Module 1 travel time; moderate line-haul speeds and; moderate

Transportation engineering is the application of scientific capacities.

principles to the planning, design, operation and • Environmental impacts of the system are high,
management of transportation system. particularly in the case of air pollution.
Urban Transit
The Transportation System • It includes traditional mass transit modes such as buses,
• A system is something that may be thought of as a whole streetcars, and light rail and rail rapid transit, as well as
consisting of parts or components. paratransit modes such as jitneys and dial-a-ride services.
• The transportation system is a functional system that • Commuters | making work trips into dense central
provides a service (the movement of goods and people business districts.
from place to place. • Captive riders | those without access to automobiles.
• Transportation is one of the major functional systems of • Line-haul speeds and door-to-door travel time vary.
modern society. • Environmental impacts are less than those of private
As a major functional system.. automobiles.
• It is an essential feature in the economy and the Air
personal lives of people everywhere, most especially in the • The air transportation system includes commercial
developed nations. airlines, airfreight carriers, and general aviation (private
• A highly developed transportation system makes possible aircraft).
the abundance and variety of goods and the high levels of • High line-haul speed; accessibility is limited; capacities of
personal mobility that are the hallmarks of a wealthy individual aircraft are moderate; capital and operating
society. costs are both high but high productivity results in
• At the same time, the transportation system is a major moderate costs per passenger carried.
source of resource consumption and environmental • Environmental impacts are significant, especially the
impact. noise impacts of commercial aviation.
Rail
Components of Transportation System • The rail system provides moderate speeds and levels of
• Physical Facilities | including streets, roads, and accessibility, but traditional operating practices, which
highways, railroads, airports, sea and river ports, pipelines involve relatively short hauls between rail yards, where
and canals. trains are broken up and reassembled, lead to high and
• Fleets | of vehicles, vessels, and aircraft. unreliable door-to-door travel time.
• Operating bases and facilities | including vehicle • Capital costs of locomotives and railcars, and
maintenance facilities and office space. maintenance costs for track are also relatively high.
• Organizations | (Facility-oriented organizations or • Environmental impacts are comparatively low.
Operating organizations) Water
• Operating Strategies | including vehicle routing, • The domestic water transportation system consists of
scheduling, and traffic control. coastwise ocean shipping and barge lines operating on
Effectiveness of Transportation System inland waterways.
• Effectiveness is described in terms of the accessibility of • Provides low speed and relatively low accessibility, but
the mode, the level of mobility it provides, and its extremely high capacities.
productivity. • Capital cost of vessels is high.
• Accessibility refers to the cost of getting to and from a • Environmental impacts are relatively low but water
place to another and depends primarily on geographical pollution from routine discharges of oil and other
extensiveness. pollutants, as well as from major oil spills involving tankers,
• Mobility is described in terms of speed or travel time. is a significant problem.
• Productivity refers to some measure of the total amount
of transportation provided per unit time. The amount of Scope Of Highway Engineering
transportation is usually thought of as the product of the • Development, planning, and location
volume of goods or passengers carried and distance. • Highway design, geometric, and structure
• Traffic performance and its control
Modes of Transportation - The modes are distinguished in • Materials, construction, and maintenance
terms of their physical characteristics, for instance, as • Economic, finance, and administration
highway, rail, air, and water transportation.
Characteristics of Road Transport
Highways • Roads are used by various types of road vehicles, like
• The highway system is the most dominant transportation passenger cars, buses, trucks, pedal cycle, and animal
mode. drawn vehicle.
• Very high accessibility to almost all potential • It requires a relatively small investment for the
destinations; direct service with very low door-to-door government.
• It offers a complete freedom to road users to transfer the • Traffic safety is continuing challenge for the
vehicle from one lane to another and from one road to transportation
another according to need and convenience. engineering profession because of public expectations that
• Speed and movement are directly related with the safety will continue to improve.
severity of accident.
• Road transport is the only means of transport that offers • The focus of agencies involved with transportation safety
itself to the whole community alike. are improvement of safety of vehicles, traffic safety, safety
research and development, and collection of accident data.
Transportation Issues and Challenges • These agencies investigate selected accidents involving
• Traffic congestion exists wherever demand exceeds the all transportation modes, identifies safety problems, an
capacity of the transportation system. serves as an advocate for transportation safety concerns.
• Traffic congestion is a condition on transport networks
that occurs as use increases, and is characterized by slower Highway and Traffic Safety
speeds, longer trip times, and increased vehicular queuing. • The Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals was
created on November 8, 1968 during the United Nations
Challenges Economic and Social Council (UNESCO) Conference on
Performance of the transportation system Road Traffic at Vienna, Austria. A total of 52 contracting
• Managing congestion countries including the Philippines agreed to accept the
• Improving safety system as described in the convention.
• Providing equal access • Informative sign | is a very legibly printed and very
• Protecting the environment noticeable placard that informs people of the purpose of
an object, or gives them instruction on the use of
Performance of the transportation engineering something.
profession, economic and political system
• Incorporating new technology Examples
• Securing financial resources
• Developing adequate institutional arrangements

Managing Congestion
• The usual response to congestion was to build more
capacity.
• This approach was always limited by the availability of
funding.
• Political support for major expansions of the urban
highway system is now lacking due to the potential
environmental impacts.
