After checking your
calculations, build a proof of concept. A proof of concept demonstrates whether an idea is
feasible or possible. A proof of concept is usually narrow in focus. For example, if you are
designing a better airfoil, you would build a small section of the wing, not the entire wing, and
certainly not the airplane.

Prototype
The prototype phase has a few steps that may be repeated many times. Your goal should be for
the prototype to get better with each repetition or iteration. Iteration is an important part of
the engineering process.

Production
You build the airplane during the production phase.
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Designing your airplane

You will put the engineering design process to work by designing your own airplane, building
your design in Plane Maker, and flying your design in X-‐Plane. Let’s assume during the research
and planning phases you developed the following design specifications:

Airplane Performance Design Specifications
Four-‐passenger airplane including the pilot
Each passenger can bring twenty pounds of luggage
150 knot cruise speed
550 nautical mile range

Now, let’s mathematically model your plane design. Since this is your first airplane, we will focus
on the weight, wings, power, and range. Once we complete these calculations, you can build a
prototype airplane in Plane-‐Maker.

We need to calculate the weight of your airplane because all the other design calculations are
based on the weight of your airplane without the weight of the fuel.

Weight
The average passenger weight 170lbs
How much luggage will each passenger carry? ___lbs
The average weight per passenger plus luggage? ___lbs
How many passengers will the plane be carrying including the pilot? ____
Total Payload Weight = number of passengers x average weight ___lbs

Modern airplane designers have learned through past experience that the airplane weight can be
determined by dividing the Total Payload Weight by 30% or .3. This is an example of a rule of
thumb. A rule of thumb is a rough estimation. Engineers often use rough estimations at the
start of the design process.

Gross Airplane Weight = Total payload weight divided by 30% ___lbs
Please note: Gross Airplane Weight or Takeoff Weight = empty airplane weight + payload weight
+ fuel weight.

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Wings
Now we need to calculate the size of the wings of our airplane. First, we will calculate wing
loading and then determine wing area, aspect ratio, and finally wingspan.

Wing Loading
Gross Airplane Weight (previously calculated) ____lbs.
!
Standard Wing Loading or 𝑤 /𝑠 = 2.24 × ( 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝑖𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 6) ____
High Wing Loading Range = 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 × 1.2 ____
Low Wing Loading Range = 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 × 0.8 ____

Reminder: Higher wing loading means higher stall speeds and longer takeoffs and landings.

Wing Area
Gross Airplane Weight (previously calculated) ____
Wing Load Range (previously calculated) ____
!"#$$ !"#$%&' !"#$!!
Wing Area (s) = ____
!"#$ !"#$%&'

Wing Span
We need to decide on the aspect ratio (AR) first. The aspect ratio of modern light planes is 6 to 8.
Let’s use 7 as the aspect ratio.
Aspect Ratio ____
Wing Area (s) (previously calculated) ____
Wing span (b) = 𝑠 × (𝐴𝑅) ____
!
Chord = ____
!

68

10

Power
The power required equals drag x velocity. The calculations to determine power are beyond the
scope of this lesson. Let’s assume you need 150 horsepower. This kind of horsepower is called
brake horsepower.

A modern propeller is 80% efficient in converting the brake horsepower into actual thrust. This
kind of horsepower is called thrust horsepower.

Brake Horsepower 150 thp
!"#$% !"#$%&"'%#
Thrust Horsepower = ____bhp
!"%
We actually need more horsepower because we do not want to operate engines at full power.
Engines running at full power wear out sooner, and they are less fuel-‐efficient; instead, we
want to operate the engines at 75% of Thrust Horsepower. This horsepower is called Rated
Horsepower.

Thrust Horsepower (previously calculated) ____bhp
!!!"#$ !"#$%&"'%#
Rated Horsepower = ____rhp
!"%
Range
Let’s see how far we can fly our airplane on a tank of fuel. We begin by calculating how much
fuel the plane will carry. We calculate the total fuel available by multiplying Gross Airplane
Weight x 15%. Fifteen percent is another rule of thumb used by engineers to design airplanes.

Gross Airplane Weight (WG) (earlier calculation) ____lbs
Total Fuel Available (WF) = Gross Airplane Weight x 15% ____lbs
Payload Weight (WP) (previously calculated) ____lbs
Empty Weight = WG – (WF +WP) ____lbs
Cruise Speed 150 knots
Specific Fuel Consumption 0.5 lbs per per horsepower
!"#$% !"#$ !"#$%#&%' × !"#$%& !"##$
Range = ____ n. miles
!"#$%&%$ !"#$ !"#$%&'!"#$ ! !!!"#$ !"#$%&"'%#

Often we don’t meet all of our design goals with the first design. If we don’t achieve the
necessary range, we can increase the amount of fuel, but then we will need more horsepower,
which results in greater fuel consumption. Or we could decrease our cruise speed specifications,
which results in a lower thrust horsepower requirement. As you can see the engineer has to
make informed decisions regarding performance tradeoffs. Often we will repeat this design
process several times to meet our goals.
69

10

Prototype
We are now ready to build a prototype in Plane Maker. Since you are using Plane Maker, you
can quickly build your prototype, a virtual airplane, by modifying the RV-‐10. This will allow you
to quickly try out your designs safely and economically.

Complete the table below. Begin by entering your values in the second column. You will need
to calculate ½ Wing Span value by dividing the Wing Span value by 2. Then open Plane Maker
and the RV-‐10 airplane, and select Standard and the appropriate menus. Assign your values to
the appropriate fields.

Plane Maker
Specification Your Values Standard Menu Fields
Gross Weight Weight & Balance Maximum Weight
Fuel Weight Weight & Balance Fuel Load
Empty Weight Weight & Balance Empty Weight
Wing Span Wings Not Applicable
½ Wing Span (Calculate) Wings Semi-‐Length
Chord Wings Root and tip chords
Rated Horsepower Engine Specs Max allowable Power

Once you have completed your airplane, save it as yournameprototype and go fly
it. Be sure to include the appropriate Payload Weight in the Weight and Balance
section of X-‐Plane. If the plane performs well, you are ready for production.

If you want another challenge consider design a sport plane with the following
requirements:
2 Passengers including the pilot
250 Thrust Horsepower
Aspect Ratio between 6-‐8

70


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Written By Tom Dubick

© 2011 by Fly To Learn. All rights reserved.

© 2011 by Fly To Learn. All rights reserved.

May The Force(s) Be With You

Test Flight: Weight vs. Takeoff Distances

Weight as a Force

Lift – A Real Pick Me Up

Climbing Higher: What is Lift?

What a Drag, Man

Kinds Of Drag

Thrust – It’s all about altitude

Test Flights: Landings

Test Piloting Data Collection

Designing your airplane

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