Issues in Applied Linguistics and Language Teaching, Vol. 1 No.1, June 2017 pp.

27-35
Efendi, Language Contact: The Emergence of Pidgin and Creole

LANGUAGE CONTACT: THE EMERGENCE OF

PIDGINS AND CREOLE ENGLISHES

Arapa Efendi
Universitas Internasional Batam
arapa.efendi@uib.ac.id

Abstract
Pidgins and creoles (P/Cs) languages are generally emerged from the practical
situation of interlinguistic communication. Thus, for the sake of communication
some people may unconsciously create a new language which has simpler
structure than the normal language. Concerning that issue, this paper focuses to
describe pidgins and creoles (P/Cs) languages including its characteristics.
Further, this paper tries to explore the developmental stages of pidgin and creoles
languages, and to find out some factors which might cause them to emerge.
However, the scope of this paper is limited under the discussion of pidgin and
creoles based English or known as pidgin and creoles Englishes.
Keywords: Pidgin and Creole (P/Cs), interlinguistic communication,
sociolinguistic aspect, pidgin and creoles Englishes.

Introduction emerge as the result of language contact

The term language contact is defined as especially direct contact. However, it is
the circumstance where two or more important to note that not all language
languages meet within interlinguistic contacts result in pidgin and creoles.
communication. Thus, under this condition Pidgins and creoles are normally
people with different languages may developed by the communities who speak
switch their language from one language different languages. At this point, in order
to another language, mix different to facilitate the communication, the
languages during conversation, and even communities purposively change their
borrow lexical items of the new language languages by using new codes that are
to their language. However, Jendra (2010) regarded to have simpler grammar and
in ‘Language Contact’ mentions that vocabulary. In the meantime, the grammar
language contact is divided into two. The of a language may be possibly developed
first is direct contacts, it occurs when the and simplified over the time.
speakers of the languages directly meet in
person, for instance the colonialization in However, there is misleading assumption
the past. The second is distant contacts; it that pidgin and creoles are usually drawn
refers indirectly through the mass media upon one specific language; English based
(magazines, TV, internet, etc.). pidgin, Creole French, and so on. In fact,
one could say that there is not just one
What is the relation of pidgin and creoles English based pidgin in the world since
language with language contact? Based on there are several different pidgins spread
the above concepts, pidgin and creoles all over the world.
languages are the language changes that
27
 Efendi, Language Contact: The Emergence of Pidgin and Creole

To define, Sebba (1997) assumes that When a pidgin is learned by the children
pidgins are language without native as their first language and is officially
speakers learnt by bilingual people. Thus, used in a wide range of domains, it then
the words ‘without native speakers’ there turns out to be called a creole. It is, by
implies that it is naturally evolved under definition, a pidgin which has been
special conditions. It likely occurs when acquired by the native speakers. In fact,
people with different languages are there have been many pidgins, in most
communicating where the third language cases, become a new officially established
emerges, that is the pidgin language. language or simply called creole within
Furthermore, Holm (1980) defines pidgin community. For instance, Tok Piksin now
as: becomes the official language of Papua
New Guniea. This ‘Tok Piksin’ actually
“a reduced language that results from begins with the pidgins of Papua New
extended contact between groups of Guinea before it becomes a creole
people with no language in common; language. It is developed as the creole
it evolves when they need some means language since it has been largely learned
of verbal communication, perhaps for as the first language by most of speakers,
trade, but no group learns the native and has developed to meet their linguistic
language of any other group for social needs that is to speak.
reasons that may include lack of trust
or of close contact” (P 4). Unlike pidgins, a Creole has expanded its
structure and vocabulary to a wide range
Initially, pidgin develops purposively. To of meanings and facilitates the range of
illustrate, take a look at the case in South functions required of a first language.
China where an English based pidgin Still in contrast to pidgins, Creole
emerged as the result of trading contacts languages develop more specific, and
among Chinese speakers and English systematic to mention the meaning, for
speaking traders. In order to communicate instance verb and tenses which might
with each other, they developed pidgins develop into inflections or affixes over
based on the language of the English time. To describe, let’s see Holmes’s
traders as well as their own languages. Australian Roper River Creole:
Another example is seen in Holmes Im megim ginu refers to he makes a
(1992) that during the colonial time in the canoe (present tense), im bin* megim
nineteenth century, people on slave ginu refers to the past tense of he made a
plantation area pidgins emerged as the canoe, im begimbad* ginu which refers to
mixed up language based between the the present continuous of he is making a
plantation bosses’ language as well as the canoe (Homes, 1992: 95).
indigenous ones.
As seen above that Creole language
To sum up shortly, pidgins are developed develops into the complexity that might be
from the reduced and simplified form of a more than just pidgins with its simplified
language spoken by people with different and reduced forms. The example above
languages. To illustrate, let us see the shows how the additional bin* may signal
comparison between English into its new the past tense. Meanwhile the suffix bad*
form namely Papua New Guinea Pidgin, added to the verb which may signal the
the word supposes in English simplified continuous aspects. Therefore, it is shown
into sapos, start as in stat, catch him that a Creole is more than a pidgin, it
becomes kisim (Culperer et all, 2009: develops a systematic way of concisely
394). However, each different language expressing additional meanings.
normally contributes to the grammatical
Discussion
features, vocabulary, sounds, and the
other features to make up the new variety
English-lexicon pidgins and creoles around
of a language.
the world