• Recently, it has been popular to seek solutions involving
more sophisticated traffic control.
• Since 1960s, there have been repeated calls to shift from
private automobiles to urban passenger transportation
because of the environmental consequences and the cost • Regulatory signs | are traffic signs intended to instruct
of expanding the system. road users on what they must or should do (or not do)
• In addition, there have been suggestions that traffic under a given set of circumstances. Other types may be
congestion can be reduced through better urban land-use signs located on streets and in parking lots having to do
planning, or through congestion pricing. with parking, signs in public parks and on beaches or on or
• Congestion pricing | is a system of surcharging users of in architectural facilities prohibiting specific types of
public goods that are subject to congestion through excess activities.
demand such as higher peak charges for use of bus
services, metros, railways, and road pricing to reduce Examples
traffic congestion.

Traffic Safety
• A second major challenge is the continued improvement
of traffic safety.
• Traffic accidents are of concern for all modes of
transportation, but are perhaps most visible in highways
and commercial air.
 • Air pollution is commonly perceived as being the most
serious environmental problem resulting from the
• Warning sign | is a type of traffic sign that indicates a transportation.
hazard ahead on the road that may not be readily apparent • Most transportation-related air pollution is the result of
to a driver. In most countries, they usually take the shape the use of highway vehicles in densely populated
of an equilateral triangle with a white background and a metropolitan areas.
thick red border.
New Technology
Examples • The major technological development of the past 20
years has been a concerted effort to take advantage of
rapid advances in electronic technology.
• These technologies include information processing,
communications, and control systems and are collectively
known as intelligent transportation system (ITS).
• These ITS technologies are the subject of a major
technological initiative involving government, business,
academic, and research organizations.
• The goals of the ITS program are to:
• Improve safety
• Reduce congestion
• Improve mobility and accessibility
• Reduce the environmental impact and increase
energy efficiency
• Improve economic productivity
• Create a domestic ITS industry
• These goals are to be achieved through:
Equality of Access • Improved traffic control systems
• Another continuing challenge has been to provide • Improvements in the provision of information
adequate access about the transportation system to its users
to the transportation system for all sorts of people. • Automation of administrative and regulatory
• Three groups in particular that are seen as generally functions
undeserved. • New or improved systems for warning users of
• Physically handicapped hazards
• Elderly • New vehicle control systems
• Poor • And other applications of electronic technology
Environmental Protection
• One of the most important challenges to the Funding
transportation system is that of dealing with its • Securing adequate financial resources is another
environmental impacts. perennial challenge, both for
• These include impacts on air quality, energy • public agencies, providing transportation
consumption, and land use. facilities
• Site-specific impacts include those related to the: • private-sector firms, providing transportation
• Displacement of resident and businesses services.
• Noise • The most common forms of user charges:
• Impacts on wildlife • Fuel taxes, which have been applied as fixed
• Impacts on water quality charger per gallon/liter of fuel sold.
• Visual impacts • Direct fares or tolls
• Temporary impacts during construction (noise,
dust, reduced water quality due to erosion of Institutional Arrangements
unprotected slopes) • New arrangements have come about as a response to
• Impacts in environmentally sensitive areas perceived deficiencies in the existing system. Often, they
• Examples of such areas are: have been imposed by outside agencies and in many cases
• Habitats of threatened or endangered species they have been resisted by established institutions.
• Flood plains • In the recent past, the most conspicuous and enduring
• Wetlands areas of institutional change have been (1) adjustments to
• Coastal zones the relationship between the public and private sectors
• Prime agricultural lands and (2) attempts to overcome modal and jurisdictional
• Historical or archaeological sites fragmentation.
• Wild or scenic rivers
Module 2 • MM’s arterial road network consists of national roads,
Historical Development of Road Construction the
• Oldest mode are foot paths, animal ways, and cart path circumferential roads and the radial roads, as well as the
• As civilization evolved, the need for transportation other major roads connecting the cities of Manila, Quezon,
increased. Caloocan, Valenzuela, Malabon, Navotas, Pasay,
• Roman Roads (500 BC) Parañaque, Las Piñas, Taguig, Marikina, Pasig,
– They were built straight regardless of gradient Mandaluyong, Makati, Pateros and San Juan as well as the
– They were built after the soft soil was removed and a surrounding provinces.
hard • The first road numbering system in the Philippines was
stratum was reached adopted in 1930 by the administration of President Manuel
– Thickness varies from 0.75 m to 1.2 m Quezon and was very much similar to U.S. Highway
numbering system.
Trésaguet Road Construction • In 1945, the Metropolitan Thoroughfare Plan was
• After the Romans, the next major development in the submitted by Quezon City planners Louis Croft and Antonio
road Kayanan which proposed the laying of 10 radial roads,
construction occurred during the regime of Napoleon. which purposes in conveying traffic in and out of the city of
• The significant contributions were given by a French Manila to the surrounding cities and provinces, and the
engineer Pierre-Marie-Jérôme Trésaguet in 1764. completion of circumferential roads, that will act as
• He developed a cheaper method of construction than beltways of the city, forming altogether a web-like arterial
the locally unsuccessful revival of Roman practice. road system.
