IT & ITES Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.01 &1.1.

02
COPA - Safe working practices

Electrical safety
Objective : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain how to rescue a person who is in contact with a live wire.

The severity of an electric shock will depend on the level of If the casualty is unconscious but is breathing, loosen the
current which passes through the body and the length of clothing about the neck, chest and waist and place the
time of contact. Do not delay, act at once. Make sure that casualty in the recovery position.( Fig 3)
the electric current has been disconnected.
If the casualty is still in contact with the supply - break the
contact either by switching off the power, removing the plug
or wrenching the cable free. If not, stand on some insulating
material such as dry wood, rubber or plastic, or using
whatever is at hand to insulate yourself and break the
contact by pushing or pulling the person free. (Figs 1 & 2)
If you remain un-insulated, do not touch the victim with your
bare hands until the circuit is made dead or person is
moved away from the equipment.
Keep a constant check on the breathing and pulse rate.
Keep the casualty warm and comfortable. (Fig 4)

Send for help.

Do not give an unconscious person anything by

mouth.
Do not leave an unconscious person unattended.

If the casualty is not breathing - Act at once - don’t waste

If the victim is aloft, measures must be taken to prevent him

from falling or atleast make him fall safe.
Electric burns on the victim may not cover a big area but
may be deep seated. All you can do is to cover the area
with a clean, sterile dressing and treat for shock. Get
expert help as quickly as possible.

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IT & ITES Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.03 & 1.1.04
COPA - Safe working practices

Safety practice - fire extinguishers

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain how to rescue a person who is in contact with a live wire
• distinguish the different types of fire extinguishers
• determine the correct type of fire extinguisher to be used based on the class of fire
• describe the general procedure to be adopted in the event of a fire.

Fire is the burning of combustible material. A fire in an Accumulation of combustible refuse (cotton waste soaked
unwanted place and on an unwanted occasion and in an with oil, scrap wood, paper, etc.) in odd corners are a fire
uncontrollable quantity can cause damage or destroy risk. Refuse should be removed to collection points.
property and materials. It might injure people, and
The cause of fire in electrical equipment is misuse or
sometimes cause loss of life as well. Hence, every effort
neglect. Loose connections, wrongly rated fuses, overloaded
must be made to prevent fire. When a fire outbreak is
circuits cause overheating which may in turn lead to a fire.
discovered, it must be controlled and extinguished by
Damage to insulation between conductors in cables causes
immediate corrective action.
fire.
Is it possible to prevent fire? Yes, fire can be prevented by
Clothing and anything else which might catch fire should be
eliminating anyone of the three factors that causes fire.
kept well away from heaters. Make sure that the heater is
The following are the three factors that must be present in shut off at the end of the working day.
combination for a fire to continue to burn. (Fig 1)
Highly flammable liquids and petroleum mixtures (thinner,
adhesive solutions, solvents, kerosene, spirit, LPG gas
etc.) should be stored in the flammable material storage
area.
Blowlamps and torches must not be left burning when they
are not in use.
Extinguishing fires: Fires are classified into four types in
terms of the nature of fuel.
Different types of fires (Fig 2, Fig 3 Fig 4 & Fig 5) have to
be dealt with in different ways and with different extinguishing
Fuel: Any substance, liquid, solid or gas will burn, if there
agents.
is oxygen and high enough temperatures.
An extinguishing agent is the material or substance used
Heat: Every fuel will begin to burn at a certain temperature.
to put out the fire, and is usually (but not always) contained
It varies and depends on the fuel. Solids and liquids give off
in a fire extinguisher with a release mechanism for spraying
vapour when heated, and it is this vapour which ignites.
into the fire.
Some liquids do not have to be heated as they give off
vapour at normal room temperature say 150C, eg. petrol. It is important to know the right type of agent for extinguishing
a particular type of fire; using a wrong agent can make
Oxygen: Usually exists in sufficient quantity in air to keep
things worse.There is no classification for ‘electrical fires’
a fire burning.
as such, since these are only fires in materials where
Extinguishing of fire: Isolating or removing any of these electricity is present.
factors from the combination will extinguish the fire. There
are three basic ways of achieving this.
• Starving the fire of fuel removes this element.
• Smothering - ie. isolate the fire from the supply of
oxygen by blanketing it with foam, sand etc.
• Cooling - use water to lower the temperature. Removing
any one of these factors will extinguish the fire.

Preventing fires: The majority of fires begin with small

outbreaks which burn unnoticed until they have a secure
hold. Most fires could be prevented with more care and by
following some simple common sense rules.

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Fuel Extinguishing

Most effective ie. cooling with water. Jets of water

should be sprayed on the base of the fire and then
gradually upwards.

Should be smothered. The aim is to cover the entire

surface of the burning liquid. This has the effect of
cutting off the supply of oxygen to the fire.

Water should never be used on burning liquids.

Foam, dry powder or CO2 may be used on this type

of fire.

Extreme caution is necessary in dealing with liquefied

gases. There is a risk of explosion and sudden
outbreak of fire in the entire vicinity. If an appliance
fed from a cylinder catches fire - shut off the supply
of gas. The safest course is to raise an alarm and
leave the fire to be dealt with by trained personnel.
Dry powder extinguishers are used on this type of
fire.

Special powders have now been developed which

are capable of controlling and/or extinguishing this
type of fire.
The standard range of fire extinguishing agents is
inadequate or dangerous when dealing with metal
fires.
Fire on electrical equipment.
Halon, Carbon dioxide, dry powder and vapourising
liquid (CTC) extinguishers can be used to deal with
fires in electrical equipment. Foam or liquid (eg.
water) extinguishers must not be used on electrical
equipment under any circumstances.

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Many types of fire extinguishers are available with different Dry powder extinguishers (Fig 4): Extinguishers fitted
extinguishing ‘agents’ to deal with different classes of fires. with dry powder may be of the gas cartridge or stored
(Fig 1) pressure type. Appearance and method of operation is the
same as that of the water-filled one. The main distinguish-
ing feature is the fork shaped nozzle. Powders have been
developed to deal with class D fires.

Water-filled extinguishers: There are two methods of

operation. (Fig 2)

Carbon dioxide (CO2): This type is easily distinguished

by the distinctively shaped discharge horn. (Fig 5).

• Gas cartridge type

• Stored pressure type
With both methods of operation the discharge can be
interruted as required, conserving the contents and
preventing unnecessary water damage.
Foam extinguishers (Fig 3):These may be of stored Suitable for Class B fires. Best suited where contamination
pressure or gas cartridge types. Always check the operating by deposits must be avoided. Not generally effective in
instructions on the extinguisher before use. open air.
Always check the operating instructions on the container
before use. Available with different gadgets of operation
such as - plunger, lever, trigger etc.
Halon extinguishers (Fig 6): These extinguishers may be
filled with carbon-tetrachloride and Bromochlorodifluoro
methene (BCF). They may be either gas cartridge or stored
pressure type.