28
 Efendi, Language Contact: The Emergence of Pidgin and Creole

conjunction that which may not exist while

As what mentioned earlier that pidgins and it is still a pidgin.
creoles languages result from
interlinguistic communications where In another case, in Africa many English-
people with different language and even lexicon creoles normally developed from
no language in common try to create a the system of slavery and slave plantation
medium communication. For instance, in which was practiced by European and
China English based pidgin emerged as American colonies. However, in western
the result of trading contacts between part of Africa, English based pidgins are
native speakers of Chinese and English still spoken and even it may develop as the
speaking traders. This pidgin was creoles language. To illustrate, Krio is the
language with its simplified and limited first language which was initially
vocabulary, suited to its limited functions. considered as the English based pidgin.
Further, in Papua New Guinea, there is And, now it turns to be the first language
also English based pidgin (New Guinea for most people in Sierra Leone.
Pidgin) which now develops as creoles
language. It means that it has become first In the other English colonies of Caribbean,
and official language of Papua New creoles languages emerged during the
Guinea, and later is known by its given slavery period and become the first
name Tok Piksin. As somewhat found in language for the majority of population.
English based pidgin in Chinese, Tok Going further, English-lexicon creoles are
Piksin is also known as a language with its spoken as the vernacular language in
limited vocabulary and simplified Jamaica, Trinidad, Grenada, and some
structure. Here is some example of Tok smaller islands.
Piksin language
Meanwhile, pidgins and creoles spoken in
Europe emerged as the result of migration
from former colonies of Europe countries.
Table 2.1. Tok Piksin Language It has created and brought creoles to many
cities in Europe. For instance, one may hear
Tok Jamaican or other Carribean creoles spoken
Tok Piksin Standard in London, Birmingham, and other cities in
Piksin
Pidgin English England. Jamaican Creole are normally
Creole
Mi no save. Mi no save I didn’t know used as the language if Reggae lyric (one of
Ol I wokim oslem* Ol that they built the newborn music genres) and ‘hip-hop.’
dispela I wokim this house Therefore, it may sound familiar to people
haus dispela in many countries even though it is not
haus commonly used as everyday language.

1.1. Developmental stages of pidgins and

*(source: Mc.Mahon as cited by Jendra in creole languages
Sociolinguistics; The Study of Society’s
Languages, 2010:152) Pidgins and Creole languages (P/Cs) may
emerge through several developmental
As what illustrated above, pidgin language stages. Sebba (1997) as cited in Culpeper
tends to reduce grammatical structure to a mentions at least two ‘transitional stages’
minimum of a language origin and it has a of pidgins and creole languages namely
very limited vocabulary. In the Tok Piksin ‘territary hybridization stage’ and
pidgin there is even an omission process of ‘creolization’ (P 391).
the word that. Meanwhile, when it
develops into creoles, it has more stable Table 2.2 Stages of Pidgin and Creole
grammar, even it is simplified one. One Development
might find that the word oslem* in the Tok Stage Characteristics Example
Piksin Creole indicates the subordinating
29
 Efendi, Language Contact: The Emergence of Pidgin and Creole