• The pavement used 200 mm pieces of stone of a more
compact form and shaped such that they had at least one Classification of Highways
at a side which was placed on a compact formation. • Based on weather
• Smaller pieces of broken stones were then compacted – All weather roads
into the spaces between larger stones to provide a level – Fair weather roads
surface. • Based on type of carriageway
• Finally, the running layer was made with a layer of 25 – Paved roads (water bound macadam roads)
mm-sized broken stone. – Unpaved roads (earth road or gravel road)
• Based on pavement surface
Telford Road Construction – Surfaced roads (bituminous or cement concrete road)
• The next development was done by Scottish engineer – Un-surfaced road
Thomas Telford (1757-1834). • Based on traffic volume
• The foundation was prepared for a road with width of 9 – Heavy
m and it was leveled. – Medium
• Larger size stones of width equal to 40 mm and a depth – Light
170 to 220 mm were then laid. • Based on load or tonnage
• After filling the spaces between foundation stones, two – Class 1, Class 2, etc.
layers of stones having compacted thickness of 100 and 50 – Class A, Class B, etc.
mm respectively laid in the center of 5.4 m of width. • Based on location and function
• The top layer of road was made of 40 mm thick binding – Expressway
layer of gravel. – Arterial road
– Collector road
McAdam Road Construction – Local road
• The British engineer John McAdam introduced what can
be considered as the first scientific road construction Urban Road Classification
method. • Expressway
• Stone size was an important element of McAdam road. – At the top of the hierarchy are limited access roads
• By empirical observation of many roads, he came to freeways or expressways, including most toll roads. These
realize that 250 mm layers of well compacted broken roads provide largely uninterrupted travel and are
angular stone would provide the same strength and designed for high speeds.
stiffness and a better running surface than an expensive – No slow moving traffic allowed, no loading, unloading,
pavement founded on large stone blocks. parking.
• Arterial road
Highway Development in the Philippines – Arterial are major through roads that are expected to
• The list of roads in Metro Manila (MM) summarizes the carry large volumes of traffic. They are often divided into
major thoroughfares and the numbering system currently major or minor and rural or urban.
being implemented in MM, Philippines. – Pedestrian allowed to walk only at intersection
• Collector road
– Also known as distributor road is a low to moderate – Gradient should be flat and less than the ruling gradient
capacity road which serves to move traffic from local or design gradient.
streets to arterial roads. – Avoid sudden changes in sight distance, especially near
– Located in residential, business and industrial areas, full crossings
access allowed, parking is permitted. – Avoid sharp horizontal curves
– Avoid road intersection near bend
• Economy
• Local road – Alignment finalized based on total cost including initial
– This road has the lowest speed limit and carry low cost, maintenance cost, and vehicle operation cost.
volumes of traffic. In some areas, this road may be
unpaved.
– Primary access to residence, business or other abutting • Other considerations
property, parking and pedestrian movements are not – Surface water and flood level, drainage, environmental,
restricted, no waiting restrictions. and political

Highway Alignment - The position or lay out of center line Additional Care in Hill Roads
of the highway on the ground is called the alignment. • Topographical control points
• It includes straight path, horizontal deviation, and curves. – The alignment, if possible, should avoid passing through
• If improper alignment was executed, disadvantages could marshy and low lying land with poor drainage, flood prone
be: areas, unstable hilly features
– Increase in construction cost • Materials and constructional features
– Increase in maintenance cost – Deep cutting should be avoided
– Increase in vehicle operation cost – Earthwork is to be balanced (quantities for filling and
– Increase in accident excavation)
• Once the road is aligned and constructed, it is not easy to – Alignment should preferably be through better soil area
change the alignment due to increase in cost of adjoining to
land and construction of costly structure. minimize pavement thickness
– Location may be near sources of embankment and
Requirements of Highway Alignment pavement materials
• Short | It should be desirable to have a short alignment • Stability
between two terminal stations. – A common problem in hilly roads is land sliding
• Easy | It should be easy to construct and maintain with – The cutting and filling of the earth to construct the roads
minimum problem and easy for the operation of vehicles. on hilly sides causes steepening of existing slope and affect
• Safe | It should be safe enough for the construction and its stability
maintenance from the view point of stability of natural hill • Drainage
slope, embankment, and cut slope. It should also be safe – Avoid the cross drainage structure
for traffic operation. – The number of cross drainage structure should be
• Economical | Total cost including initial cost, minimum
maintenance cost, and vehicle operation cost should be • Geometric standard of hilly road
minimum. – Gradient, curve, and speed
– Sight distance, radius of curve
Factors Controlling Alignment • Geometric standard of hilly road
• Obligatory points – Total work to be done to move loads along the route
– Obligatory points through which alignment is to pass taking horizontal length, actual difference in level between
(bridge site, intermediate town, mountain pass, etc.) two stations, and the sum of the ineffective rise and fall in
– Obligatory points through which alignment should not excess of floating gradient should kept as low as possible.
pass (religious places, costly structure, unsuitable land,
etc.) Highway Surveys - Before a highway alignment is finalized
• Traffic in highway project, the engineering surveys are to be
– Origin and destination survey should be carried out in carried out. The various stages of engineering surveys are:
the area and the desire line be drawn showing the trend of – Map study (provisional alignment identification)
traffic flow. – Reconnaissance survey
– New road to be aligned should keep in view the desired – Preliminary survey
lines, traffic flow patterns and future trends. – Final location and detailed surveys
• Geometric design
– Design factors such as gradient, radius of curve and sight Map Study
distance also govern the final alignment of the highway. • From the map alternative route that can be suggested in
the office, if the topographic map of that area is available.