Most suitable for

• flammable liquid fires

• running liquid fires.

Must not be used on fires where electrical equipment is

involved.

IT & ITES : COPA - (NSQF Level - 4): Related Theory for Exercise 1.01.03
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They are more effective in extinguishing small fires involving • Close the doors and windows, but do not lock or bolt
pouring liquids. These extinguishers are particularly suitable them. This will limit the oxygen fed to the fire and prevent
and safe to use on electrical equipment as the chemicals its spreading.
are electrically non-conductive.
• Try to deal with the fire if you can do so safely. Do not
risk getting trapped.
The fumes given off by these extinguishers are
dangerous, especially in confined space. • Anybody not involved in fighting the fire should leave
calmly using the emergency exits and go to the
The general procedure in the event of a fire: designated assembly point. Failure to do this may
mean that some person being unaccounted for and
• Raise an alarm.
others may have to put themselves to the trouble of
• Turn off all machinery and power (gas and electricity). searching for him or her at risk to themselves.

Practice on fire extinguishers

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state about the selection of the fire extinguishers according to the type of fire
• state the method of operation of the fire extinguisher
• explain how to extinguish the fire.

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PROCEDURE (Fig 1) • Aim the extinguisher nozzle or hose at the base of the
fire (this will remove the source of fuel fire) (Fig 4)
• Alert people sorrounding by shouting fire, fire, fire when
observe the fire.
• Inform fire service or arrange to inform immediately.
• Open emergency exist and ask them to go away.
• Put “off” electrical power supply.
Don’t allow people to go nearer to the fire
• Analyze and identify the type of fire. Refer Table1.
Table-1

Class ‘A’ Wood, paper, cloth,

solid material
Keep your self low
Class ‘B’ Oil based fire (grease,
• Squeeze the handle lever slowly to discharge the agent
gasoline, oil) liquefiable
(Fig 5)
gases
• Sweep side to side approximately 15 cm over the fuel
Class ‘C’ Gas and liquefiable fire until the fire is put off (Fig 5)
gases
Class ‘D’ Metals and electrical
equipment

Assume the fire is ‘B; type (flammable liquifable solids)

• Slect CO2 (Carbon di oxide) fire extinguisher.

• Locate and pickup, CO2 fire extinguisher. Click for its

expiry date.
• Break the seal (Fig 2)

Fire extinguishers are manufactured for use

from the distance.

Caution
• While putting off fire, the fire may flare up
• Do not be panick belong as it put off promptly.
• If the fire doesn’t respond well after you have
used up the fire extinguisher move away yourself
away from the fire point.
• Do not attempt to put out a fire where it is
emitting toxic smoke leave it for the profession-
• Pull the safety pin from the handle (Pin located at the
als.
top of the fire extinguisher) (Fig 3)
• Remember that your life is more important than
property. So don’t place yourself or others at risk.
In order to remember the simple operation of the
extinguisher. Remember P.A.S.S. This will help
you to use the fire extinguisher.
P for Pull
A for Aim
S for Squeeze
S for Sweep

6 IT & ITES : COPA - (NSQF Level - 4): Related Theory for Exercise 1.01.03
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IT & ITES Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.05
COPA - Introduction to computer components

Introduction to computers
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define and classify computers
• list the advantages and limitations of computers
• list the applications of computer
• describe the voltages and currents in the computer.

Computer - Definitions
Fig 1

A computer is an electronic machine, operating under

the control of instructions stored in its own memory that
can accept data (input), manipulate the data according
to specified rules (process), produce results (output), and
store the results for future use.
Technically, a computer is a programmable machine.
This means it can execute a list of programmed
instructions and respond to new instructions that it is
given.

History of Computer

Charles babbbage’s machine

The working principles of today's computers were
provided by an English mathematician Charles Babbage
around 1833's invented a machine called the "Analytical
Engine". A machine which could calculate and print tables

CP110111
of functions using limited techniques.
The Analytical Engine had four parts. A mill, which was
Mark I :The IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled
the section which did the calculations, essentially the
Calculator (ASCC), called the Mark I by Harvard
CPU; the store, were the information was kept recorded,
University, was an electro-mechanical computer. Mark
essentially the memory; the reader, which would allow
I is the first machine to successfully perform a long
data to be entered using punched cards, essentially the
services of arithmetic and logical operation. Mark I is
keyboard, and the printer.
the First Generation Computer.
Hence, Charles Babbage is considered as the "Father
ENIAC: It was the first electronic computer built in 1946
of the Computer" as in fig-1.
at University of Pennsylvania, USA by John Eckert and
The generations of computers are characterized by a John Mauchy. It was named Electronic Numerical
major technological development that fundamentally Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC). The ENIAC was 30-
changed the way computers operate, resulting in 50 feet long, weighted 30 tons, contained 18,000 vacuum
increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful and more tubes, 70,000 resisters, 10,000 capacitors and required
efficient and reliable devices. The various generations 150,000 watts of electricity. Today computer is many
of computers are listed below: times as powerful as ENIAC, still size is very small.
First Generation (1946-1954): In 1946 the digital EDVAC: It stands for Electronic Discrete Variable
computer using electronic valves (Vacuum tubes) are Automatic Computer and was developed in 1950. The
known as first generation computers. The first 'computer' concept of storing data and instructions inside the
to use electronic valves i.e. vacuum tubes. The high computer was introduced here. This allowed much faster
cost of vacuum tubes prevented their use for main operation since the computer had rapid access to both
memory. They stored information in the form of data and instructions. The other advantage of storing
propagating sound waves. instruction was that computer could do logical decision
The vacuum tube consumes a lot of power. These internally. The EDVAC was a binary serial computer
computers were large in size and writing programs on with automatic addition, subtraction, multiplication,
them was difficult. Some of the computers of this programmed division and automatic checking with an
generation were: ultrasonic serial memory.