Unstable grammar Russenor In ‘tertiary hybridization’ the emergence of

and vocabulary, very sk early pidgin is marked when speakers of
limited function, (extinct different indigenous language attempt to speak
Rudime used in occasional or Russian- by using a version of the lexifier language
ntary casual contact Norwegia with the native speakers of the lexifier, then it
Pidgin between two groups; n becomes the medium for native speaker-non-
no native speakers seasonal native speaker communication (Culpeper,
fisherman 2009:391). When speakers of indigenous
’s pidgin) language use pidgin to speak among
Tertiary Hybridization themselves, they consequently use pidgin as a
Regularized, stable lingua franca, and therefore speakers of the
grammar and lexifier are no longer involved. It means, the
Early lexifier is neither serving as a model of a
vocabulary,
Stable New conversation because pidgin has taken its
somewhat larger
Pidgin Guinea place within communication.
range of functions, in
Pidgin
widespread use; no
native speakers On the other hand, the second transition
Regularized, stable process ‘creolization’ emerges when a pidgin
grammar and turns out to be a creole. Admittedly, Appel and
vocabulary, wide Muysken (1987) in ‘Language Contact and
range functions, Bilingualism’ define a Creole as a language
possibly used for which is actually derived from pidgin
literature, education Tok acquiring by native speakers. As for this
Extende and administration, Piksin, reason, a creolization is a process when pidgin
d/Expan may be main West is acquired by the native speakers, and this
ded language (but usually African pidgin is then changing to be more and more
Pidgin not only language) in Pidgin developed. A Creole will develop as the
a community; may English. changing of pidgin made to the base of
have some native language, and however this process may occur
speakers; may be within one generation or two which is
developing different considerably a very short time in a language
stylistic registers for development. One might say that Creole
different functions naturally emerges as a new language passed
Creolization down from generation to the next generation,
Has grammar which spoken as the first language within new born
is stable and has community. One best example to illustrate is
stylistic registers like the ‘Tok Piksin’ language which is now
any other language; established as the first language and official
Jamaican language in Papua New Guinea.
wide range of
Creole, In addition to that, Muhlhausler (1986),
functions;
Krio, proposes the following model to outline the
vocabulary sufficient
Creole Sranan developmental process from pidgin to creole.
for all the functions
Tongo,
for which the
many
language is used; has
others Jargon
a community of
speakers for whom it
is a first (possibly Stable Expanded
only) language. Creole
Pidgin Pidgin

*(Source: Culpeper’s English Language; (Jendra, 2010:151)

Description, Variation, and Context, 2009:
302)