• The probable alignment can be located on the map from topographic and other maps including details of soil and
the following details available on the map geology.
– Avoiding valleys, ponds, or lake – Finalize the best alignment from all considerations by
– Avoiding bend of river comparative analysis of alternative routes.
– If road has to cross a row of hills, possibility of crossing
through mountain pass Final Location and Detailed Survey
• Map study gives a rough guidance of the routes to be • The alignment finalized at the design office after the
further surveyed in the field. preliminary survey is to be first located on the field by
establishing the center line.
• Location survey
– Transferring the alignment on to the ground.
– This is done by transit theodolite.
Reconnaissance Survey – Major and minor control points are established on the
• To confirm features indicated on map. ground and center pegs are driven, checking the geometric
• To examine the general character of the area in field for design requirements.
deciding the most feasible routes for detailed studies. – Center line stacks are driven at suitable intervals, say 50
• A survey party may inspect along the proposed m
alternative routes of the map in the field with very simple interval in plane and rolling terrains and 20 m in hilly
instrument like abney level, tanget clinometer, barometer, terrain.
etc. • Detailed survey
• To collect additional details. Details to be collected from – Temporary bench marks are fixed at intervals of about
alternative routes during this survey are: 250 m and at all drainage and under pass structure.
– Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land, hill, permanent – Earthwork calculations and drainage details are to be
structure, and other obstruction workout from the level books.
– Value of gradient, length of gradient and radius of curve – Cross-sectional levels are taken at intervals of 50-100 m
• Details to be collected from alternative routes during this in plane terrain, 50-75 m in rolling terrain, 50 m in built-up
survey are area, and 20 m in hill terrain.
(cont.): – Detail soil survey is to be carried out.
– Number and type of cross drainage structures – CBR value of the soils along the alignment may be
– High flood level (HFL) determined for design of pavement.
– Soil characteristics – The data during detailed survey should be elaborate and
– Geological features complete for preparing detailed plans, design, and
– Source of construction materials (stone quarries, water estimates of project.
sources, etc.)
• Prepare a report on pros and cons of different alternative Drawings and Reports for a Highway Project
routes. • Key map
• As a result, few alternative alignments may be chosen for • Index map
further study based on practical considerations observed • Preliminary survey plans
at the site. • Detailed plan and longitudinal section
• Detailed cross-section
Preliminary Survey • Land acquisition plans
• Objectives of preliminary survey are: • Drawings of cross drainage and other retaining structures
– To survey the various alternative alignments proposed • Drawings of road intersections
after the reconnaissance and to collect all the necessary • Land plans showing quarries, etc.
physical information and detail of topography, drainage, • Map study
and soil. • Reconnaissance survey
– To compare the different proposals in view of the • Location of final alignment
requirements of the good alignment. • Detailed survey
– To estimate quantity of earthwork materials and other • Material survey
construction aspect and to work out the cost of the • Geometric and structural design
alternate proposals. • Earthwork
• Methods of preliminary survey are: • Pavement construction
– Conventional approach | survey party carries out surveys • Construction controls
using the required field equipment, taking measurement,
collecting topographical and other data and carrying out • Key map | should show the proposed and existing roads,
soil survey. and important places to be connected. The size of the plan
– Modern rapid approach | by aerial survey taking the in general should not exceed 22 x 20 cm. Scale of the map
required aerial photographs for obtaining the necessary is chosen suitably according to the length of road/highway.
• Index map | should show the general topography of the • Anticipated operating speed | For example, a national
area or site. Details are represented using symbols. Index highway in an area with steep terrain would generally have
map should also be of suitable scale with size 32 x 20 cm. a lower design speed (i.e., smaller radius curve) than a
• Preliminary survey plans | are plans showing details of national highway in flat terrain where higher speeds would
various alternate alignments and all information collected generally be anticipated and hence large radius curves
should be drawn to a suitable scale of 10 cm = 1 km to 25 adopted.
cm = 1 km. • When choosing a design speed, the following factors
• Detailed plan | shows the ground plan with alignment need to be considered (cont.):
and the boundaries. It shows contours at intervals of 1 to 2 • Anticipated operating speed (cont.) | In these examples,
meter in plain terrain and 3 to 6 meters in hilly terrain the anticipated operating speed of the new facility (that
showing all details including existing structures. Scale of may include improved alignment and road surface), should
1/2400 or 1/1200 is suitable for detailed plans. Size of form the basis for determining an appropriate design
drawing may be 60 x 42 cm approximately. speed, rather than the operating speed of the existing
• Longitudinal sections | should be drawn to the same road.
horizontal scale of the ground as in detailed plan. Vertical • Anticipated speed limit | When considering the speed
scale may be enlarged 10 times of the longitudinal scale. design along a route, it may also be necessary to adopt a
The longitudinal section should show details such as datum different design speed for different sections of the road as
line, existing ground surface, and vertical profile of the circumstances change. For example, within a town or on
proposed road and position of drainage crossings. the road section between towns.
• Detailed cross-section | are generally drawn to natural • Economics | The implications relating cost of
scale of 1 cm = 2.0 to 2.5 meter. It should be drawn every construction.