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EDSAC: It stands for Electronic Delay Storage • Transistors were used instead of Vacuum Tube.
Automatic Computer and was developed by M.V.
Wilkes at Cambridge University in 1949. The EDSAC • Processing speed is faster than First Generation
is the first stored-program computer. The EDSAC Computers (Micro Second)
performed computations in the three millisecond range.
• Smaller in Size (51 square feet)
It performed arithmetic and logical operations without
human intervention. The key to the success was in the • The input and output devices were faster.
stored instructions which it depended upon solely for its
operation. Third Generation (1964-1977):By the development of a
small chip consisting of the capacity of the 300 transistors.
This machine marked the beginning of the computer These Integrated Circuits (IC)s are popularly known as
age. Chips.
A single IC has many transistors, registers and capacitors
UNIVAC-1: It stands for Universal Automatic built on a single thin slice of silicon. So it is quite obvious
computer and it was the First commercial computer that the size of the computer got further reduced. Some
developed by United States In 1951. The machine was of the computers developed during this period were IBM-
25 feet by 50 feet in length, contained 5,600 tubes, 18,000 360, ICL-1900, IBM-370, and VAX-750. Higher level
crystal diodes, and 300 relays. It utilized serial circuitry, language such as BASIC (Beginners All purpose
2.25 MHz bit rate, and had an internal storage capacity Symbolic Instruction Code) was developed during this
1,000 words or 12,000 characters. period.
Computers of this generation were small in size, low cost,
The UNIVAC was used for general purpose computing large memory and processing speed is very high. Very
with large amounts of input and output. The UNIVAC soon ICs were replaced by LSI (Large Scale Integra-
was also the first computer to come equipped with a tion), which consisted about 100 components.
magnetic tape unit and was the first computer to use
buffer memory. An IC containing about 100 components is called LSI as
in (Fig 2).
Limitations of First Generation Computer Features
Followings are the major drawbacks of First generation
computers.
• They used valves or vacuum tubes as their main
electronic component.
• They were large in size, slow in processing and had
less storage capacity. • They used Integrated Circuit (IC) chips in place of the
• They consumed lots of electricity and produced lots transistors.
of heat. • Semi conductor memory devices were used.
• Their computing capabilities were limited. • The size was greatly reduced, the speed of processing
• They were not so accurate and reliable. was high, and they were more accurate and reliable.

• They used machine level language for programming. • Large Scale Integration (LSI) and Very Large Scale
Integration (VLSI) were also developed.
• They were very expensive.
• The mini computers were introduced in this generation.
Second Generation (1955-1964): The second-genera-
tion computer used transistors for CPU components • They used high level language for programming.
and ferrite cores for main memory&magnetic disks Fourth Generation (1978 - present): An IC containing
for secondary memory. They used high-level languages about 100 components is called LSI (Large Scale
such as FORTRAN (1956), ALGOL (1960) & COBOL Integration) and the one, which has more than 1000 such
(1960 - 1961). Input Output (I/O)processor was included components, is called as VLSI (Very Large Scale
to control I/O operations. Integration).
Manufacturing cost was also very low. Thus the size of It uses large scale Integrated Circuits(LSIC) built on a single
the computer got reduced considerably. silicon chip called microprocessors. Due to the
development of microprocessor it is possible to place
It is in the second generation that the concept of Central computer's centralprocessing unit(CPU) on single chip.
Processing Unit (CPU), memory, programming language These computers are called microcomputers.
and input and output units were developed. Some of the
second generation computers are IBM 1620, IBM
1401,CDC 3600.
8 IT & ITES : COPA - (NSQF Level - 4): Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.05
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Later very large scale Integrated Circuits(VLSIC) replaced Fig 3
LSICs. Thus the computer which was occupying a very
large room in earlier days can now be placed on a table.
The personal computer (PC) that you see in your school
is a Fourth Generation Computer Main memory used fast
semiconductors chips up to 4 M bits size. Some of the
Fourth generation computers are IBM PC, Apple-
Macintosh, etc.
Hard disks were used as secondary memory. Keyboards,
dot matrix printers etc. were developed. Operating System CP110113
(OS)-such as MS-DOS, UNIX, Apple's Macintosh were

CP110113
available. Object oriented language, C++ etc were
developed.
Features
Fifth generation computing devices, based on Artificial
• They used Microprocessor (VLSI) as their main Intelligence, are still in development, though there are some
switching element. applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used
today.
• They are also called as micro computers or personal
computers. Artificial Intelligence is the branch of computer science
concerned with making computers behave like humans.
• Their size varies from desktop to laptop or palmtop. The term was coined in 1956 by John McCarthy at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Artificial
• They have very high speed of processing; they are
intelligence includes:
100% accurate, reliable, diligent and versatile.
• Games Playing: Programming computers to play
• They have very large storage capacity.
games such as chess and checkers

Fifth Generation (PRESENT AND FUTURE): 5th • Expert Systems: Programming computers to make
generation computers use ULSI (Ultra-Large Scale decisions in real-life situations (for example, some
Integration) chips. Millions of transistors are placed in a expert systems help doctors diagnose diseases based
single IC in ULSI chips. on symptoms)

64 bit microprocessors have been developed during this • Natural Language: Programming computers to
period.. Memory chips and flash memory up to 1 GB, understand natural human languages
hard disks up to 600 GB & optical disks up to 50 GB have
• Neural Networks: Systems that simulate intelligence
been developed (fig. 3).
by attempting to reproduce the types of physical
connections that occur in animal brains
• Robotics: programming computers to see and hear
and react to other sensory stimuli

IT & ITES : COPA - (NSQF Level - 4): Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.05 9
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 Table - 1

GENERATION ELECTRONIC COMPONENT ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

First Vaccum tube Helped in calculation

and computational work 1.Big size
2.Very costly
3.Slow speed
4.Low accuracy
5.Low storage
6.High power requirements
7.High heat generation
8.High failure rate
9.Used machine language
10.No operating system

Second Transistor 1.Smaller size 1.Need air conditioning

2.Less cost 2.Constant maintenance
3.Better speed 3.No operating systems
4.Low power consumption 4.Later stage computers used
and less heat generation assembly languages
5.Better storage capacity
6.Better accuracy and
more reliability

Third Integrated Circuits(IC) 1.Better in all aspects 1.Initial problem withmanufac-

small & medium scale compared to I & II turers
2.Used operating systems 2.No insight obtained into
and high level language internal working

Fourth VLSI or Microprocessor 1.Low cost 1.Less powerful than main

frame computers
2.Excellent speed and
reliability
3.Computers close to man

Fifth ULSI or Bio-Chips 1.Very cheap 1.New low level language

(Knowledge needed
Information
Processing 2.super speeds
Systems) 3.Very high storage capacity
4.Highly sophisticated OS
5.posses intelligence and
decision making ability
Classification of computers It is a computer that measures continuously changing
physical quantities such as current, temperature,
Computers are classified according to the following criteria:
pressure etc. and converts them into quantities which
• Principle of Operation can be used as data for computation. As these computers
deal with continuously varying quantities they will give
• Computing Power, Memory Capacity and cost only approximate results. Its output is usually displayed
• Technological Development on a meter or scale. Analog computer has low memory
and fewer functions. These are used for engineering and
• Principle of operation scientific applications.
• Analog computer • Thermometer
• Digital Computer • Speedometer
• Hybrid Computer • Analog clock
Analog Computer Digital Computer