30
 Efendi, Language Contact: The Emergence of Pidgin and Creole

Muhlhausler puts jargon as the base of stable deal regularly with pidginized varieties of their
pidgin before it becomes the expanded pidgin languages and speak them very badly. Thus,
and turns out to be a creole. Even so, not all of they likely fail to understand some basic
the creoles emerge with the similar process as structural characteristics of the pidgin itself.
Tok Piksin for there are some of them have not One thing that is quite important here to
been fully documented. Culpeper (2009) underline is that pidgins, according to
illustrates that it is quite questionable whether Wardhaugh, are not resulted as the
a creole emerges very rapidly as well. For imperfection of learning standard languages,
instance, it may be because English planters but rather because it emerges as the speakers
settled in Surinam that may cause the lack of either the ability or the opportunity to
emergence of English-lexicon creole. learn the standard varieties thoroughly.
However, after that the Ducth came and
replaced the English, the plantation slaves In spite of such underestimating theory, there
were found to speak Sranan which is very are two theories for the origins of pidgins and
much English rather than Ducth lexicon-crole. creoles that are quite sufficient. They are
Hence, it is not really clear to say that all namely polygenetic and monogenetic theory
creoles may emerge through the gradual (see Wardhaugh, 2002: 73). ‘Polygenetic
process as Tok Piksin. To make it through, theory’ outlines that pidgins and creoles may
Thomason and Kaufman (1988) as cited by have a variety of origins; and if there are any
Culpeper propose what so called ‘abrupt similarities among them, it merely because
creolization,’ it is the process where the there are the shared circumstances of their
community who speak creole arises before a origins. For instance, the English based
stable pidgin has had time to emerge (P 392). pidgins may have certain simplified forms that
have developed independently in a number of
Controversial issues and theories of the places. It formerly because the speakers of
origins English attempt to make themselves
understood by simplifying their language for
Pidgins and Creoles (P/Cs) around different certain purposes, so that they could be
parts of the world may have remarkable understood.
similarities grammatically; even they come
from different standard languages they are Unlike polygenetic theory, ‘monogenetic
associated to. Further, the idea that pidgins theory’ attempts to examine the very
arise because of imperfect language learning beginnings of the pidginization process. This
or lack ability to learn the standard languages theory also suggests that the monogenetic
may sometimes be associated with another theory suggests that the similarities may be
one. Perhaps, it becomes the underlying reason found in the pidgins and therefore all pidgins
for the controversial terms ‘foreigner-talk’ or have a common origin. McWhorter (1995) as
‘baby-talk’ which seems to underestimate cited in Wardhaugh illustrates how the
people with indigenous language as they are beginnings of the slave trade and the existence
likely associated to be ‘inferior’ and that of English and French slave forts on the West
Western language is ‘better’ than others African Coast where the language contact
because many people speak ‘primitive developed. This contact language then
language’ (See Wardhaugh, 2002: 73). provided the bases for most of the pidgins and
creoles languages.

On the contrary, there is no valid evidence for In addition to what mentioned earlier,
the terms ‘foreigner-talk’ or ‘baby-talk’ theory creolization may involve some significant
as the origin of pidgins and creoles which changes; word-formation, sentence structures,
assumes that the simplified forms, emerged as regularization of the speech sounds, and
the result that Europeans simplify their stabilization of vocabulary enrichment.
languages to communicate with others, serve Therefore, such changes may require the term
to provide pidgins with their basic structures ‘relexification’ to explain. ‘Relexification’ is
and vocabularies. In fact, it seems to be the the theory that provides an explanation to the
other way around that many Westerners must fact that pidgins and creoles associated with
31
 Efendi, Language Contact: The Emergence of Pidgin and Creole

different standard languages may have a c.) Lack of some ‘less essential’ word
certain common structural features; even to classes (the absence of the article
some degree they are quite different in –a and the and even the copula or
vocabularies. to be in some circumstances.
d.) Lack of some grammatical
constructions (i.e. ‘passive
Linguistic characteristics of pidgins and voice’).
creoles e.) It normally stands in only one
word order, therefore the word
Two key terms while trying to describe order will not require any change
characteristics of pidgins and creoles are as it does in English (e.g. in Tok
‘simplification’ and ‘reduction’ compared to Piksin Yu kukim wanem? Means
the lexifier and substrate languages. Formerly, ‘what are you cooking?’).
it emerges as the result when communities
attempt to communicate one another. Perhaps Lexical simplification and reduction
the communities change their language into a
new code that has simpler grammar and It has been previously mentioned that
vocabulary. vocabulary pidgins and creoles are normally
reduced compared to its lexifier. Thus, to
make it so, one speaker of pidgin or creole
Phonological simplification. language may get to have synonyms in a
sentence. For instance, in the Tok Piksin, the
Culpeper (2009) describes some typical forms word *stret has the very various meanings;
of simplification in the sound system. They are ‘straight, flat, exactly, honest, and correct.’
presented as follows. Even so, to some degree, it may require
a.) Avoidance of multi-syllable words ‘semantic simplicity’ and ‘transpaperncy’ To
(preference will be given to the illustrate, there are some basic prepositions,
words of three syllables or less.) for example in Tok Piksin the word long (‘in,
b.) Avoidance consonant clusters by on, at…’).
dropping consonants or inserting
vowels (e.g. tan to refer ‘stand’ in However, there are also some that might deal
Sranan) with ‘morphology.’ Derivational morphology
c.) Avoidance of the ‘difficult’ sound as in he building of more complex nouns and
(i.e. English <th> (=//,//) often verb from the basic parts are very limited and
becomes /d/,/t/. perhaps more transparent in terms of its
meaning than in English (Culpeper, 2009:
Grammatical simplification 393).