100 meter or where there are abrupt changes in level. In
hill roads, the cross-section should be drawn at closer Speed Implications
intervals. The cross-section drawing should extend at least • Research shows that lower speeds lead to fewer and less
up to the proposed right of way. The cross-section number, serious crashes. There are two reasons for this:
the reduced distances, and the area of filling or cutting (or – At higher speeds a rider or driver has less time to react to
both) should be shown on cross-section drawing. a situation and therefore there is a greater likelihood that
• Land acquisition plans | are usually prepared from the an error will result in a crash; and
survey drawings for land acquisition details. These plans – The momentum and kinetic energy of a vehicle increases
show all general details such as buildings, wells, nature of rapidly with speed. The sudden dissipation of this energy in
gradients, and other details required for assessing the a crash means that the injury to occupants is more severe.
values. The scale may be 1 cm = 40 meters or less. • Therefore, a carefully planned speed limit regime can
• Drawings of cross-drainage | are usually drawn to scale make a significant contribution to road safety.
of 1 cm = 1 meter. For details of any complicated portion of
the structure, enlarged scales up to 8 cm = 1 meter or up Current Speed Limits
to half full size may be employed. However, the size of • The current speed restrictions are set out in Republic Act
drawing should not exceed the standard size. Cross-section No. 4136 ‘Land Transportation and Traffic Code.’
of streams should be to a scale of not less than 1 cm = 10 • The rules indicate that a motorist shall drive at a safe
meters. speed determined by the driver based on the road
• Drawing of road intersections | should be prepared environment and conditions. There are however maximum
showing all details of pavement, shoulders, islands, etc. to allowable speeds for different road environments.
proper scale. • On open country roads with no “blind corners” not
• Land plans showing quarries | where quarries for closely
construction materials are to be acquired for new projects, bordered by habitation, the maximum speed for passenger
separate land plans should be prepared. The size of these cars and motorcycles is 80 kph and for motor trucks and
maps and scales may be similar to those proposed under buses, 50 kph.
land acquisition. • On “through streets” or boulevards clear of traffic, with
no “blind corners”, when so designated, the maximum
Module 3 speed for passenger cars and motorcycles is 40 kph and for
Design Speed motor trucks and buses, 30 kph.
• The choice of an appropriate design speed for a road • On city and municipal streets, with light traffic, when not
project is important to ensure a safe design. designated “through streets”, the maximum speed for
• When choosing a design speed, the following factors passenger cars, motorcycles, motor trucks and buses is 30
need to be considered: kph.
• Function of the road | An arterial road such as a national • Through crowded streets, approaching intersections at
highway would generally have a higher design speed than a “blind corners”, passing school zones, passing other
local road. vehicles which are stationary, or for similar dangerous
circumstances, the maximum speed for passenger cars, limit than would normally apply until such time that the
motorcycles, motor trucks and buses is 20 kph. road improvements can be made. The lower speeds
• Where it is determined that a road should have a compensate for the hazardous conditions of the road.
different speed restriction to that indicated above, then • An 80 kph or 90 kph speed limit may also be appropriate
specific speed restriction signs should be installed to on lower standard expressways. For instance, the concrete
inform motorists. The following sections describe where plant cylinders on the side of the expressways as shown in
certain speed restrictions could be appropriate. the figure are a serious road hazard within the clear zone
• High risk pedestrian areas – 40 kph which could cause injury to the occupants of an out-of-
– Vulnerable road users, especially pedestrians, are control vehicle. If this roadside hazard cannot be removed
particularly vulnerable at higher speeds. The graph below or protection for vehicles provided, the speed limit should
based on international research shows the risk of a be restricted to reduce the risk to motorists and riders.
pedestrian fatality if hit by a vehicle at different speeds.
• High risk pedestrian areas – 40 kph (cont.) Road Capacity
– For instance, 25% of people struck by a vehicle traveling • Road capacity, as defined in the U.S. Highway Capacity
at 40 kph would suffer fatal injuries. At 50 kph this risk Manual (HCM), is the maximum number of vehicles, which
increases to 85%. Therefore, a speed limit of 40 kph or have a reasonable expectation of passing over a given
lower would be appropriate in areas where there is high section of a lane or a roadway ion one direction or in both
pedestrian activity such as in city center areas. directions during one hour under prevailing road and
– A 40 kph speed limit would also be appropriate on roads traffic conditions.
where there are no footpaths and pedestrians are required • Generally, road capacity with respect to road sections is
to walk on the road. measured in terms of level-of-service. This is designated
• Low risk pedestrian areas – 60 kph with letters ‘A’ to ‘F’ with ‘A’ the most ideal condition and
– On roads through built-up areas where there are not so ‘F’ the saturated condition where volume is equal to the
many pedestrians, it is appropriate to allow motorized road capacity.
traffic to travel more quickly. • In regard to intersections, capacity is generally measured
– The picture below shows the type of environment where in terms of ’degree of saturation.’