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A digital computer works with digital data. Digital computer store results. They have large Memory (that is data storing
uses binary number system. Binary number system capacity). Today most of the computers used in offices
consists of only two digits '0' and '1'. A digital computer and homes are Digital computers.
represents data in digital signals. A '0' represents OFF
The digital computers are further divided into the
and a '1' represents ON. Digital computer performs
following two groups:
arithmetic and logical operations on data. It gives output
in digital form. • Special purpose computers
Digital computers are very fast. These computers can • General purpose computers

Table 2

Analog Computers Digital Computers

1. Analog Computers Work on continuous values. Digital computers Work on discrete values.
2 Analog Computers have low memory. Digital computers have a very large memory
3 Analog computers have Slow speed. Digital computers have fast speed.
4 Analog computers are less reliable. Digital computers are more reliable.
5 Analog computers used in engineering Digital computers are used in all fields of life.
science and medical fields.
6 Analog computers are used to calculate / Digital computers are used to calculate
measure analog quantities like speed and mathematical and logical operations. It can
temperature. solve addition, subtraction, division,
multiplication and other mathematical and
statistical operations.
7 Analog computers provide less accurate results. Digital computers provide 100% accurate results.
8 Normally Analog Computers are specific purpose Digital Computers are general purpose
9 Normally Analog Computers are specific purpose Digital Computers are general purpose
10 Examples of Analog computers are: thermometer, Examples of digital computers are:
analog clock, speedometer etc. Personal Computer, laptops, smart phones etc.

Special Purpose Computers

It is a computer designed to solve specific type of
problem. The computers used in ships and aircrafts, etc.
General Purpose computers
It is a computer designed to solve a wide variety of
problems, A General purpose Computer can store
different programs and process them.
The differences between analog and digital computers
are listed in table 2
Hybrid Computer (Fig. 4)
A hybrid computer is a combination of both analog and
digital computer. Hybrid computer can handle both
analog and digital data. A hybrid computer combines the numbers and shown in digital form. For example, The Vital
best characteristics of both the analog and digital Signs Monitoring unit also called (VSM) in short. It has
computer. It can accept data in both analog and digital Blood Pressure monitor, ECG monitor, respiratory monitor,
form. and is also used for monitoring anesthesia.
Applications
• Hybrid computers are also used in spaceships and
Hybrid computer devices are used in hospitals that may
missile system.
calculate patient's heart function, temperature and blood
pressure etc. This calculation may be converted into

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• Hybrid Computer Machines are generally used in
scientific applications
• Hybrid computers are used for controlling industrial
processes.
Computers are classified on the basis of computing
power, memory capacity and cost.
- Microcomputer or Personal Computer.
- Mini Computer.
- Mainframe Computer.
- Super Computer.
Micro Computers
Micro computer is also called personal computer. It was
introduced in 1970. Examples of personal computers are
PC and Apple Macintosh. The major types of personal
computers are desktop computer and portable computer.
Fig 6
Desktop Computer
These computers can easily fit on a table or desktop,
hence the name. These computers come in two models
or casings. In Desktop model, the system unit is placed
on the desktop or table. Monitor is placed on the system
unit. In Tower model, both monitor and system unit are
placed on the table as in (Fig 5).

CP110116B
Palmtops have no keyboard but the screen serves both
as an input and output device. It easily fits in the hand of
the user.
Uses of Micro Computer
The PC is the most common type of computer used in
the office. It is now widely used in many homes. These
Portable computer are also used for business and engineering application.

Portable is a personal computer that can be carried from Mini Computer

one place to other easily. Notebook computer and Mini computers were introduced in the 1960s.
handheld computer (smart phone) are examples of Minicomputer is larger and more powerful computer than
portable computers. Notebook computer is also called personal computer. It can execute five million instructions
laptop computer. Laptop computers are very small in per second. It generally consists of two or more
size and can be placed easily on lap. processors.
Lap top computer or notebook computer Minicomputer can serve up to 4000 connected users
The laptop computer or notebook computer will be as simultaneously. It is normally accessed by users via
shown in fig 6a and fig 6b.It is also called as tower model personal computer or terminal. A device with a monitor
computer. and keyboard is called terminal. It is also known as dumb
terminal. It has no processing power and cannot work as
Palmtop Computer/Digital Diary /Notebook /PDAs: stand-alone computer. Some of the minicomputers
A handheld computer (like smart phone) is also portable. models are VAX-8800, AS400
Hand held computer is known as palmtop computer.

12 IT & ITES : COPA - (NSQF Level - 4): Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.05
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Uses of Mini Computer programs concurrently. The modern super computer
consists of thousands of microprocessors. Super computer
Mini computers are often used by small and medium-sized
uses high-speed facilities such as satellite for online
companies to provide centralized store of information.
processing.
Mainframe Computer
Sum of the super computers models are CRAY-XP, ETA-
Mainframe computers were introduced in 1975. A 10, Param and Deep Blue .
mainframe computer is a very large computer in size. It is
Advantages of computers
processors. It is designed to perform multiple tasks for
multiple users at the same time. Mainframe computers • A computer has a very high processing speed with high
can serve up to 50,000 users at the same time. reliability.

The users access a mainframe computer through • Large volume of information can be stored in the
terminal or personal computer. A typical mainframe memory any particular data/program can be retrieved
computer can execute 16 million instructions per second. immediately.
Some of the main computers models are
• Solution to a complicated problem is possible at a very
• NEC 610 high speed.
• DEC 10 • Processing of large volume of data saves a lot of clerical
Uses of Mainframe Computer work which reduces the processing cost.
Mainframe computers are used primarily by corporate • Computers perform operations efficiently at
and governmental organizations for critical applications, environments where presence of human being is not
bulk data processing such as senses, industry and possible such as furnace, poisonous atmosphere,
consumer statistics, and transaction processing. vacuum, unmanned satellite, etc.
Super computer Limitation of computers
Super computers were introduced in 1980s. Super • High initial cost.
computer is the fastest computer. Super computer is the
biggest in size and the most expensive in price than any • Input information has to be prepared in the form of
other computers. statements called program which requires a
considerable amount of knowledge.
It is the most sophisticated, complex and advanced
computer. It has a very large storage capacity. It can • usage of computers will be economical only when there
process trillions of instructions in one second. Super is clerical data processing for large volume of data and
Computer is the fastest and most powerful computer of are repetitive in nature
a time. Supercomputers are very expensive.
Supercomputers are used for highly calculation-intensive • It is a merely a machine it cannot correct errors on its
tasks. Super computers are also used for specialized own.
applications that require immense amounts of Functions of Computers
mathematical calculations.
All computers are made up of following basic units as
Applications of Super Computer shown in fig (7). They are as follows:-
• Weather forecasting, 1 Input Unit
2 Central processing Unit (CPU)
• Animated graphics like in Hollywood movies,
a) Arithmetic Logic Unit(ALU)
• Fluid dynamic calculations
b) Control Unit (CU)
• Nuclear energy research 3 Memory
• Space science 4 Output Unit
• Weapon and missile design
Input Unit
• Petroleum exploration, and etc.
Computers need to receive data and instruction in order
Today, supercomputers are produced by traditional to solve any problem. Therefore we need to input the
companies such as Cray, IBM and Hewlett- Packard. data and instructions into the computers. The input unit
Since October 2010, the Tianhe-1A supercomputer has consists of one or more input devices. Keyboard is the
been the fastest in the world; it is located inChina. one of the most commonly used input device. Some of
the input devices are listed in table 1.
The main difference between a supercomputer and a
mainframe is that a supercomputer channels all its power Input devices perform the following functions.
into executing a single program as fast as possible,
• Accept the data and instructions from the outside world.
whereas a mainframe uses its power to execute many

