MACHINE LEARNING

Unit Number: 1 Hrs.:7

Unit Name: Introduction to Machine Learning

CO1: Describe and compare different models of machine learning

Introduction:
Machine Learning (ML) is a subfield of Artificial intelligence (AI) that focuses on developing
algorithms and statistical models that allow computers to learn from and make predictions or
decisions based on data, without being explicitly programmed for specific tasks. The
fundamental idea behind machine learning is to enable computers to learn from experience,
improve over time, and perform tasks more accurately as they are exposed to more data.
In traditional programming, humans explicitly write rules and instructions for computers to
follow. However, in machine learning, the approach is different. Instead of coding explicit
rules, the computer is trained on large datasets, and the algorithms automatically learn patterns
and relationships within the data. These learned patterns are used to make predictions, classify
new data, or solve complex problems.

There are several types of machine learning algorithms, including:

Supervised Learning: In this approach, the algorithm is trained on a labeled dataset, where
the input data and corresponding correct outputs are provided. The model learns to map inputs
to outputs, allowing it to make predictions on new, unseen data.
Unsupervised Learning: Here, the algorithm is given an unlabeled dataset and is tasked with
finding patterns, structures, or relationships within the data without explicit guidance.
Clustering and dimensionality reduction are common tasks in unsupervised learning.
Semi-Supervised Learning: This combines elements of both supervised and unsupervised
learning, where the algorithm is trained on a partially labeled dataset.
Reinforcement Learning: In this paradigm, an agent interacts with an environment and learns
to take actions to maximize rewards. The agent receives feedback in the form of rewards or
penalties, allowing it to learn through trial and error.

Machine learning is employed in various applications, including image and

speech recognition, natural language processing, recommendation systems, medical diagnosis,
financial modeling, and much more. As the field continues to advance, machine learning
techniques are becoming increasingly pervasive in our daily lives and in various industries.

Machine learning is a branch of artificial intelligence (AI) and computer science which
focuses on the use of data and algorithms to imitate the way that humans learn, gradually
improving its accuracy.

Machine learning is an important component of the growing field of data science. Through the
use of statistical methods, algorithms are trained to make classifications or predictions, and to
uncover key insights in data mining projects. These insights subsequently drive decision
making within applications and businesses, ideally impacting key growth metrics. As big data
continues to expand and grow, the market demand for data scientists will increase. They will
be required to help identify the most relevant business questions and the data to answer them.
Machine learning algorithms are typically created using frameworks that accelerate solution
development, such as TensorFlow and PyTorch.

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Machine Learning algorithm into three main parts:-

1. A Decision Process: In general, machine learning algorithms are used to make a
prediction or classification. Based on some input data, which can be labeled or
unlabelled, your algorithm will produce an estimate about a pattern in the data.
2. An Error Function: An error function evaluates the prediction of the model. If there
are known examples, an error function can make a comparison to assess the accuracy
of the model.
1. A Model Optimization Process: If the model can fit better to the data points in the
training set, then weights are adjusted to reduce the discrepancy between the known
example and the model estimate. The algorithm will repeat this “evaluate and optimize”
process, updating weights autonomously until a threshold of accuracy has been met.

Machine learning methods

Supervised machine learning

Supervised learning, also known as supervised machine learning, is defined by its use of
labeled datasets to train algorithms to classify data or predict outcomes accurately. As input
data is fed into the model, the model adjusts its weights until it has been fitted appropriately.
This occurs as part of the cross validation process to ensure that the model
avoids overfitting or underfitting. Supervised learning helps organizations solve a variety of
real-world problems at scale, such as classifying spam in a separate folder from your inbox.
Some methods used in supervised learning include neural networks, naïve bayes, linear
regression, logistic regression, random forest, and support vector machine (SVM).
Unsupervised machine learning

Unsupervised learning

Unsupervised learning also known as unsupervised machine learning, uses machine learning
algorithms to analyze and cluster unlabeled datasets. These algorithms discover hidden patterns
or data groupings without the need for human intervention. This method’s ability to discover
similarities and differences in information make it ideal for exploratory data analysis, cross-
selling strategies, customer segmentation, and image and pattern recognition. It’s also used to
reduce the number of features in a model through the process of dimensionality reduction.
Principal component analysis (PCA) and singular value decomposition (SVD) are two common
approaches for this. Other algorithms used in unsupervised learning include neural networks,
k-means clustering, and probabilistic clustering methods.
Semi-supervised learning

Semi-supervised learning offers a happy medium between supervised and unsupervised

learning. During training, it uses a smaller labeled data set to guide classification and feature
extraction from a larger, unlabeled data set. Semi-supervised learning can solve the problem of
not having enough labeled data for a supervised learning algorithm. It also helps if it’s too
costly to label enough data.