60 kph may be appropriate. Although this road is carrying • The capacity of a route can be affected by the following
vulnerable road users, they have a separate lane to travel factors:
in. – Number of lanes;
• 80 kph – Lane and shoulder width;
– An 80 kph speed limit would be appropriate on a high – Terrain and road gradient;
standard duplicated carriageway road where there is only – Traffic composition;
occasional access from adjoining properties. – Side friction such as the presence of road furniture and
• 100 kph pedestrians; and
– A 100 kph speed limit would only be appropriate on very – Intersection capacity (priority of movements, traffic
high standard expressways, which have a low crash rate. signal
These expressways should have a high standard geometry phasing number of lanes etc.).
and should be free of roadside hazards. If hazards exist and • Ideal capacity of a road is 2000 vehicles/hour (vph).
they cannot be removed or modified, they should be However, based on several surveys conducted in Metro
shielded with a safety barrier. Manila for various infrastructure projects, it was found that
the maximum volume is achieved only at a level of 1400
Speed Restriction Signs vph on expressways and 1100 for urban arterials.
• Good speed management practice depends on speed • In the design stage of a road project, appropriate
limit signs being placed in visible locations and repeated capacity should be established to ensure satisfactory
frequently enough for motorists to be certain of which operation. In establishing the capacity of the road, actual
speed zone they are in. traffic surveys as well as investigation of future use is
• At the start of a new speed zone, a speed limit sign required to ensure that safety is not compromised once
should be erected on the left and right sides of the road. the facility is in operation.
Then within the first kilometer, there should be two (2)
farther pairs of repeater speed limit signs. After that, Traffic Forecasts
repeater signs should be placed at one kilometer spacing. • Experiences in the Philippines indicated that traffic
• Repeater signs should also be placed before and after all forecasts for expressways (tolled facilities) are usually
major intersections to confirm the speed limit to all traffic optimistic. This may be seen as a factor to boost revenue
turning into the road being considered. forecasts to make the road appear more interesting to
investors. The opposite can be true in planning urban
Poor Road Standards arterials as forecasts are often below actual traffic counts
• If the standard of the road geometry or its surface is once the facility is in operation. The latter has more impact
poor, then it may be appropriate to adopt a lower speed
on traffic safety since it could mean more traffic is using – Vehicular characteristics and human characteristics of
the road than the volume for which it was originally road users.
designed. Further, road maintenance is often compromised – Different vehicle classes have different speed and
when traffic exceeds the forecasts (e.g., thickness of acceleration characteristics, different dimensions, and
pavement, lane width, maintenance budget, etc.). weight.
– Human factor includes the physical, mental, and
Safety Design psychological characteristics of driver and pedestrian.
• This section describes how the road network can be • Design hourly volume and capacity
made to be safer through the awareness of safety – Traffic flow fluctuating with time
principles during the design stages. – Low value during off-peak hours to the highest value
• The first aim of safe road design is to ensure that road during the peak hour
users remain safely on the road. This depends on the – It is uneconomical to design the roadway for peak traffic
following factors: flow.
– a sound road surface; • Environmental and other factors
– an adequate width or cross-section; – Aesthetics
– horizontal and vertical alignment; – Landscaping
– good visibility/sight distance; – Air pollution
– delineation and signing; – Noise pollution

• This depends on the following factors (cont.):

– provision for pedestrians, pedal cyclists and people with Pavement Surface Characteristics
disabilities; • Pavement surface depend on the type of pavement
– management of traffic conflicts at intersections; and which is decided based on the following:
– speed management. – Availability of material
• However, drivers and riders will sometimes make – Volume and composition of traffic
mistakes and lose control and leave the road. At the stage – Soil subgrade
it is important to provide a forgiving roadside. – Construction facility
– Cost consideration
Module 4 • The important surface characteristics are:
Importance of Geometric Design – Friction
• The geometric design of a highway deals with the – Pavement unevenness
dimensions and layout of visible features of the highway – Light reflecting characteristics
such as alignment, sight distance, and intersection. – Drainage of surface water
• The main objective of highway design is to provide
optimum efficiency in traffic operation with maximum Friction
safety at reasonable cost. • Friction | When the path travelled along the road surface
• Geometric design of highway deals with following is more than the circumferential movement of the wheels
elements: due to their rotation.
– Cross-section elements • Slipping | When a wheel revolves more than the
– Sight distance considerations corresponding longitudinal movement along the road
– Horizontal alignment details • Factors affecting the friction or skid resistance:
– Vertical alignment details – Types of pavement surface
– Intersection elements – Roughness of pavement
– Condition of the pavement (wet or dry)
Design Controls and Criteria – Type and condition of tire
• Design speed – Speed of vehicle
– In the Philippines, different speed standards have been – Brake efficiency
assigned for different class of road. – Load and tire pressure
– Design speed may be modified depending upon the – Temperature of tire and pavement
terrain conditions. • Smooth and worn-out tires offer higher friction factor on
• Topography dry pavement but new tire with good threads gives higher
– This is classified based on the general slope of the friction factor on wet pavement.
country • Hydroplaning | or aquaplaning by tires of a road vehicle
– Plane terrain < 10% occurs when a layer of water builds between the wheels of
– Rolling terrain 10-25% the vehicle and the road surface.
– Mountainous terrain 25-60%
– Steep terrain > 60% Pavement Unevenness
• Traffic Factor
• Higher operating speed are possible on even surface than • As the traffic volume increases, so the need for extra
uneven surface. width is justified. This width can increase up to a maximum
• It affects: of 3.65 m.
– Vehicle operation cost Shoulder
– Comfort and safety • It is provided along the road edge to serve as an
– Fuel consumption emergency lane for vehicles. It acts as a service lane for
– Wear and tear of tires and other moving parts vehicles that have broken down.