IT & ITES : COPA - (NSQF Level - 4): Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.05 13
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• Convert it to a form that the computer can understand. use in a computer or other digital electronic device.
There are two types of memory in computer.
• Supply the converted data to the computer system for
further processing. • Primary Memory
• Secondary Memory
Central Processing Unit (CPU) (Fig. 8)
Output Unit
The central processing unit (CPU) is the electronic brain
Output unit receive the informations from the processing
unit and provide the results in human readeable form.

Output Devices
The some of the output devices are
• Monitor
• Printer
• Plotter
• Speaker
Applications of computers
Science: Scientists have been using computers to
develop theories and to analyse and test the data. The
high speed and accuracy of the computer allow different
of the computer as in fig-8. The CPU in a personal computer scientific analyses to be carried out. They can be used
is usually a single chip. It organizes and carries out to generate detailed studies of how earthquakes affect
instructions that come from either the user or from the buildings or pollution affects weather pattern. Satellite-
software. The processor is made up of many components. based applications have not been possible without the
CPU performs the following functions: use of computers. Moreover, it would not be possible to
get the information of the solar system and the cosmos
• It performs all calculations. without computers.
• It takes all decisions.
Education: Computers have also revolutionized the
• It controls all units of the computer. whole process of education. Currently, the classrooms,
libraries and museums are efficiently utilizing computers
Two typical components of a CPU are the following: to make the education much more interesting. Unlike
recorded television shows, computer-aided education
The arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs arithmetic (CAE) and computer-based training (CBT) packages are
and logical operations. making learning much more interactive.
The control unit (CU), which extracts instructions from Medicine and Health Care: There has been an
memory and decodes and executes them, calling on the increasing use of computers in the field of medicine.
ALU when necessary. Now, doctors are using computers right from diagnosing
Memory the illness to monitoring a patient's status during complex
surgery. By using automated imaging techniques, doctors
Memory refers to the physical device used to store the are able to look inside a person's body and can study
program or data on the temporary or permanent basis for

14 IT & ITES : COPA - (NSQF Level - 4): Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.05
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Fig 9

CP110117t1

each organ in detail (e.g. CT scans or MRI scans), which that can be viewed from all the three dimensions. By using
was not possible few years ago. There are several techniques like virtual reality, architects can explore houses
examples of special-purpose computers that can operate that have been designed but not built. The manufacturing
within the human body such as cochlear implant, a factories are using computerized robotic arms to perform
special kind of hearing aid that makes it possible for hazardous jobs. Besides, computer-aided manufacturing
deaf people to hear. (CAM) can be used in designing the product, ordering the
parts and planning production. Thus, computers help in
Engineering/Architecture/Manufacturing: The
coordinating the entire manufacturing process.
architects and engineers are extensively using computers
in designing and drawings. Computers can create objects
IIT & ITES : COPA - (NSQF Level - 4): Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.05 15
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Entertainment: Computers are finding greater use in Banking: Computers are extensively used in the field of
entertainment industry. They are used to control the banking and finance. People can use the ATM (automated
images and sounds. The special effects, which teller machine) services 24 hours a day to deposit and
mesmerize the audience, would not have been possible withdraw cash. When different branches of the bank are
without the computers. In addition, computerized connected through computer networks, the inter branch
animation and colourful graphics have modernized the transactions such as cheque and draft can be performed
film industry. without any delay.
Communication: E-mail or electronic mail is one of the Railway Reservation System
communication media in which computer is used. Through
Using this system, the user can perform following
e-mail, messages and reports are passed from one person
operations through online. (web site: www.irctc.co.in)
to one or more persons with the aid of computer and
telephone line. The advantage of this service is that while • search the train and its timings
transferring the messages it saves time, avoids wastage • check seats and birth availability
of paper and so on. Moreover, the person who is receiving
• booking and cancelling tickets
the messages can read the messages whenever he is
free and can save it, reply it, forward it or delete it from the • status of PNR (Passenger Name Record)
computer.
Telephone / Electricity Board Billing:
Business Application: This is one of the important uses
of the computer. Initially, computers were used for batch- The users can do the following operations through online
processing jobs, where one does not require the by using this system. (Web site: portal.bsnl.in - BSNL)
immediate response from the computer. Currently, • Register the telephone / electricity board number
computers are mainly used for real-time applications (like
• Check and pay the bill amount
at the sales counter) that require immediate response
from the computer. There are various concerns where • Register the complaints
computers are used such as in business forecasting, to E-Governance
prepare pay bills and personal records, in banking E-Governance implies technology driven governance.
operations and data storage, in various types of life E-Governance is the application of Information and
insurance business and as an aid to management. Communication Technology (ICT) for delivering
Businesses are also using the networking of computers, government services, exchange of information
where a number of computers are connected together communication transactions, integration of various stand-
to share the data and the information. Use of e-mail and alone systems and services between Government-to-
the Internet has changed the ways of doing business. Citizens (G2C), Government-to-
Publishing: Computers have created a field known as Business(G2B),Government-to-Government( G2G) as
desktop publishing (DTP). In DTP, with the help of well as back office processes and interactions within the
computer and a laser printer one can perform the entire government frame work.
publishing job all by oneself. Many of the tasks requiring E-Governance covers all the sectors with a view to
long manual hours such as making table of contents and providing hassle free, transparent and efficient service
index can be automatically performed using the to the common man (both in urban and rural areas).
computers and DTP software.

