Pneumatics and Hydraulics System

• Chapter 1: Introduction to Hydraulic

Power Systems

Compiled by: Simegnew A. (MSc)

1 July, 2023
 Introduction to Hydraulic Power Systems

 Hydraulic and pneumatic systems are referred as fluid

power system.
 This power systems are used to transmit and control
power with the help of working fluids (air for pneumatic
systems or liquid for hydraulic systems).

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 The basic parts of a power system
 Source of energy: delivering mechanical power of rotary
motion.
 Electric motors and internal combustion engines (ICE)
are the most commonly used power sources.
 For special applications steam turbines, gas turbines, or
hydraulic turbines are used
 Energy transmission, transformation, and control
elements.
 Load requiring mechanical power of either rotary or
linear motion

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 The Classification of Power Systems
 Power system types can be classified as mechanical,
electrical, and fluid.

 Mechanical power system: the use of mechanical

elements to transmit and control the mechanical power.
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 …cont.
 Example:

 Advantages of mechanical power system are:

➢ Relatively simple construction, maintenance, and operation,
as well as low cost.
 However, their power-to weight ratio is minimal, the
power transmission distance is too limited, and the
flexibility and controllability are poor.
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 Electrical power systems
 These systems offer advantages such as high flexibility
and a very long power transmission distance, but
they produce mainly rotary motion.
 Rectilinear motion, of high power, can be obtained by
converting the rotary motion into rectilinear motion by
using a suitable gear system or by using a drum and wire.
 However, holding the load position requires a special
braking system

6
 …cont.
 Electrical power systems solve the problems of power
transmission distance and flexibility, and improve
controllability.

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 Pneumatic Power Systems
 Pneumatic systems are power systems using compressed
air as a working medium for the power transmission.
 Their principle of operation is similar to that of electric
power systems.
 The air compressor converts the mechanical energy of the
prime mover into mainly pressure energy of compressed
air.
 This transformation facilitates the transmission and
control of power.
 The air preparation includes filtration, drying, and the
adding of lubricating oil mist.

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 …cont.
 The compressed air is stored in the compressed air
reservoirs and transmitted through rigid and/or
flexible lines.
 The pneumatic power is controlled by means of a set of
pressure, flow, and directional control valves. Then, it is
converted to the required mechanical power by means of
pneumatic cylinders and motors (expanders).

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 Elements of Pneumatic Systems
 The compressed air is prepared by means of the air
preparation unit, including the compressor, filters, air drier,
compressed air reservoir, cooler, and pressure control
elements.
 The mechanical energy provided by the prime mover is
converted by the compressor to, mainly, pressure energy.
 The compressed air is stored in an air reservoir of sufficient
capacity.
 The maximum pressure at the compressor exit line is limited
 by a relief valve.
 The pressure in the air reservoir should be greater than that
needed for system operation.
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 Circuit diagram of a simple pneumatic system
 Circuit diagram

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 Advantages of Pneumatic Systems
 Small weight of transmission lines due to
✓ The small diameter of lines: Hydraulic losses due to air flow
are small, which allows the reduction of the line diameter.
✓ The low density of energy transmitting fluid( the air).
✓ There are no return lines; used air is expelled into the
atmosphere.
 Availability of the energy transmission fluid, the air.
 The system is fireproof.
 It enables to supply a great amount of energy during a short
time period, from the compressed air reservoir

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 Disadvantages of Pneumatic Systems
 Difficult system tightness.
 Low working pressure compared with the hydraulic systems
due to the tightness problems and compressor design.
 Difficulty of holding pneumatic actuators at intermediate
positions.
 Delay of actuators’ response due to the time needed for filling
the long lines with compressed air.
 The variation of pressure in air reservoirs with temperature.
 The possibility of the condensation of humidity and the
freezing of condensed water at low temperatures.
 Special lubricators are needed due to the poor lubricity of air.
 Danger of explosion.