• It is commonly measured by an equipment called bump • Shoulder width is generally selected according to the
integrator. traffic volume and standards that are detailed in the table
• Bump integrator | also known as automatic road (Design Standards).
unevenness recorder gives quantitative integrated • Shoulder widths on low volume roads may be increased
evaluation of surface irregularities. It gives cumulative if there are significant number of pedestrians or other
measure of vertical undulations of the pavement surface needs requiring use of the shoulder to improve safety.
recorded per unit horizontal length. • The surface should be rougher than the traffic lanes so
• Bump integrator | 250 cm/km for a speed of 100 kph and that vehicles are discouraged to use the shoulder for
more than 350 cm/km considered very unsatisfactory even regular traffic.
at speed of 50 kph. • On curved alignments, it is advisable to consider the
• Unevenness of pavement surface may be caused by: paving of the outside curve shoulder width. This will
– Inadequate compaction of the fill, subgrade and minimize the possibility of a vehicle that strays off the
pavement traffic lane from losing control due to poor traction on a
layers graveled shoulder.
– Un-engineered construction practices including the use • Roadway width
of – It is the sum of the width of the carriageway or pavement
boulder stones and bricks as soiling course over loose including separators if any, and the shoulders.
subgrade soil
– Use of inferior pavement material • Right of way
– Improper surface and subsurface drainage – It is the total area of land acquired for the road along its
– Improper construction machinery alignment.
– Poor maintenance – It depends on the importance of the road and possible
future development.
Light Reflecting Characteristics – It is desirable to acquire more width of land as the cost of
• Night visibility very much depends upon the light adjoining land invariably increases very much, soon after
reflecting characteristics of the pavement surface. the new highway is constructed.
• The glare caused by the reflection of head light is high on Building Line| Control Line
wet pavement surface than on dry pavement particularly • Building line
in case of black top pavement (flexible pavement). – In order to reserve sufficient space for future
• Light colored or white pavement (rigid pavement) surface development of roads, it is desirable to control the building
give good visibility at night particularly during the rain, but activities on either side of the road boundary, beyond the
produces glare or eye strain during bright sunlight. land width acquired for the land.
• Control line
Highway Cross-Section Elements – In addition to building line, it is desirable to control the
Carriageway nature of building up to further set-back distance.
• It is the travel way which is used for movement of vehicle Median (Traffic Separators)
and it takes the vehicular loading. • The section of a divided highway that separates traffic
• It may be cement concrete (rigid pavement) road or moving in opposite directions is the median.
bituminous pavement (flexible pavement). • Its width is measured from the edge of the inside lane in
• Width of carriageway is determined on the basis of the one direction to the edge of the inside lane in the opposite
width of the vehicle and the minimum side clearance for direction.
safety. • The main functions of medians include:
• As indicated in the table (Design Standards), the basic – Providing a recovery area for out-of-control vehicles
lane width appropriate for national road is 3.35 m. – Separating opposing traffic
• On lower trafficked roads, the lane width can be reduced. – Providing stopping areas during emergencies
This is justified on the basis of economics. – Providing storage areas for left-turning and u-turning
• For a single lane road traffic, the lane width is 4.0 m. vehicles
• For two lane national road, the minimum width is 2 x – Providing refuge for pedestrians
3.35 m lanes (total of 6.7 m). – Reducing the effect of headlight glare
– Providing temporary lanes and crossovers during
maintenance operations
• Medians can be raised, flush or depressed. • Gutters or ditches provide the principal drainage facility
• Raised median | In urban areas where it is necessary to for the roadway.
control left-turn traffic at intersections of arterial streets, • They are usually located at the pavement side of the curb
raised medians are often deployed so that part of the and in conjunction with storm sewer systems.
median width can be used as a left-turn lane. • They are used mainly in urban areas to control street
• Flush median | Flush medians are commonly used on runoff.
urban arterial streets but are also used on freeways if a • They are usually 1 to 6 ft wide.
median barrier is provided. • In order to prevent any hazard to traffic, gutters are
• Depressed median | Depressed medians are mainly usually constructed with cross slopes of 5 to 8 % on a
deployed on freeways where they are often used as a width of 2 to 3 ft adjacent to the curb.
means to facilitate drainage of surfaced water from travel Guardrail
lanes. AASHTO recommends a slope of 6:1 for depressed • Guardrails are used to prevent errant vehicles from
medians, although a slope of 4:1 is adequate. leaving the roadbed at sharp horizontal curves and at high
• Median width generally range from 2 ft to 80 ft or more. embankments.
• AASHTO recommends that a divided arterial should have • They are normally placed at embankments with heights
a minimum median width of 4 ft. greater than 8 ft and when side slopes are greater than
• A minimum of 10 ft for four-lane urban freeways is 4:1.
recommended. This includes two 4 ft shoulders and a 2 ft • Guardrails should be properly designed to avoid creating
median barrier. a hazardous situation when they are placed at a location.