16 IT & ITES : COPA - (NSQF Level - 4): Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.05
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IT & ITES Related Theory for Exercise1.2.06
COPA - Introduction to computer components

Introduction to CPU architecture and motherboard

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state what is hardware and test the internal and external hardware
• brief the listed hardware
• state what is partitions and their types
• explain the booting and its procedures.
Computer Hardware
The physical units of a computer are called as the
hardware of a computer.
Internal hardware examples
• Blu-Ray, CD-ROM, and DVD

• CPU

• Hard drive

• Motherboard

• RAM

• Sound card

• Video card

• SMPS
External hardware examples
• Flat-panel, Monitor, and LCD

• Keyboard

• Mouse Most connectors are separated, permitting the cable to

be plugged in only in the correct direction. The keyboard
• Printer
and mouse use "PS2" (Personal System 2) connectors.
• Scanner The PS2 connectors are color-coded. The purple
connector is for the keyboard. The green connector is
CPU & ALU for the mouse.
Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the heart of the
• PS/2 Ports: Standard keyboards and mouse often
Computer. It is the hardware,that carries out the
connect to the computer via the PS/2 ports. To plug
instructions of a computer program by performing the
in a keyboard or mouse cable, first match the cable
basic arithmetical, logical, and input/output operations
to the connector. Then push the cable into the
of the system.
connector. Be sure not to force the connector because
CPU Ports and Connectors you will end up bending the pins
A port is a connector at the back of a Computer cabinet • Serial & Parallel Ports: The serial port and parallel
where you plug in an external device such as a printer, port allow connections to printers and other external
keyboard, scanner, modem etc. This allows instructions devices. To transfer a byte through a serial port, eight
and data to flow between the computer and the device. bits are queued and sent bit by bit. However, in a
The computer ports are also commonly referred to as parallel port, all the eight bits are transferred
the Input/output ports (I/O ports). These ports can be simultaneously
either serial or parallel. Fig 1 shows the commonly
available ports on a personal computer. • The parallel port, serial port, and video port all use "D"
type connectors (DB-25M, DB-9M and DB-15F
respectively). These are called D connectors because
of their shape, which permits the cables to be plugged
in only one way.
17
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USB (Universal serial bus) Ports The System Unit and Its Components
Devices like digital cameras, scanners and printers often The system unit is a box-like unit filled with a number of
connect to the motherboard via the USB ports. A USB useful components, each performing a discrete function.
connector's distinctive rectangular shape makes it easily These components work together to accomplish the main
recognizable. function of the computer, viz. accept and process input
and deliver output. This section will elaborate on these
USB has a number of features that makes it particularly
components one by one. Fig 3 shows the various
popular on PCs. First, USB devices are hot swappable.
components of the system unit.
You can insert or remove them without restarting your
system
Fig 3
LAN(Local Area Network) Port: The LAN port is used
to connect the PC to a local network or to high speed
Internet services.
VGA (Video Graphics Array) Ports: The VGA port
provides access to integrated video.
Audio ports: It provides access to integrated audio.
The audio jacks are the most confusing connectors on
the back panel. Although the jacks are sometimes color-
coded, the devices that plug into them rarely.
CPU front Panel shown Fig 2.

Fig 2

CP11011B
Power Supply
The power supply connects to nearly every device in the
PC to provide power. It is located at the rear of the case.
The system unit draws power from the AC mains through
a power protection device.
This power is not directly supplied to the internal
components. Instead, one of the components, called the
internal power supply, converts the AC input into DC
output of 5 and 12 volts. Normally, the internal power
It may contain the following parts. supply is referred to as Switched Mode Power Supply
(SMPS).
• Power On/Off Switch
The SMPS provides cable connectors to supply the
• Power Indicator required voltage to the other internal components like
the floppy drives, the hard disk drive, the motherboard
• CD/DVD Drive and external device such as the keyboard. The ON/OFF
• CD/DVD Drive Open/Close Button switch of the system unit is actually a part of the SMPS.
Fan
• CD/DVD Drive indicator
The SMPS has a small fan, called the exhaust fan,
• Floppy Disk Drive attached to SMPS(Fig. 4). This fan rotates as long as
the computer is switched on. Its function is to cool the
• Floppy Disk Drive Indicator
SMPS unit.
• USB Ports Drive Bays: The 5.25" and 3.5" drive bays house the
• Audio and Mic connectors many kinds of storage devices a computer might contain.
Expansion Slots: An expansion slot is a slot located
Design of CPU Cabinets may vary based on inside a computer mother board that allow additional
the manufacturer. peripharals to be connected to it.

18 IT & ITES : COPA - (NSQF Level - 4): Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.06
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 Power Port: Power is delivered to drives via cables that
Fig 4
plug into the power port on the drives.
Peripheral cards slot
The peripheral cards are the spare expansion slots
available on the mother board on which peripheral cards
can be inserted.
The following are the peripheral cards
• Sound card

• Video card

• Modam

• Wireless network
Fig. 7 shows the peripheral card, designed with a PCI

CP11011C
(Peripheral component interconnect) connector.

Memory Slot Fig 7

Memory Slot is used to insert a Random Access
Memory(RAM) shown in fig 5

Fig 5
CP11011D

CP11011F
Storage Drivers
Motherboard
Storage drivers such as hard drives, optical drives and
floppy drives all connect to the motherboard via cables The motherboard is a printed circuit that is the foundation
and is mounted inside the computer. of a computer and allows the CPU, RAM, and all other
computer hardware components to function with each
IDE & SATA Cables: Fig 6 shows two hard disk drives other as on fig 8.
that connect in different ways to the motherboard. One
uses the older IDE cable connection while the other uses Fig 8
SATA(Serial Advanced Technology Attachment) cable
which provides for faster hard drive access.
Fig 6
CP11011G

The motherboard is the primary component of the entire

system. A mother board is a large board containing a
number of tiny electronic circuits and other components
"www. dget.gov.in" are visible. All peripheral devices are connected to the
motherboard. The components of the motherboard are:
CP11011E