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 Hydraulic Power Systems
 The hydraulic power systems transmit mechanical power
by increasing the energy of hydraulic liquids.
 Two types of hydraulic power systems are used:
hydrodynamic and hydrostatic.
 Hydrodynamic (also called hydrokinetic) power systems
transmit power by increasing mainly the kinetic energy of
liquid. These systems include a rotodynamic pump, a
turbine, and additional control elements.
 The applications of hydrodynamic power systems are
limited to rotary motion.
 These systems replace the classical mechanical
transmission in the power stations and vehicles due to
their high power-to weight ratio and better controllability.
Group work 1: Group the class in to four. Discuss the mechanism of power transfer systems,
application areas (Examples), advantage and Disadvantages
14 Power Systems: Mechanical G-1, Electrical G-2, Pneumatic G-3, and Hydraulic G-4
 …cont.
 There are two main types of hydrodynamic power
systems: hydraulic coupling and torque converter.
• A hydraulic coupling is a fluid-
based clutch. It consists of a pump,
driven by the input shaft, and a
turbine, coupled to the output shaft.
• When the pump impeller rotates, the
oil flows to the turbine at high speed.
• The oil then impacts the turbine
blades, where it loses most of the
kinetic energy it gained from the
pump.
• The oil re-circulates in a closed path
inside the coupling and the power is
transmitted from the input shaft to
the output shaft. The input torque is
practically equal to the output torque.
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 …cont.
 The torque converter is a hydraulic coupling with one
extra component: the stator, also called the reactor.
 The stator consists of a series of guide blades attached to
the housing.

• The torque converters are

used where it is necessary
to control the output
torque and develop a
transmission ratio, other
than unity, keeping
acceptable transmission
efficiency.

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 Hydrostatic Power Systems
 In the hydrostatic power systems, the power is transmitted by
increasing mainly the pressure energy of liquid.
 These systems are widely used in industry, mobile equipment,
aircrafts, ship control, and others.
 This course mainly deals with the hydrostatic power systems,
which are commonly called hydraulic power systems.

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 Comparison of hydraulics and pneumatics systems

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 Basic Hydraulic Power Systems
 Figure 1.11 shows the circuit of a simple hydraulic system, drawn
in both functional-sectional schemes and standard hydraulic
symbols.

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 …cont.
 The function of hydraulic power system is summarized in
the following:
I. The prime mover supplies the system with the required
mechanical power. The pump converts the input mechanical
power to hydraulic power.
II. The energy-carrying liquid is transmitted through the
hydraulic transmission lines: pipes and hoses. The
hydraulic power is controlled by means of valves of
different types. This circuit includes three different types of
valves: a pressure control valve, a directional control valve,
and a flow control (throttle check) valve.
III. The controlled hydraulic power is communicated to the
hydraulic cylinder, which converts it to the required
mechanical power.
 Generally, the hydraulic power systems provide both
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rotary and linear motions.
 Advantages of the hydraulic power systems
1. High power-to-weight ratio.
2. Self-lubrication.
3. There is no saturation phenomenon in the hydraulic
systems compared with saturation in electric machines.
The maximum torque of an electric motor is proportional
to the electric current, but it is limited by the magnetic
saturation.
4. High force-to-mass and torque-to-inertia ratios, which
result in high acceleration capability and a rapid
response of the hydraulic motors.
5. High stiffness of the hydraulic cylinders, which allows
stopping loads at any intermediate position.

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 …cont.
6. Simple protection against overloading.
7. Possibility of energy storage in hydraulic accumulators.
8. Flexibility of transmission compared with mechanical
systems.
9. Availability of both rotary and rectilinear motions.
10. Safe regarding explosion hazards.

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 Disadvantages of the hydraulic power systems
✓ Hydraulic power is not readily available, unlike
electrical. Hydraulic generators are therefore required.
✓ High cost of production due to the requirements of
small clearances and high precision production process.
✓ High inertia of transmission lines, which increases their
response time.
✓ Limitation of the maximum and minimum operating
temperature.
✓ Fire hazard when using mineral oils.
✓ Oil filtration problems.

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 Properties of fluids for Hydraulic Systems
 Hydraulic fluids are used in hydrostatic power systems
to transmit power.
 The power transmission is carried out by increasing,
mainly, the pressure energy of the fluid.
 In addition to the power transmission, the hydraulic fluids
serve to:
✓ Lubricate the contact surfaces
✓ Cool different elements, and
✓ Clean the system.


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 Hydraulic Fluids
 Water was the first fluid used for the transmission of fluid
power due to its availability, low cost, and fire resistance.
 However, water has poor lubricity, a narrow range of
working temperature, and a high rust-promoting tendency.
 These disadvantages limited its use to very special systems.
 Mineral oils were not practically used in hydraulic systems
until the 1920s.
 In the 1940s, additives were first used to improve the
physical and chemical properties (counter rust and
oxidation) of hydraulic mineral oils.
 However, mineral oils are highly flammable, and fire risk
increases when operating at high temperatures.