Reinforcement machine learning

Reinforcement machine learning is a machine learning model that is similar to supervised

learning, but the algorithm isn’t trained using sample data. This model learns as it goes by using
trial and error. A sequence of successful outcomes will be reinforced to develop the best
recommendation or policy for a given problem.
Common machine learning algorithms

A number of machine learning algorithms are commonly used. These include:

• Neural networks: Neural networks simulate the way the human brain works, with a
huge number of linked processing nodes. Neural networks are good at recognizing
patterns and play an important role in applications including natural language
translation, image recognition, speech recognition, and image creation.
• Linear regression: This algorithm is used to predict numerical values, based on a
linear relationship between different values. For example, the technique could be used
to predict house prices based on historical data for the area.
• Logistic regression: This supervised learning algorithm makes predictions for
categorical response variables, such as“yes/no” answers to questions. It can be used for
applications such as classifying spam and quality control on a production line.
• Clustering: Using unsupervised learning, clustering algorithms can identify patterns
in data so that it can be grouped. Computers can help data scientists by identifying
differences between data items that humans have overlooked.
• Decision trees: Decision trees can be used for both predicting numerical values
(regression) and classifying data into categories. Decision trees use a branching
sequence of linked decisions that can be represented with a tree diagram. One of the
advantages of decision trees is that they are easy to validate and audit, unlike the black
box of the neural network.
• Random forests: In a random forest, the machine learning algorithm predicts a value
or category by combining the results from a number of decision trees.
Real-world machine learning use cases

Here are just a few examples of machine learning you might encounter every day:

Speech recognition: It is also known as automatic speech recognition (ASR), computer speech
recognition, or speech-to-text, and it is a capability which uses natural language processing
(NLP) to translate human speech into a written format. Many mobile devices incorporate
speech recognition into their systems to conduct voice search—e.g. Siri—or improve
accessibility for texting.
Customer service: Customer service: Online chatbots are replacing human agents along the
customer journey, changing the way we think about customer engagement across websites and
social media platforms. Chatbots answer frequently asked questions (FAQs) about topics such
as shipping, or provide personalized advice, cross-selling products or suggesting sizes for users.
Examples include virtual agents on e-commerce sites; messaging bots, using Slack and
Facebook Messenger; and tasks usually done by virtual assistants and voice assistants.

Computer vision: This AI technology enables computers to derive meaningful information

from digital images, videos, and other visual inputs, and then take the appropriate action.
Powered by convolutional neural networks, computer vision has applications in photo tagging
on social media, radiology imaging in healthcare, and self-driving cars in the automotive
industry.

Recommendation engines: Using past consumption behavior data, AI algorithms can help to
discover data trends that can be used to develop more effective cross-selling strategies. This
approach is used by online retailers to make relevant product recommendations to customers
during the checkout process.

Automated stock trading: Designed to optimize stock portfolios, AI-driven high-frequency

trading platforms make thousands or even millions of trades per day without human
intervention.
Fraud detection: Banks and other financial institutions can use machine learning to spot
suspicious transactions. Supervised learning can train a model using information about known
fraudulent transactions. Anomaly detection can identify transactions that look atypical and
deserve further investigation.

Real Life Applications:

Image and Speech Recognition: ML models are used in applications like facial recognition,
object detection, and speech-to-text conversion, enabling technologies such as virtual assistants
and security systems.
Natural Language Processing (NLP): ML algorithms power language translation, sentiment
analysis, chatbots, and voice assistants, improving human-computer interaction and language
understanding.
Recommendation Systems: ML techniques drive personalized recommendations in online
platforms, such as product recommendations on e-commerce sites or movie suggestions on
streaming services.
Medical Diagnosis: ML assists in medical imaging analysis, disease diagnosis, and treatment
planning, aiding healthcare professionals with more accurate and timely diagnoses.
Financial Modeling: ML models are utilized in credit risk assessment, fraud detection,
algorithmic trading, and forecasting market trends, enhancing decision-making in the financial
sector.
Autonomous Vehicles: ML plays a crucial role in self-driving cars, enabling them to recognize
objects, navigate through complex environments, and make real-time driving decisions.
Predictive Maintenance: ML is used to predict equipment failures and optimize maintenance
schedules, reducing downtime and improving efficiency in various industries like
manufacturing and transportation.
Gaming and Entertainment: ML is employed to create intelligent game opponents, character
behavior, and personalized content recommendations for users.
Social Media and Content Moderation: ML helps identify and moderate harmful or
inappropriate content, ensuring a safer online environment.
Climate Prediction: ML models aid in climate modeling, weather forecasting, and analyzing
environmental data for improved understanding and prediction of natural phenomena.