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• Keyboard / mouse port This means you can upgrade to a newer version of DOS
without changing the BIOS. PC BIOS that can handle
• Parallel and Serial port Plug-and-Play (PnP)devices are known as PnPBIOS,
These BIOS are always implemented with flash memory
• Processor Socket
rather than ROM.
• AGP Slot CMOS Battery
• PCI Slots CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor) is
the term usually used to describe the small amount of
• ISA Slot
memory on a computer motherboard that stores the BIOS
• CMOS Battery settings.
Most CMOS batteries will last the lifetime of a
• Data Card Connector
motherboard (up to 10 years in most cases) but will
• Memory Slots sometimes need to be replaced. Incorrect or slow system
date and time and loss of BIOS settings are major signs
• Floppy Port of a dead or dying CMOS battery.
• Fan Header ISA slot: (Industry Standard Architecture) It is the
standard architecture of the Expansion bus. Motherboard
• Main Power Connector may contain some slots to connect ISA compatible cards.
PCI slot : Intel introduced the Peripheral Component
Floppy Port :The floppy drive connects to the computer Interconnect bus protocol. The PCI bus is used to
via a 34-pin ribbon cable, which in turn connects to the connect I/O devices to the main logic of the computer.
motherboard. A floppy controller is one that is used to PCI bus has replaced the ISA bus. PC motherboards
control the floppy drive. have one PCI slot but generally more than one.
RAM slots: Random-Access Memory (RAM) stores The PCI bus architecture is a processor-independent bus
programs and data currently being used by the CPU. specification that allows peripherals to access system
RAM is measured in units called bytes. RAM has been memory directly without using the CPU.
packaged in many different ways AGP slot: The Accelerates Graphics Port (AGP) is a
• SIMM-Single inline memory module -32 or 72 Pin high-speed point-to-point channel for attaching a video
card to a computer's motherboard.
• DIMM- Dual Inline Memory module -168 pin.
Power supply plug in
In most of the PC's uses of the DIMM module
The Power supply, as its name implies, provides the
ROM BIOS Chip: This means Read Only Memory Basic necessary electrical power to make the PC (Personal
Input-Output System. Computer) operate. The power supply takes standard
110-V AC power and converts into +/-12-Volt, +/-5-Volt,
The built-in software that determines what a computer
and 3.3-Volt DC power. The power supply connector has
can do without accessing programs from a disk. On PCs,
20-pins, and the connector can go in only one direction.
the BIOS contains all the code required to control the
keyboard, display screen, disk drives, Hard Disk and Partitions
serialcommunications, and a number of miscellaneous
Partitioning is a process of dividing the Hard disk into
functions.
several chunks, and uses any one of the portion or
The BIOS is typically placed in a ROM chip that comes partition to install OS or use two or more partitions to
with the computer (it is often called a ROM BIOS). This install multiple OS..
ensures that the BIOS will always be available and will
But it can always have one partition, and use up the
not be damaged by disk failures.
entire Hard disk space to install a single OS, but this will
It also makes it possible for a computer to boot itself. become data management nightmare for users of large
Because RAM is faster than ROM, though, many Hard disks.
computer manufacturers design systems so that the
Now, because of the structure of the Master Boot Record
BIOS is copied from ROM to RAM each time the
(MBR), has only four partitions, and these four partitions
computer is booted. This is known asshadowing.
are called Primary Partitions.
Many modern PCs have flash BIOS, which means that
Extended Partition is not a usable partition by itself,
the BIOS have been recorded on a flash memory chip,
but it's like a "container" and it is used to hold
which can be updated if necessary. The PC BIOS is fairly
LogicalDrives!That is this Extended Partition can be
standardized, so all PCs are similar at this level (although
subdivided into multiple logical partitions.
there are different BIOS versions). Additional DOS
functions are usually added through software modules.

20 IT & ITES : COPA - (NSQF Level - 4): Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.06
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In order to boot into a Partition, it must be designated Fig 9
as bootable partition or Active Partition. Active Partition
is that partition which is flagged as bootable or which
contains OS, this is generally a Primary Partition.
Types of Partitions:
• Master

• Partition

• Extended and

• Logical Extended
Master Boot Record (MBR): MBR is a small 512 bytes
partition which is at the first physical sector of the hard
disk. The location is denoted as CHS 0,0,1 meaning 0th
Cylinder, 0th Head and 1st Sector.
MBR contains a small program known as bootstrap POST - POST stands for Power OnSelf Test. POST
program which is responsible for booting into any OS. checks all the hardware devices connected to a computer
MBR also contains a table known as Partition Table. like RAM, hard disk etc and make sure that the system
This Partition Table is a table which lists the available can run smoothly with those hardware devices. If the
Primary Partitions in the hard disk. Partition table POST is a failure the system halts with a beep sound.
considers whole Extended Partition as one Primary Now BIOS checks the boot priority. We can set the
partition and lists it in the table! boot priority as CD drive, hard disk or floppy drive.
So a Partition table can have two possible entries:- MBR - The next duty of BIOS is to read the MBR. MBR
• Up to 4 Primary Partitions. stands for Master Boot Record and it's the first sector on
a hard disk. MBR contains the partition table and boot
• Up to 3 Primary Partitions and 1 Extended loader.
Partition.(Total not exceeding 4) .
Functions of Boot loader
Partition Boot Sector (PBR): This is the logical first
Now BIOS has passed the control to boot loader and
sector, that is sector at the start of a Primary Partition.
boot loader is a small program which loads kernel to
This is also 512 byte area, which contains some programs
computers memory. Actually there are two stages of boot
to initialize or run OS files. All Primary Partitions have
loaders, stage 1 boot loader and stage 2 boot loader.
its own PBRs.
The stage 1 boot loaderis a link to the stage 2 boot loader.
Extended Boot Sector (EBR): This is the logical first
The stage 2 boot loader resides in the boot partition and
sector, that is the sector at the start of the Extended
it loads the kernel to memory.
Partition. This EBR contains a Partition Table, which lists
the available Logical Partitions inside Extended Partition. Boot files and functions
That is it contains the Starting addresses of each Logical
There are three boot files in a Windows operating system
Partitions.
and they are NTLDR, NTDETECT.COM and Boot.ini.
Logical Extended Boot Sector (LEBR): This is the The boot files are found in the active partition of hard
logical first sector residing at the start of each Logical disk and its normally C drive in a Windows machine.
Partition. This is similar to PBR for Primary Partitions.
NTLDR - NTLDR stands for NT Loader and it's the
Booting second stage boot loader. The path of NTLDR is
C:\Windows\i386\NTLDR.
Booting is a process of loading the operating system
(OS) and checking all the system software and hardware Boot.ini - Boot.ini contains the configuration files of
those are installed in the computer. NTLDR. When the operating system is loaded we cannot
pass any arguments to kernel, so those arguments are
Booting procedure of Windows operating system
passed through boot.ini. You can edit boot.ini by opening
Functions of BIOS through notepad. The path of Boot.ini is C:\boot.ini.
The first process starts, when the computer switched on NTDETECT.COM
Basic Input Output System (BIOS) perform two functions,
This file detects hardware's and passes information to
to conduct POST and read MBR (Fig 9).
NTLDR. Using the collected information the NTLDR
creates a hardware key and this key is used to detect
hardware's.