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 …cont.
 Hydraulic fluids are utilized in large amounts by excavating
machines, bulldozers, mobile cranes, and other outdoor
equipment.
 Mineral oils are composed of relatively stable hydrocarbon
compounds, and are only very slowly broken down by
microorganisms in the environment.
 An oil leak may result in considerable pollution of the
surroundings and ground water. Thus, pollution by
conventional mineral hydraulic oils can disturb the
ecological balance for long periods.
 Nowadays, commercially available and environmentally
acceptable hydraulic oil. It is a synthetic base oil designed
to biodegrade to its natural state when subjected to sunlight,
26 water, and/or microbial activity.
 …cont.

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 Classification of Hydraulic Fluids

 Typically Used Hydraulic Fluids

 Mineral Oils
 Fire-Resistant Fluids
➢ (Oil-in-Water Emulsion, Water-in-Oil Emulsion, Water-Glycol Fluids,
Synthetic Oils)
 Additives
➢ (Oxidation inhibitors, Corrosion inhibitors, Antifoaming agents,
Anti-wear, Viscosity index improvers, Pour point depressants,
Friction modifiers, Detergents)

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 1.Typically Used Hydraulic Fluids
 Noninhibited refined mineral oil
 Refined mineral oil with
➢ Improved anti-rust and antioxidation properties
➢ Improved anti-rust, anti-oxidation, and anti-wear
properties
➢ Improved anti-rust, anti-oxidation, and viscosity-
temperature properties
➢ Improved anti-rust, anti-oxidation, anti-wear, and
viscosity-temperature properties
 Synthetic fluids with no specific fire-resistant properties
 High water-based fluid (up to 20% combustible materials +
min 80% water)
 Chemical solution in water (more than 80% water content)
 Water-in-oil, water droplets in a continuous oil phase (60%
oil + 40% water)
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 2. Mineral Oils
 Mineral-based oils are most widely used, relatively
inexpensive, widely available in suitable viscosity
grades, and chemically stable.
 They are of good lubricity and non corrosive
 They are compatible with most sealing materials with the
exception of butyl rubber b/c at higher temperatures they
suffer chemical breakdown.
 The two most important disadvantages are the
flammability and the increase in viscosity at high
pressures.
 The viscosity pressure characteristics limit their use to
pressures below 1000 bar.

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 3. Fire-Resistant Fluids
 Oil-in-Water Emulsion: consists of tiny droplets of oil(2% - 5%
oil ) dispersed in a continuous water phase. It is extremely fire-
resistant, highly incompressible, and has good cooling
properties. However, It’s poor lubricity and low viscosity.
 Water-in-Oil Emulsion: the most popular fire-resistant (60% oil
+ 40% water); the operating temperatures should not exceed
25°C, but intermittent operation up to 50°C is permissible. At
the higher temperature, water content is affected owing to
evaporation, which decreases the emulsion’s fire-resistance
properties.
 Water-Glycol Fluids: has very low flammability characteristics,
good anti-freeze properties (suitable for low-temperature
applications). Its lubricating ability is lower than mineral oils;
they attack most paints.
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 ...cont.
 Synthetic Oils: such as phosphate esters has good fire
resistance properties, lubricating ability similar to mineral oil.
 Synthetic oils are superior when compared with mineral-oil–
based fluids in one or more of the following respects:
➢ Thermal stability, Oxidation stability, Viscosity-temperature
properties (VI), Low temperature fluidity, Operational
temperature limits, Fire resistance
 However, mineral oil–based fluids may be advantageous
regarding:
➢ Hydrolytic stability, Corrosion protection, Toxicity, Compatibility
with elastomers and construction materials
➢ The solubility of additives, Frictional characteristics, Cost and
availability

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 4. Additives
 The largest class of hydraulic fluids consists of refined
hydrocarbon base oils (petroleum oils) and suitable
additives to improve the base properties.