Challenges of machine learning

As machine learning technology has developed, it has certainly made our lives easier.
However, implementing machine learning in businesses has also raised a number of ethical
concerns about AI technologies. Some of these include:

Technological singularity

While this topic garners a lot of public attention, many researchers are not concerned with the
idea of AI surpassing human intelligence in the near future. Technological singularity is also
referred to as strong AI or superintelligence. Philosopher Nick Bostrum defines
superintelligence as “any intellect that vastly outperforms the best human brains in practically
every field, including scientific creativity, general wisdom, and social skills.” Despite the fact
that superintelligence is not imminent in society, the idea of it raises some interesting questions
as we consider the use of autonomous systems, like self-driving cars. It’s unrealistic to think
that a driverless car would never have an accident, but who is responsible and liable under
those circumstances? Should we still develop autonomous vehicles, or do we limit this
technology to semi-autonomous vehicles which help people drive safely? The jury is still out
on this, but these are the types of ethical debates that are occurring as new, innovative AI
technology develops.
AI impact on jobs

While a lot of public perception of artificial intelligence centers around job losses, this concern
should probably be reframed. With every disruptive, new technology, we see that the market
demand for specific job roles shifts. For example, when we look at the automotive industry,
many manufacturers, like GM, are shifting to focus on electric vehicle production to align with
green initiatives. The energy industry isn’t going away, but the source of energy is shifting
from a fuel economy to an electric one.

In a similar way, artificial intelligence will shift the demand for jobs to other areas. There will
need to be individuals to help manage AI systems. There will still need to be people to address
more complex problems within the industries that are most likely to be affected by job demand
shifts, such as customer service. The biggest challenge with artificial intelligence and its effect
on the job market will be helping people to transition to new roles that are in demand.

Privacy

Privacy tends to be discussed in the context of data privacy, data protection, and data security.
These concerns have allowed policymakers to make more strides in recent years. For example,
in 2016, GDPR legislation was created to protect the personal data of people in the European
Union and European Economic Area, giving individuals more control of their data. In the
United States, individual states are developing policies, such as the California Consumer
Privacy Act (CCPA), which was introduced in 2018 and requires businesses to inform
consumers about the collection of their data. Legislation such as this has forced companies to
rethink how they store and use personally identifiable information (PII). As a result,
investments in security have become an increasing priority for businesses as they seek to
eliminate any vulnerabilities and opportunities for surveillance, hacking, and cyberattacks.

Bias and discrimination

Instances of bias and discrimination across a number of machine learning systems have raised
many ethical questions regarding the use of artificial intelligence. How can we safeguard
against bias and discrimination when the training data itself may be generated by biased human
processes? While companies typically have good intentions for their automation efforts
highlights some of the unforeseen consequences of incorporating AI into hiring practices. In
their effort to automate and simplify a process, Amazon unintentionally discriminated against
job candidates by gender for technical roles, and the company ultimately had to scrap the
project.

Comparison of Machine learning with

traditional programming
In Machine Learning, also known as augmented analytics, the input data and output are fed to
an algorithm to create a program. This yields powerful insights that can be used to predict future
outcomes.
Traditional programming is a manual process — meaning a person (programmer) creates the
program. But without anyone programming the logic, one has to manually formulate or code
rules. We have the input data, and someone (programmer) coded a program that uses that data
and runs on a computer to produce the desired output.

Traditional Programming

Machine Learning

his is the basic difference between traditional programming and machine learning. Without
anyone programming the logic, In Traditional programming one has to manually formulate/code
rules while in Machine Learning the algorithms automatically formulate the rules from the data,
which is very powerful.

For example, if you feed in customer demographics, transactions as input and the observed
output if they churned or not in the past, the algorithm will formulate the program which would
know how to predict if someone would churn or not. That program is called a model.