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A new hardware key is generated after each reboot of the • Voltage from chemical reactions
operating system and that's why system asks to reboot
after installation of a new hardware. The hardware keys Measuring voltage: Voltage exists between any two
created by NTLDR can be found in Windows registry at points with different levels of charge. Voltage between
HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE ' HARDWARES. any two points can be measured using an instrument
called VOLTMETER. Meters used to measure current is
Kernel and its functions called Ammeter. There are meters which can be used to
After executing the functions of boot files the control is measure voltage and current and a few other electrical
passed to Kernel. ntoskrnal.exe is the kernel file in a parameters like resistance. Such meters are called
Windows machine and its path is C:\Windows\system MULTIMETERS.
32\ntoskrnal.exe. Types of voltage: As discussed in above paragraphs there
Kernel acts as a layer between software and hardware. are several sources by which voltage can be developed.
The library file hal.dll (C;\Windows\system32\hal.dll) helps Depending upon the voltage source, the voltage developed
Kernel to interact with hardware's. HAL stands for Hardware can be,
Abstraction Layer and this hal.dll file is machine specific. Direct voltage: It is of constant magnitude. It remains at
Now the drivers for hardware's are loaded from the file the same amplitude from the moment it is switched ON
C:\Windows\system32\config\system and the Kernel is till the moment it is switched - OFF.
loaded to primary memory. Alternating voltage: In this type, voltage source changes
Services and log in procedure its polarity regularly and therefore the direction of
developed voltage.
When kernel is loaded in the primary memory, services
for each process is started and the registry entry for those A mixed voltage is a combination of direct voltage and
services can be found at HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE - alternating voltage. The level of voltage is not constant.
System - Current control set - Services. It varies around a mean value.

Winlogon.exe (C:\Windows\system32\winlogon.exe) is Electric Current: Electric current is produced when

the last service started during this process. electric charges move in a definite direction. This
Winlogon.exe starts the log in procedures of windows movement is not only of negative charges but also of
machine. It first calls the library file msgina.dll positive charges. The strength of electric current is the
(C:\Windows\system32\msgina.dll). quantity of charge which flows across a given cross
section of a conductor every second. The unit of current
MSGINA stands for Microsoft Graphics Identification and strength is Ampere.
Authentication and it provides the log in window. Now
msginal.dll passes the control to LSA (Local Security Current strength = Quantity of charge/time
Authority), it verifies the username and password from Measuring current: Electric current is the flow of charge,
the SAM file. SAM (Security Accounts Manager) contains in a conductor. So, to measure current must pass through
the information about all users created in a Windows the measuring device. The current measuring instrument
operating system. is called the ammeter of the current meter. There are
Now the booting procedure is over and it has reached different types of ammeters used for measuring different
the desktop of Windows operating system. quantities of current.

Voltage: Every electric charge is capable of doing work Types of current: Voltage causes electrical current to
by moving another charge either by attraction or by flow. If the cause of current flow is a direct voltage source,
repulsion. This ability of a charge to do work represents then the current caused by its called direct current (d.c).
its potential. Voltage is generated by the separation of On the otherhand, then the current caused is referred as
charges. Voltage or electric potential is the state of the alternating current. If a mixed voltage AC and DC) is
separated charges striving to neutralize each other. The applied to an electrical circuit, a mixed current (AC and
unit of electric potential is volt. Potential difference is DC) will flow through the circuit.
necessary to cause flow of electric current. Types of power supply: Irrespective of how the
Methods of voltage generation: Voltage can be generated electricity is generated, electricity can be classified into
by several ways. Some methods of generating coltage two types.
are: • Alternating current, generally known as AC supply.
• Voltage from friction • Direct current, generally known as DC supply.
• Voltage from moving magnets or coils AC supply: The term alternating current supply is given to
• Voltage from pressure or tension in crystals a supply source that makes current to flow through a circuit
which reverses or alternates its direction periodically.
• Voltage from heat

• Voltage from light

22 IT & ITES : COPA - (NSQF Level - 4): Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.06
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Advantages of AC supply recorders etc., Hence such gadgets does not need earth
pin/point on the socket.
• Reduced transmission loss over long distances.
Iron box, washing machines, drill guns, Desk top computer
• Voltage levels can be changed using simple devices invariably need sockets with provision of earth pin, because
called transformers. of the possibility of shock while using these equipments.
Hence such equipments/gadgets make use of AC mains
• Reduced severity of electrical shock.
socket with earth.
• Generating equipments are simple and cheaper Connection of 3-pin AC mains socket: Fig 11 shows
• Can be easily converted to DC supply. how the main supply is connected to the socket.

DC supply: The term direct current supply is given to a Fig11

supply source that makes current to flow through a circuit
in one direction only. Example of DC supply is batteries.
Some types of generators are also designed to give d.c.
supply. Such generators are called DC generators.
Low tension (LT) voltage: The domestic voltage of 240
volts AC (generated and supplied by hydro or Thermal
or Nuclear generating stations) is called the low tension
(LT) voltage. LT lines enters residential buildings from
electricity poles called as service connection. This 240
volts is used to light up the lamps, run fans etc in homes.
To connect electrical appliances at home, 240V AC is
available in either two-pin or three - pin sockets. This LT Note that in a AC outlet be it a 2-pin or a 3-pin phase is
voltage of 240 volts, 50Hz is also used to supply electrical always connected to the socket through a switch. This
and electronic gadgets such as Iron box, washing prevents the users from getting electrical shock when the
machine, personal computer etc. switch is put in off position.
Phase, Neutral and Earth points of LT supply: The The standard voltage appearing across the 3-pin terminals
domestic AC mains supply of 240V, 50Hz, is available is shown in Fig12
at consumers residence either in a 2-pin outlet (Phase -
Neutral) or in a 3-pin outlet (phase -Neutral and Ground). Fig 12
These are commercially referred to as 2/3 pin sockets.
These sockets look similar to the ones shown in Fig. 10.

Fig 10

The voltages across the pins of the socket can be measured

using an AC voltmeter or a multimeter in AC volts range.
Phase: The line or phase point in a socket, can be termed
as the point from where the electricity starts flowing into a As a quick test to find out whether or not a socket is
closed circuit. delivering the AC supply as required, a simple instrument
called line tester which looks similar to a small screw
Neutral: The neutral point in the socket, can be termed driver can be used. This instrument will have a small
as the point which receives electricity from the closed bulb in it which glows if it is touched to the phase pin in
circuit. the socket. Ask your instructor to demonstrate the use of
Earth / Ground: The ground (some call it Earth) point in such line tester to check a AC mains socket.
an electrical socket provides the easiest path for the Most Desk top computers need AC mains supply for its
leakage current and other minor electrical defect currents operation. Although the mains supply available in the 3-
of appliances. pin socket shown above can be used, mostly this AC
Two pin mains sockets are used to supply main to such supply is cleaned fro spikes before connecting to
equipments or apparatus or gadgets generally having its computers. The device used for cleaning the spikes in the
cabinets/chassis made of plastic such as radio, tape mains AC supply are called Spike Arrestors or Spike
busters.

IT & ITES : COPA - (NSQF Level - 4): Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.06 23
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Computers are used with spike busters because, AC spikes Power supply in computers: Power supply unit in
are likely to damage the costly computers. In addition to computers are firmly fitted on the processing unit cabinet
spike busters, most computers use other power safety using torx screws. Generally there will be four such screws
devices called the voltage stabilizers and uninterrupted fitted to fix the power supply init in the cabinet.
power supplies.

24 IT & ITES : COPA - (NSQF Level - 4): Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.06
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