A) Cell Respiration: cellular respiration is the process through which cells in plants and

animals break down glucose and turn it into energy. To create ATP and other forms of energy
needed for cellular reactions, cells need metabolism and electron acceptors.
There are two main types of cellular respiration, aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration.

Aerobic respiration occurs in the presence of oxygen to produce energy. Respiration takes
place continuously within the cells of animals and plants.
Anaerobic respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen to produce energy. (Reec4, J .et al,2011)

B) Photosynthesis: is a process that transforms the energy of sunlight energy into chemical
energy through living tissues called photosynthesis. Basically, most organisms on earth depend
on it. In the process of photosynthesis, organs such as leaves that have a green cell absorb
carbon dioxide, water and light and deliver them to the chloroplasts. The most important part of
photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts. These small photosynthesis factories buried within
the leaves house chlorophyll; a green pigment secreted in the chloroplast membranes.
(Campbell, N.A.et al.2011)

C)Movement in human sperm cell: the male sex cells are known as sperm cells. A mature
sperm cell consists of a head, a neck, a midpiece and a tail. Sperm cells contain many
mitochondria to provide them with ATP energy needed for movement. their functions to travel to
and locate an egg cell with which to merge to create another living creature.

To transport a single copy of each chromosome of the organism’s genome to the female egg
and to fertilize that egg in order to allow the paternal set of chromosomes to meet the maternal
set of chromosomes housed in the egg in order to create a full diploid genome that can develop
into a full grown and matured organism
The head houses the paternal haploid nucleus, containing the DNA.
The mitochondrion in the middle piece houses the main glycolytic metabolic system that acts as
a source of energy.
The flagellum provides motility for the sperm travelling in the canal. (Pappas, S. 2020)

D) Movement in phagocytic white blood cell: phagocytes are white blood cells the protect
the body by engulfing small cells and bacteria. These cells can move to the site of infection and
form the first line of defense, eating and destroying the invading pathogen, within the cell
lysosomes.(Libretexts,2022)

Task 2

characteristics Prokaryotic Eukaryotic

Nucleus No nuclear membrane or True nucleus, consisting of
nucleoli nuclear membrane and
nucleoli
 Cell wall Prokaryotic cell walls are Cell wall is made up of
often made of various cellulose in plant and chitin in
chemicals than fungi.

Eukaryotes.

Organelles Membrane bound organelles

Membrane bound organelles such as endoplasmic
such as endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex,
reticulum, Golgi complex, mitochondria, chloroplasts
mitochondria, chloroplasts and vacuoles are present.
and vacuoles are absent.

ribosomes 70s are size 80s, except for ribosomes of

mitochondria and
chloroplasts, which are 70s

Prokaryotic cells, such as bacteria, are single celled organisms. They are usually smaller than
eukaryotic cells and their genetic material is not enclosed in a nucleus.

Eukaryotic cells are found in animals and plants, as well as in fungi and protists. They have cell
membrane, cytoplasm and genetic material that is enclosed in a nucleus.

Both have the same kinds and sizes of Ribosome to make proteins for cells. The difference
between eukaryotic and prokaryotic ribosomes is their size. Prokaryotes have 70s ribosomes,
while eukaryotes have 80s ribosomes. Eukaryotic ribosomes are larger because they contain
more protein and RNA than prokaryotes.

Prokaryotic ribosomes contain 3 RNA molecules, while eukaryotic ribosomes contain 4 RNA
molecules.

Prokaryotic cells do not have any membrane bound organelles which are present in Eukaryotes
like nucleus, nucleolus, mitochondria, chloroplast, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus etc.

All prokaryotic and some eukaryotic cells contain cell walls. In the case of prokaryotic cells, the
cell wall is made up of Carbohydrates, lipids, protein and certain amino acids whereas the
eukaryotic cell wall is made up of chitin and cellulose. (Campbell, N.A. and Reece, J.B.2011)
Task3

Figure 1: show a diffrent between lytic vs lysogenic cycle in phage virus

Lytic cycle Lysogenic cycle

Lytic cycle is a type of viral reproduction Lysogenic cycle is a viral reproduction
mechanism, which results in the lysis of the mechanism where the viral DNA is integrated
infected cell into the host genome
viral DNA does not Viral DNA integrates
integrate into the host DNA into the host DNA
Does not allow genetic recombination in the Allows genetic recombination of the
host bacterium host bacterium

Bacteriophages are a type of virus that infects bacteria, it cannot damage human cells and only
attacks bacteria. Bacteriophages destroy their host cells.
Unlike viruses that infect eukaryotes (plants, animals, and fungi), phages are very different in
structure and function. Typically, they consist of an outer protein shell or "capsid" and enclose
the genetic material. The genetic material of phages can be RNA, but they are usually made of
double-stranded DNA. Viral DNA replicates with the host cell mechanism
The lytic and lysogenic cycle is a process by which bacteria divide. They are two different types
of viral reproduction. It is divided into two phases, the lytic phase and lysogenic phase. In the
lyrics

lytic cycle phage Bactria infect the cell

and the host cell due to infection dies after which the viruses which have multiplied using the
host cell genome take over other cell mechanism and the cycle continues.
Lysogenic cycle- On the contrary to lytic phages in this life cycle the infected cells are not dead.