It may be the very clearer changing in pidgins To further illustrate, I shall give you an
language as it often simplifies the grammar example how a pidgin may be both like and
and structure of the lexifier. Some very different from its lexifier. The table
characteristics of grammatical simplifications below will present the simplified and
are described as follows: reduction emerged.
a.) Lack of inflections (the past tense
marker –ed and plural marker –s Some multiple differences between Tok Piksin
are often omitted in pidgin and and English are presented as follows:
creole languages.  Phonological: Simplification,
b.) Use separate words to indicate e.g. kisim, sak
tenses (e.g. in Tok Piksin the word  Grammatical: the suffix –im is
baimbai indicates the future, required on the verb when it has
whereas the word bin (derived an object
from English been) is used to  Semantic: belong is
mark past tense.) reinterpreted as a preposition

32
 Efendi, Language Contact: The Emergence of Pidgin and Creole

meaning ‘of’. Devil, which in has limited command in their language ─ for
western theology is a very example ─ English which may dominate the
specific kind of (evil) spirit, is language contact over African language.
reinterpreted with a more general Hence, there is the emergence of pidgin based
meaning, which is not English. The characteristics of ‘foreign talk’
necessarily negative. are mentioned as follows (Culpeper, 2009:
395):
 Use of a limited
The origins of pidgin and creole vocabulary; replacing with
characteristic the simpler ones
Although it is not really clear that the  Use of simple grammar,
fundamental issue has never been e.g., omitting tense
observed before, but there are some markers, the verb to be and
sufficient guesses by linguist that are not other less essential items
really objective because they are based on such as the inflections –ed
the historical facts on how pidgins and in past tense or –s/-es for
creoles emerge and develop overtime. plural nouns
However there are some factors noted here  Using short phrases and
how pidgins and creoles occur. doing frequent
understanding checks.
Imperfect second language learning
Linguistic universals
It is common that all pidgins and creoles
derive most of their vocabularies from one It is about the idea that has been widely
language that is called ‘lexifier’. The lexifier accepted within linguistic that all languages
mentioned here is commonly what so called must have certain common properties.
‘superior language’ that is the language which Therefore, human children may possibly learn
has the domination over the indigenous any language that they have to. Unfortunately,
language, or the language which colonizes the it is quite difficult to see how those common
indigenous language. For instance, in China properties are manifested in language. Even
English based pidgins emerge when there is so, there is one way to see some features of
interaction between Chinese and English language through phonological,
speaking traders, or the plantation owners who morphological, and syntactic as well. By doing
were exactly English in the Caribbean islands so, perhaps it makes as ‘easier’ to learn those
and the slave traders in parts of West Africa. shared common properties.

What mentioned as the imperfect second Layers of lexical development

language learning is that the indigenous people
try to learn the language of colonizers (e.g. Pidgins and creoles (P/Cs) may have complex
English, French, Ducth, etc), in circumstances histories since they develop over the time, let
where they do not seem to speak it perfectly us say that they might develop or change along
(Culpeper, 2009:394). However, to say that it with contact with different colonizers. This
is ‘imperfect second language learning’ is problem may be found in the lexicon of the
quite debatable because it emerges as the P/Cs itself. Even if you might see that
speakers lack of either the ability or the everyday use of language is typically derived
opportunity to learn the standard varieties from just one language or called ‘lexifier’,
thoroughly. there are such mixed up or contributions from
other language as well which can be linked to
Foreigner Talk specific historical times when a pidgin or
creole develops. I take only some data in Tok
The term ‘foreigner talk’ refers to the name of Piksin Language to illustrate:
the ‘talk’ given to ‘foreign hearer’. However,
it is the talk when ‘foreign hearer’ is
confronted to communicate with a person who
33
 Efendi, Language Contact: The Emergence of Pidgin and Creole