 The main types of additives used in hydraulic fluids are

➢ Oxidation inhibitors: Corrosion inhibitors:
➢ Antifoaming agents
➢ Anti-wear additives of high thermal stability.
➢ Viscosity index improvers
➢ Pour point depressants
➢ Friction modifiers
➢ Detergents

33 
 Requirements Imposed on the Hydraulic Liquid
 Satisfactory flow properties for a range of operating temperatures.
 A high viscosity index
 Good lubricating properties
 Low vapor pressure to avoid cavitation.
 Compatibility with system materials
 Chemical stability is necessary to increase the service life of liquid
and avoid performance deterioration.
 Corrosion protection by adding effective corrosion inhibitors.
 Rapid de-aeration and air separation.
 Good thermal conductivity is required to rapidly dissipate
 the heat generated due to friction
 Fire resistance is essential in some applications.
 Electrically insulating properties
34  Environmental acceptability
 Governing laws
Pascal’s Law
 Pascal’s law states that the pressure exerted on a confined
fluid is transmitted undiminished in all directions and acts
with equal force on equal areas and at right angles to the
containing surfaces.
Force
Pressure =
Area

35
 …cont.
 When the input force is Fin on the input piston, the
pressure in the system is given by
𝐹1 𝐴2
𝐹2 = 𝑃𝐴2 = 𝐴2 = 𝐹1
𝐴1 𝐴1
𝜋𝑑 2
 For circular cross-sectional area of the piston 𝐴 =
4
 The above equation can be written as

𝑑22 𝐹2 𝑑22
𝐹2 = 2 𝐹1 → = 2
𝑑1 𝐹1 𝑑1

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 Basic Properties of Hydraulic Oils
 Viscosity: the characteristic of a fluid that describes the
resistance to the laminar movement of two neighboring fluid
layers against each other or it is the resistance to flow.
 It is important to keep the oil viscosity within a certain range
during the system’s operation; otherwise, the operating
conditions will change with temperature.
 The viscosity index (VI) of oil is a number used in industry to
indicate the effect of temperature variation on the viscosity of
the oil.
 A low VI signifies a relatively large change of viscosity with
temperature variation on the other hand, a high VI means
relatively little change in viscosity over a wide temperature range.
 The best oil is the one that maintains constant viscosity
throughout temperature changes.
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 Effect of Viscosity on Hydraulic System Operation
 The oil viscosity influences the function of hydraulic
power systems as it introduces resistance to fluid flow and
to the motion of bodies moving in the fluid.
 Herein, the following effects are studied:
✓ Hydraulic losses in transmission lines
✓ Resistance to fluid flow in narrow conduits
✓ Viscous friction forces and damping effect

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 Hydraulic Losses in Transmission Lines
 In hydraulic transmission lines, the flow may be laminar
or turbulent depending on the ratio of the inertia forces
to the viscous friction forces, Reynolds number, Re.
 For laminar flow the pressure losses in the line are
calculated using the following relation

39
 …cont.
 Substituting 𝑣, 𝜆 and Re results
R expresses the resistance of
the hydraulic transmission

 The power loss ∆𝑁 in the pipeline is given by

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 Resistance to fluid flow in narrow conduits
Internal Leakage in Hydraulic Elements
 Hydraulic power systems operate up to 700 bar.
 The internal leakage in hydraulic elements is due to the
operation at high pressure levels and the increased
clearances due to wear.

41
 …cont.
 Considering a fluid element in the radial clearance, and
neglecting the minor losses at the inlet and outlet, and assuming
a concentric stationary spool, an expression for the leakage
flow rate is

42
 …cont.

 The velocity distribution in the radial clearance is

found by integrating

 The velocity distribution is :

43
 …cont.
 The leakage flow rate, 𝑄𝐿 , is then found as follows:

or

44
 …cont.
 It is important to note that the leakage is inversely
proportional to the viscosity, μ, and directly proportional
to the cube of radial clearance.
 If the radial clearance is doubled due to wear, the internal
leakage increases eight times.
 The power loss due to leakage is given by

 Note: The dissipated power ΔN is converted to heat and leads to serious oil
overheating problems. Therefore, it is important to keep the oil viscosity
within the predetermined limits over the whole operating temperature range.

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 Other properties
 Density
 Oil compressibility
 Thermal expansion
 Vapor pressure
 Lubrication and Anti-Wear Characteristics
 Compatibility
 Chemical Stability
 Oxidation Stability
 Cleanliness
 Thermal Properties
 Acidity
 Toxicity

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 Environmentally Acceptable Hydraulic Oils
 Governing Laws

47
 ISO Symbols

48
 …cont.

49
 ….cont.

50
 …cont.

51
 …cont.

52
 …cont.

53
 …cont.

54
 …cont.

55
 …cont.

56
 …cont.

57
 …cont.

58
 …cont.

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 The end of Chapter 1

Next Chapter
Ch- 2: Hydraulic and Pneumatic Pressurization
and Regulation

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