Customers, in general, have a lot of such input and output data and they can feed that to the
algorithms to create predictive models. For example, feed-in customer information/loan
transactions (input) and how many defaulted on the loan (observed output), and it will create a
model to predict who will default on the loan.
Example:
A product manager can use this framework to predict business outcomes in any situation where you
have input and historical output data:

1. Identify the business question you would like to ask.

2. Identify the historical input.

3. Identify the historically observed output (i.e., data samples for when the condition
is true and for when it’s false).

For instance, if you want to predict who will pay the bills late, identify the input (customer
demographics, bills) and the output (pay late or not), and let the machine learning use this data
to create your model.

Explanation:
So the problem a company needs to solve to create a predictive model is to identify data samples
for when the condition (churn) is true and when the condition (churn) is false and pass this data
to a predictive algorithm to create the model. That is a simplistic way to look at predicting
outcomes.

This is what you as a product manager can figure out ways to treat your business data as a

financial asset. Formulate the question that has good business value, assemble the data
(historical) that has samples of both positive and negative past outcomes/conditions and point
the algorithm to your data so it can learn powerful rules that can be used to predict future
business outcomes.
ML vs AI vs Data Science:

Data Science vs. Machine Learning vs. Artificial Intelligence might be

related and interconnected, each is unique and is used for different
purposes. Data Science is a broad term, and Machine Learning falls within
it. Here’s the critical difference between the terms.

Artificial Intelligence Machine Learning Data Science

Includes various Data

Includes Machine Learning. Subset of Artificial Intelligence.
Operations.

Artificial Intelligence combines Data Science works by

Machine Learning uses efficient
large amounts of data through sourcing, cleaning, and
programs that can use data
iterative processing and processing data to extract
without being explicitly told to
intelligent algorithms to help meaning out of it for
do so.
computers learn automatically. analytical purposes.

The popular tools that Machine Some of the popular tools

Some of the popular tools that
Learning makes use of are-1. used by Data Science are-
AI uses are-
Amazon Lex2. IBM Watson 1. SAS2. Tableau3.
 1. TensorFlow2. Scikit Learn Studio3. Microsoft Azure ML Apache Spark4.
3. Keras Studio MATLAB

Data Science deals with

Artificial Intelligence uses logic Machine Learning uses
structured and
and decision trees. statistical models.
unstructured data.

Recommendation Systems such Fraud Detection and

Chatbots, and Voice assistants as Spotify, and Facial Healthcare analysis are
are popular applications of AI. Recognition are popular popular examples of Data
examples. Science.

Descriptive and Predictive Analysis in

Machine Learning:
Difference between Descriptive and Predictive ML:

The following are the important differences between descriptive data mining and predictive
data mining −
S.No. Descriptive Data Mining Predictive Data Mining
1. It tries to understand what happened in It tries to understand what could happen in
the past by analyzing the stored data. the future using past data analysis.
2. The data it provides is accurate. It may not be accurate result.
3. It provides standard reporting. It also It is used in predictive modelling,
provides ad-hoc reporting. forecasting, simulation and alerts.
4. It uses data aggregation and data It uses statistics and forecasting methods.
mining.
5. It uses a reactive approach. It uses a proactive approach.
6. Answers questions such as − Answers questions such as −
• What happened? • What would happen next?
• Where is the problem? • What would be the outcome if
• What is the frequency of the trends continue?
this problem? • What actions need to be taken?
The most significant difference between the two is that descriptive data mining is used to know
what happed in the past by using historical data, while predictive data mining is used to know
what could happen in future by using this historical data.
Descriptive analysis is used to understand the past and predictive analysis is used to predict
the future. Both of these concepts are important in machine learning because a clear
understanding of the problem and its implications is the best way to make the right decisions.

Descriptive Analysis: Descriptive analysis seeks to grasp a problem accurately by posing

queries based on past information. Let's use an illustration to better grasp the descriptive
analysis procedure. Consider the scenario where your objective is to streamline the department
store's supply chain. For Ex.we have data on purchases and sales. We form an assumption that
sales increase the day before the weekend after reviewing the data. This indicates that
periodicity is the foundation of our machine learning model. As a result, descriptive analysis
enables us to discover all the unique aspects that were initially missed by helping us grasp the
deep patterns in the data.