English I: The word ‘older’ layer of English Here, there is such evidence of
words in Tok Piksin tend to be short, common dialectical forms which appear in
and have been adapted to thesound patterns of particular pidgins or creoles.
indigenous languages,.e.g., han ‘hand’, het
‘head’, kis(im) ‘get’ (from English catch) To illustrate, it is better to take a look at the
table 2.6.1 below that shows vocabulary items
English II: More recent words of English from Tok Piksin (New Guinea Pidgin), their
origin are similar to loan words in other meanings and English sources.
languages, having less adaptation and usually
having meaning related to new concepts or Tok Meaning Source
technology: teprikoda ‘tape recorder’, Piksin
aubotmota ‘out board motor’, edukeit(im) word
‘educate’. Bagarap Spoil, ruin Bugger
(Culpeper, 2009:396) up
As Buttock, base, Arse
A ‘layered’ model of pidgin and creole cause, origin
development Kok Penis cock

When talking about ‘layered’ model in pidgin Pispis Urinate Piss

and creole development, frequently we may baimbai Future tense By and
associate it with the terms ‘substrate’ and marker by
‘superstrate’ that are used in studying P/Cs. (grammatical)
The term substrate refers or ‘bottom layer’ stap Stay, continue stop
refers to the indigenous language or an inferior to do
language whose speakers are the dominated something
people. They mostly make up the majority of
language. Meanwhile, the ‘superstrate’ or ‘top (Culpeper (2009:397)
layer’ is the same as ‘lexifier’ and it refers to
the language of colonizers or dominant group. Substrate contribution
Superstrate contribution ‘Substrate’ means the language other than
lexifier, and are normally an indigenous
Supperstrate is where the most vocabularies language spoken in the region where pidgin
derived from. It is the source of vocabularies, originates or becomes lingua franca. Take the
and some of the grammar. It is important to case of New Guinea Pidgin (Tok Piksin) the
emphasize here that English which formed its substrate is formed by the languages of New
superstrate is different from modern standard Guinea which is quite numerous. However,
English in at least three important ways: it’s needless to say that the first language os
speakers have some great influence as well on
(i) Historical the pidgin as it emerges.
The forms of English date from an
earlier period of the language
(ii) Social
Conclusions
The speakers of English who are
most likely to have influenced a
To sum up, there is such a mistake in viewing
developing pidgin were sailors or
P/Cs languages, that the speakers of
labourers, who wouldn’t have had
indigenous language are assumed trying to
acess to ‘educated’ vocabulary
speak the lexifier language but then they fail
and prescribed forms of grammar.
very badly. If we take it into account from this
Evidence of non-standard
standpoint, a pidgin may be associated as ‘bad
(stigmatized) form is common
English’. In fact, a pidgin is perfectly
(iii) Regional
grammatical in its own terms and thus it is
only ‘wrong’ when one tries to compare it
34
 Efendi, Language Contact: The Emergence of Pidgin and Creole

with something that it is not meant to be.

Another case is when it sounds to hearers who
know the lexifier language to have simplified
grammar like grammar of a child.

There the term ‘baby talk’ originates.

However, it is rather unfair to label these
languages (P/Cs) as the ‘baby talk’ since it has
its own rules or grammars, and the speakers
fail to follow the lexifier because they only
attempt to communicate without having
enough time to learn it. They speak because
they are forced with the need to communicate,
in fact they have different tongues with the
hearers. The term ‘baby talk’ exist withing
colonial periods and it may occur as the result
of racist attitude towards indigenous people
who were the speakers of pidgins and creole.

References
Appel, Rene and Musken, Pieter. (1987).
Language Contact and Bilingualism.
Great Britain: Edward Arnold
Culpeper, Jonathan et al. (2009). English
Language; Description, Variations, and
Contexts. New York: Palgrave
Macmillan.
Holmes Janet. (1992). An Introduction to
Sociolinguistics. New York: Longman
Jendra, Made Iwan Indrawan. (2010).
Sociolinguistics; The Study of Societies’
Languages. Yogyakata: Graha Ilmu
Mühlhäusler, P. (1986). Pidgin and Creole
Linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell.
Sebba, Mark. (1997). Contact Languages:
Pidgins and Creoles. New York: St.
Martin Press.
Wardhaugh, Ronald. (2002). An Introduction
to Sociolinguistics 4th Edition.
Massachusetts: Balckwell.

35