The difference between lysogenic and lytic cycle is there, in lysogenic cycles reproduction of
viral DNA occurs through normal prokaryotic reproduction. (Libertexts,2022)

Task4

Nucleus: is a membraned organelle located in the center of a cell. It contains chromosomes

and genetic material DNA. The nucleus maintains the integrity of the genes which regulate the
gene expression in turn regulating the activities of the cell.

Nucleus function:
It controls the heredity characteristics of an organism.

It is responsible for protein synthesis, cell division, growth and differentiation.

Stores heredity material in the form of deoxy ribonucleic acid (DNA) strands. Also stores protein
and ribonucleic acid (RNA)in the nucleosols.

It is a site for transcription process in which messenger RNA (m RNA) are produced for protein
synthesis.

Aids in the exchange of DNA and RNA between the nucleus and the rest of the cell.

Nebulous produce ribosomes and are known as protein factories.

It also regulates the integrity of genes and gene expression.

Ribosome: ribosomes are produced in nucleolus, a component of the nucleus, and then
released into the cytoplasm where some ribosomes attach to cellular organelles such as
endoplasmic reticulum and are also found freely moving in cytosol.

Mitochondrion: mitochondria are essential components of nearly all cells in the body. These
organelles are the powerhouses for cells, providing energy to carry out biochemical reactions
and other cellular processes. Mitochondria makes energy stored in the food we eat.

Mitochondria are found in all body cells, except for a few. M mitochondria is in cytoplasm of cell
along with other organelles of the cell.

Lysosomes: lysosome is an organelle containing digestive ensymes which function as the

digestion and waste removal for cells, food particles, bacteria. The function of lysosomes is to
remove waste as well as destroying a cell after it has died, called autolysis.

Golgi apparatus: Golgi body is an organelle, consisting of layers of flattened sacs, that is
found in all Eukaryotic cells except red blood cells.

Some of the important functions of Golgi apparatus,

Processing of secretory and membrane protein.

The Golgi apparatus has an important role in secretion of polysaccharides.

It plays a vital role in information of plasma membrane.

The Golgi apparatus has an also forms certain intra-cellular structures such as
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum: the endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membrane
bound tubules and has close connections to the nucleus. It is responsible for active and passive
transport in the cells, and they are of two types, Rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth
endoplasmic reticulum.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) does not contain ribosomes. The smooth endoplasmic
reticulum looks more like tubes. The SER helps in the storage of proteins and lipids. Cells thar
produce oil have a higher ratio of SERs than do other cells. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum
can be found dispersed throughout the cytoplasm of the cell.

Cytoplasm: A cytoplasm is a thick solution that fills each cell and is enclosed by cell
membrane. It is mainly composed of water, salt and proteins. In eukaryotic cells, the cytoplasm
includes all the material inside the cell and outside of the nucleus.

The cytoplasm holds the internal components in place, it also serves as a protective buffer.
Cells quite often contact other cells and surface, and the cytoplasm helps protect the internal
parts from both internal and external damage.

Plasma membrane: the plasma membrane, also called cell membrane, is a biological
membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment which protects
the cell from its environment. The plasma membrane is a very thin layer of protein and fat.

Chromatin: chromatin is located within the nucleus. Chromatin is a thread like genetic
material. Chromatin is a substance within a chromosome consisting of DNA and protein that
make up chromosomes. (Campbell, N.A.et al 2011)

Task 5

Glucose molecules are too large to diffuse simply from the cell membrane instead the diffusion
of glucose through cell membrane takes place via facilitated diffusion.
Facilitated diffusion is a passive transport mechanism in which carrier proteins shuttle molecules
across the cell membrane without using the cell’s energy supplies. Instead, the energy is
provided by the concentration gradient, which means that molecules are transported from higher
to lower concentrations, into or out of the cell. (Vix,2022)
Task6

Diffusion is a process of transferring fluids (gas or liquid) from an area of high concentration to
an area of low concentration. Oxygen and carbon dioxide move across cell membranes via
simple diffusion, a process that requires no energy input and is driven by differences in
concentration on either side of the cell membrane. Oxygen is the most important for keeping us
alive because body cells need it for energy and growth. Without oxygen, the body's cells would
die. Carbon dioxide is the waste gas that is produced when carbon is combined with oxygen as
part of the body's energy-making processes. When you breathe air, the membranes on your
lungs prefer to absorb oxygen into your blood, and prefer to release carbon dioxide, but it is a
two-way street. (Vix ,2022)

Task 7

breakdown of Glucose is done by a process called glycolysis, which produces ATP. This
provides energy.
For cellular processes. Glycolysis produces the most ATP glucose metabolism. ATP is the
abbreviation for Adenosine Triphosphate. ATP is important because it is the main source of
energy for our cellular processes. ATP is a cell's "energy carrier" or "energy store" molecule.
(Bonora, M, et, al.2012)

The basic unit of protein is amino acid. Proteins cannot penetrate the plasma membrane in the
cell and are also insoluble in water. Proteins function for the growth of the body because
proteins are one of the main components in the protoplasm of the cell. It also functioned for the
formation of new cells to replace old or damaged cells. Proteins can be broken down into
glycogen when the body lacks carbohydrates and fats. Glycogen is stored energy that can
produce energy when oxidised via cellular respiration. (Campbell, N.A. and Reece, J.B.2011)

Plasma membrane, a double layer of lipids that separates the cell interior from the outside
environment, also provides protection for a cell. It arranged the movement of substances in and
out of a cell. Plasma membrane must be very flexible in order to allow certain cells to change
their shapes. (Urry, L.A. et al.2011)

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Shima Abdollah Pour