Predictive Analysis: A key idea in machine learning is predictive analytics. After creating a
machine learning model using descriptive analysis, our next objective is to predict the
algorithm's future actions by providing some beginning conditions. To find and establish the
criteria that support a procedure for pushing a specific condition on time, predictive analytics
is applied. A self-driving car's object detector, for instance, can be quite accurate at spotting
an obstruction in time, but another model must respond to reduce the danger of harm and
increase safety.

Types of Learning:

1.Supervised Learning:

Supervised learning, as the name indicates, has the presence of a supervisor as a teacher.
Basically supervised learning is when we teach or train the machine using data that is well-
labelled. Which means some data is already tagged with the correct answer. After that, the
machine is provided with a new set of examples(data) so that the supervised learning
algorithm analyses the training data(set of training examples) and produces a correct outcome
from labelled data.
Example: suppose you are given a basket filled with different kinds of fruits. Now the first
step is to train the machine with all the different fruits one by one like this:

• If the shape of the object is rounded and has a depression at the top, is red in color,
then it will be labelled as –Apple.
• If the shape of the object is a long curving cylinder having Green-Yellow color,
then it will be labelled as –Banana.
Now suppose after training the data, you have given a new separate fruit, say Banana from
the basket, and asked to identify it.
machine has already learned the things from previous data and this time has to use it wisely.
It will first classify the fruit with its shape and color and would confirm the fruit name as
BANANA and put it in the Banana category. Thus the machine learns the things from training
data(basket containing fruits) and then applies the knowledge to test data(new fruit).
Supervised learning is classified into two categories of algorithms:

• Classification: A classification problem is when the output variable is a

category, such as “Red” or “blue” , “disease” or “no disease”.

• Regression: A regression problem is when the output variable is a real value,

such as “dollars” or “weight”.
Supervised learning deals with or learns with “labeled” data. This implies that some data is
already tagged with the correct answer.
Types:-
• Regression
• Logistic Regression
• Classification
• Naive Bayes Classifiers
• K-NN (k nearest neighbors)
• Decision Trees
• Support Vector Machine

Advantages:-
• Supervised learning allows collecting data and produces data output from
previous experiences.
• Helps to optimize performance criteria with the help of experience.
• Supervised machine learning helps to solve various types of real-world
computation problems.
• It performs classification and regression tasks.
• It allows estimating or mapping the result to a new sample.
• We have complete control over choosing the number of classes we want in the
training data.

Disadvantages:-
• Classifying big data can be challenging.
• Training for supervised learning needs a lot of computation time. So, it requires a
lot of time.
• Supervised learning cannot handle all complex tasks in Machine Learning.
• Computation time is vast for supervised learning.
• It requires a labelled data set.
• It requires a training process.

2.Unsupervised learning:
Unsupervised learning is the training of a machine using information that is neither classified
nor labeled and allowing the algorithm to act on that information without guidance. Here the
task of the machine is to group unsorted information according to similarities, patterns, and
differences without any prior training of data.
Unlike supervised learning, no teacher is provided that means no training will be given to the
machine. Therefore the machine is restricted to find the hidden structure in unlabeled data by
itself.
For instance, suppose it is given an image having both dogs and cats which it has never seen.

Thus the machine has no idea about the features of dogs and cats so we can’t categorize it as
‘dogs and cats ‘. But it can categorize them according to their similarities, patterns, and
differences, i.e., we can easily categorize the above picture into two parts. The first may
contain all pics having dogs in them and the second part may contain all pics having cats in
them. Here you didn’t learn anything before, which means no training data or examples.
It allows the model to work on its own to discover patterns and information that was
previously undetected. It mainly deals with unlabelled data.
Unsupervised learning is classified into two categories of algorithms:

• Clustering: A clustering problem is where you want to discover the inherent

groupings in the data, such as grouping customers by purchasing behavior.
• Association: An association rule learning problem is where you want to
discover rules that describe large portions of your data, such as people that buy X
also tend to buy Y.

Types of Unsupervised Learning:-

Clustering
1. Exclusive (partitioning)
2. Agglomerative
3. Overlapping
4. Probabilistic

Clustering Types:-
1. Hierarchical clustering
2. K-means clustering
3. Principal Component Analysis
4. Singular Value Decomposition
5. Independent Component Analysis
3. Semi-Supervised learning :

Semi-Supervised learning is a type of Machine Learning algorithm that represents the

intermediate ground between Supervised and Unsupervised learning algorithms. It uses the
combination of labeled and unlabeled datasets during the training period.

To overcome these drawbacks of supervised learning and unsupervised learning algorithms,

the concept of Semi-supervised learning is introduced. In this algorithm, training data is a
combination of both labeled and unlabeled data. However, labeled data exists with a very small
amount while it consists of a huge amount of unlabeled data. Initially, similar data is clustered
along with an unsupervised learning algorithm, and further, it helps to label the unlabeled data
into labeled data. It is why label data is a comparatively, more expensive acquisition than
unlabeled data.

4.Reinforcement learning:
Reinforcement learning is a machine learning training method based on rewarding desired
behaviors and/or punishing undesired ones. In general, a reinforcement learning agent is able
to perceive and interpret its environment, take actions and learn through trial and error.

How does reinforcement learning work?

In reinforcement learning, developers devise a method of rewarding desired behaviors and
punishing negative behaviors. This method assigns positive values to the desired actions to
encourage the agent and negative values to undesired behaviors. This programs the agent to
seek long-term and maximum overall reward to achieve an optimal solution.

These long-term goals help prevent the agent from stalling on lesser goals. With time, the agent
learns to avoid the negative and seek the positive. This learning method has been adopted in
artificial intelligence (AI) as a way of directing unsupervised machine learning through
rewards and penalties.
 Models of Machine learning:
1.Geometric Model Machine Learning:

Machine learning is a field of artificial intelligence that allows machines to learn from data and
improve their performance without being explicitly programmed. One approach to machine
learning is to use geometric models, which can help us represent data in a mathematical form
that makes it easier to analyze and understand.

• A geometric model is a mathematical representation of an object or system that uses

geometry to describe its properties and relationships. In machine learning, geometric
models can be used to represent data in a way that allows us to analyze its properties
and relationships.
• Geometric models can be used in various areas of machine learning, such as data analysis,
classification, clustering, and regression. One example of a geometric model is the nearest
neighbor algorithm, which is used in classification and regression tasks.
• The nearest neighbour algorithm works by finding the closest data point to a given query point
in a geometric space. The distance between two data points can be measured using different
metrics, such as Euclidean distance or cosine similarity. Once the closest data point is found,
the algorithm can use its properties to classify or predict the properties of the query point.
• Another example of a geometric model is the support vector machine (SVM), which is used in
classification tasks. SVM works by finding a hyperplane in a high-dimensional space that
separates the data points into different classes. The hyperplane is chosen in such a way that it
maximizes the margin between the two closest data points from different classes. This ensures
that the SVM is robust to noise and can generalize well to new data.
• Geometric models can also be used in clustering tasks, where the goal is to group similar data
points together. One example of a geometric model for clustering is the k-means algorithm,
which works by partitioning the data into k clusters based on their distance to k initial centroids.
The centroids are then updated iteratively to minimize the distance between the data points and
their respective centroids.
• Geometric models can also be used in clustering tasks, where the goal is to group similar data
points together. One example of a geometric model for clustering is the k-means algorithm,
which works by partitioning the data into k clusters based on their distance to k initial centroids.
The centroids are then updated iteratively to minimize the distance between the data points and
their respective centroids.
• In addition to these examples, there are many other geometric models that can be used in
machine learning, such as decision trees, random forests, and neural networks. Each model has
its strengths and weaknesses, and choosing the right model depends on the problem at hand
and the characteristics of the data.
• These models are a powerful tool in machine learning that can help us represent data in
a mathematical form that is easier to analyze and understand. By using geometric models,
we can develop efficient algorithms for classification, regression, clustering, and other tasks.
As the field of machine learning continues to grow, we can expect to see more advancements
in the use of geometric models to solve complex problems.
• Geometric models have a wide range of applications in machine learning, including image and
speech recognition, natural language processing, and recommendation systems. For example,
convolutional neural networks (CNNs) are a type of geometric model that has proven to be
 very effective in image recognition tasks. CNNs use a series of convolutional and pooling
layers to identify features in the input image, and then use a fully connected layer to classify
the image into one of several categories.

2.Probabilistic modelling:
• Probabilistic modeling is a statistical approach that uses the effect of random occurrences or
actions to forecast the possibility of future results. It is a quantitative modeling method that
projects several possible outcomes that might even go beyond what has happened recently.
• Probabilistic modeling considers new situations and a wide range of uncertainty while not
underestimating dangers. The three primary building blocks of probabilistic modeling are
adequate probability distributions, correct use of input information for these distribution
functions, and proper accounting for the linkages and interactions between variables. The
downside of the probabilistic modeling technique is that it needs meticulous development, a
process that depends on several assumptions and large input data.

Example:

Weather and Traffic

• Weather and traffic are two everyday phenomena that are both unpredictable and appear to
have a link with one another. You are all aware that if the weather is cold and snow is falling,
traffic will be quite difficult and you will be detained for an extended period of time. We
could even go so far as to predict a substantial association between snowy weather and
higher traffic mishaps.
• Based on available data, we can develop a basic mathematical model of traffic accidents as
a function of snowy weather to aid in the analysis of our hypothesis. All of these models are
based on probabilistic modeling. It is one of the most effective approaches for assessing
weather and traffic relationships.

3.Logical Model:
Logical models are particularly useful when dealing with structured data, such as knowledge
graphs, where the data is organized in a hierarchical or network structure.

• One of the most well-known logical models in machine learning is the decision tree.
Decision trees are a popular classification algorithm that uses a tree-like model of
decisions and their possible consequences to classify data points. Each internal node
in the decision tree represents a decision based on a feature value, and each leaf node
represents a class label.
• Another logical model is the rule-based system, which uses if-then rules to represent
knowledge. Rule-based systems are particularly useful in expert systems, where
human expertise is encoded as a set of rules.
• In addition to these models, there are other logical models used in machine learning,
such as Bayesian networks, which use directed acyclic graphs to model the
dependencies between random variables, and fuzzy logic, which deals with uncertain
or vague information by assigning degrees of truth to propositions.
• Overall, logical models provide a powerful way to represent and reason about
structured data in machine learning. By encoding knowledge in a logical form, these
 models can provide interpretable and transparent explanations for their predictions,
which is essential in many real-world applications.

Grouping and Grading models:

In machine learning (ML), grouping and grading models involve various techniques to
organize, categorize, and evaluate the performance of models. Here's an overview of these
concepts

4.Grouping Models and Grading Models:

Ensemble Methods: Grouping multiple models together to create a stronger predictive
model. Examples include:

1. Bagging: Using bootstrapped subsets of the training data to train multiple

models and then combining their predictions (e.g., Random Forest).
2. Boosting: Iteratively training models, where each new model focuses on the
mistakes made by the previous models (e.g., AdaBoost, Gradient Boosting).
3. Stacking: Combining predictions from multiple models by training a higher-
level model on the outputs of the base models.

Clustering: Grouping similar data points together based on certain features, often used for
unsupervised learning. Examples include k-means clustering, hierarchical clustering, and
DBSCAN.

• Hyperparameter Tuning: Adjusting hyperparameters (e.g., learning rate,

regularization strength) to optimize model performance. Techniques include grid
search, random search, and Bayesian optimization.
• Comparative Analysis: Grading models by comparing their performance against each
other on the same task. This can help identify the best-performing model for a given
problem.
• Feature Importance: Grading models by analyzing the importance of different
features in making predictions. This helps in understanding the model's decision-
making process.

Means that the choice of grouping and grading methods depends on the specific problem
you're trying to solve and the characteristics of your data. It's essential to have a good
understanding of your data, the problem domain, and the available evaluation techniques to
make informed decisions.

5.Parametric & Non-Parametric Models

Parametric: To simplify learning process assumptions or internal parameter vector can be
considered but this limits the learning process, this approach is called as Parametric learning.

Examples:
• Logistic Regression
• Linear Discriminant Analysis
• Perceptron
 • Naïve Bayes
• Simple Neural Networks

Advantages:
• Simpler
• Speed
• Less Data

Disadvantages:
• Constrained
• Limited Complexity
• Poor Fit
• Non-Parametric Learning

Non-Parametric Models Do not make strong assumptions for mapping functions

Also called as instance based learning.

Examples:
• K-Nearest Neighbors Decision Tree
• Support Vector Machine

Advantages:
• Flexibility
• Power
• Performance

Disadvantages:
• More Data
• Slower
• Overfitting

Sr. Non-Parametric Parametric

No.

1 Algorithms do not make particular Is a llearner that summerizesdata through

assumptions aboutthe kind of mapping collection of parameters
function

2
Non-Parametric analysis to test Parametric analysis to test

group medians group means

3 Can be used on small samples Tend to need large samples
4
No information about population is available Information of population iscompletely known

5
Can be used on ordinal & nominal scale data Used mainly on interval & ratio scale data

6 Samples are independent

Not necessarily samples are

independent
7 Example K-Nearest Neighbours
Example: Logistic regression,

SVM

Feature Transformation:
Dimensionality Reduction Techniques:

What is Dimensionality Reduction?

The number of input features, variables, or columns present in a given dataset is known as
dimensionality, and the process to reduce these features is called dimensionality reduction.

A dataset contains a huge number of input features in various cases, which makes the predictive
modeling task more complicated. Because it is very difficult to visualize or make predictions
for the training dataset with a high number of features, for such cases, dimensionality reduction
techniques are required to use.

Dimensionality reduction technique can be defined as, "It is a way of converting the higher
dimensions dataset into lesser dimensions dataset ensuring that it provides similar
information." These techniques are widely used in machine learning for obtaining a better fit
predictive model while solving the classification and regression problems.

It is commonly used in the fields that deal with high-dimensional data, such as speech
recognition, signal processing, bioinformatics, etc. It can also be used for data visualization,
noise reduction, cluster analysis, etc.
 • Dimensionality reduction is an important technique in data analysis and machine learning
that allows us to reduce the number of variables in a dataset while retaining the most important
information. By reducing the number of variables, we can simplify the problem, improve
computational efficiency, and avoid overfitting.

1. PCA (Principle Component Analysis)

2. LDA (Linear Discriminant Analysis)
1.PCA (Principle Component Analysis)

• Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is an unsupervised learning technique that aims to

maximize the variance of the data along the principal components.
• The goal is to identify the directions (components) that capture the most variation in the data.
In other words, it seeks to find the linear combination of features that captures as much
variance as possible.
• The first component is the one that captures the maximum variance, the second component is
orthogonal to the first and captures the remaining variance, and so on.
• PCA is a useful technique for dimensionality reduction when your data has linear
relationships between features – that is, when you can express one feature as a function of the
other(s).
• In such cases, you can use PCA to compress your data while retaining most of the information
content by choosing just the right number of features (components).

• import pandas as pd
• import numpy as np
• # Here we are using inbuilt dataset of scikit learn
• from sklearn.datasets import load_breast_cancer
Output:
• # instantiating
• cancer = load_breast_cancer(as_frame=True) Original Dataframe shape :
• # creating dataframe (569, 31) Inputs Dataframe
• df = cancer.frame shape : (569, 30)
• # checking shape
• print('Original Dataframe shape :',df.shape)
• # Input features
• X = df[cancer['feature_names']]
• print('Inputs Dataframe shape :', X.shape)

2.Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA)

• Linear Discriminant Analysis or Normal Discriminant Analysis or Discriminant Function

Analysis is a dimensionality reduction technique that is commonly used for supervised
classification problems.
• It is used for modelling differences in groups i.e. separating two or more classes. It is used
to project the features in higher dimension space into a lower dimension space.

For example, we have two classes and we need to separate them efficiently. Classes can have
multiple features. Using only a single feature to classify them may result in some overlapping
as shown in the below figure. So, we will keep on increasing the number of features for proper
classification.
 For example Suppose we have two sets of data points belonging to two different classes that
we want to classify. As shown in the given 2D graph, when the data points are plotted on the
2D plane, there’s no straight line that can separate the two classes of the data points completely.
Hence, in this case, LDA (Linear Discriminant Analysis) is used which reduces the 2D graph
into a 1D graph in order to maximize the separability between the two classes.

Here, Linear Discriminant Analysis uses both the axes (X and Y) to create a new axis and
projects data onto a new axis in a way to maximize the separation of the two categories and
hence, reducing the 2D graph into a 1D graph.

Two criteria are used by LDA to create a new axis:

1. Maximize the distance between means of the two classes.

2. Minimize the variation within each class.

In the graph, it can be seen that a new axis (in red) is generated and plotted in the 2D graph
such that it maximizes the distance between the means of the two classes and minimizes the
variation within each class.

In simple terms, this newly generated axis increases the separation between the data points of
the two classes. After generating this new axis using the above-mentioned criteria, all the data
points of the classes are plotted on this new axis and are shown in the figure given below.

Prepared By: Mrs. Pranjali S. Bahalkar

D.Y.P.COE Akurdi (AI&DS)