• For freeways of six or more lanes, a minimum of 22 ft is Road Margins
recommended but 26 ft is preferable. • Parking lane
• The widths of medians on urban collector streets vary – These are provided on urban roads to allow curb parking.
from 2 to 40 ft depending on the median treatment. The – As far as possible only parallel parking should be allowed
narrowest widths (2 to 4 ft) are usually for medians that as it is safer for moving vehicles.
are separated by paint stripes and the widest (16 to 40 ft) – It should have a sufficient width of 3 m.
are for medians in curbed areas. Intermediate widths (2 to • Lay bay
6 ft) – These are provided near the public conveniences with
are usually for narrow raised curbed areas. guide map to
• Cross slope (camber) enable driver to stop clear off the carriageway.
– It is the slope provided to the road surface in the – It has 3 m width, 30 m length with 15 m end tapers on
transverse direction to drain off the rain water from the both sides.
road surface. • Bus bay
– AASHTO recommends that rates of cross slopes for high- – These may be provided by recessing the curb to avoid
type pavements should be 1.5 to 2 % and for intermediate- conflict with moving traffic.
type pavements 1.5 to 3 %. – It is located at least 75 m away from the intersection.
– High-type pavements | those that have wearing surfaces • Frontage road
that can adequately support the expected traffic load – These are provided to give access to properties along an
without visible distress due to fatigue and are not important highway with control access to expressway or
susceptible to weather conditions. freeway.
– Intermediate-type pavements | those that have surfaces – It may run parallel to the highway and are isolated by
that vary from qualities just below that of high-type separator.
pavements. • Driveway
• Crown – It connects the highway with commercial establishment
– The curved cross-section usually takes the shape of a like fuel stations, service stations, etc. It should be located
parabola, with the highest point (crown) is slightly away from the intersection.
rounded. • Cycle track
Curb – It is provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle
• Curbs are used mainly to delineate pavement edges and traffic on the road is very high. A minimum of 2 m is
pedestrian walkways in urban areas, but they can also be provided for cycle track.
used to control drainage. • Footpath
• They are classified as either barrier or mountable curbs. – These are provided in urban areas when the vehicular as
• Barrier curbs | are designed to prevent vehicles from well as pedestrian traffic are heavy. Minimum width of 1.5
leaving the highway and are therefore higher (6 to 8 m is provided.
inches).
• Mountable curbs | are designed to permit vehicles to Module 5
cross over them if necessary and have heights varying from Overview
4 to 6 inches. • The structural design of the travel way of any
Gutter transportation mode is carried out to ensure that it is
structurally sound and can withstand the loads imposed • This is located immediately above the roadbed
upon it by vehicles of that mode over its design life. (subgrade) of the rail track.
• The methods presented are based on American • It occupies a similar location within the track structure as
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials the subbase of the highway pavement.
(AASHTO) for highway pavements and American Railway • The subballast is a graded aggregate material that must
Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association also meet specified requirements for gradation, plasticity,
(AREMA) for railroad tracks. and strength.
• Only a brief description is presented on the soil • Its purpose is to augment the ballast course in the
characteristics that are required for the soil that supports provision of adequate drainage, stability, flexibility, and
the travelway, as a detailed discussion of soil uniform support for the rail and ties.
characteristics is beyond the scope of this course. Base Course
• This lies immediately above the subballast course.
Structural Components of Travelways • It occupies a similar location within the track structure as
• The travelway of highway or rail mode consists of two or the base course of the highway pavement.
more structural components, through which the load • It provides drainage, stability, flexibility, uniform support
applied by the traveling vehicle is transferred to the for the rail ties, and distribution of the track loadings to the
ground. subgrade through the subballast.
• The performance of the travelway depends on the • Common materials used in constructing ballast courses
satisfactory performance of each component. include granites, traprocks, quartzites, limestones,
• This requires that each of these be properly designed to dolomites, and slags.
ensure that the load applied by the traveling vehicle does Surface Course
not over-stress any of these structural components. • This is the upper course of highway pavement and is
• The structural components of highway pavement consist constructed immediately above the base course.
of the subgrade or prepared roadway, the subbase, the • While the base and subbase courses of the highway
base, and the wearing surface, while those for the rail track pavement are comparable to the subballast and ballast
are the subgrade, the subballast, the ballast, the cross ties, courses of the rail track, the surface course has no
and the rail. comparable course on the rail track.
• It can be either of Portland Cement Concrete or Asphalt
Concrete.
Subgrade • Portland cement surfaces are known as rigid pavements,
• It is usually the natural material located along the and asphalt concrete pavements are known as flexible
horizontal alignment of the pavement or track and serves pavements.
as the foundation of the pavement or track structure. Cross Ties
• The subgrade may also consist of a layer of selected • These are used only on rail tracks and are made of
material that is obtained from somewhere else and treated timber, concrete, or steel.
properly compacted to meet certain specifications. • They are transversely placed at regular intervals along
• The load imposed by the vehicle using the travelway is the length of the rail track, immediately above the ballast
eventually transmitted to the subgrade through the course.
different structural components of the travelway, such that • Their main purpose is to evenly distribute the load from
the load is spread over a greater area than that of the the rails to the ballast.
vehicle’s contact area. • There is no structural component of the highway
• Therefore, the lower the strength of the subgrade, the pavement that is directly comparable to the ties, as the
greater the required area of load distribution and therefore loads from an automobile are transmitted directly from the
the greater the required depth. wheels of the vehicle to the pavement.
Subbase Course Rails
• This is located immediately above the subgrade of the • These are usually constructed of high-quality steel and
highway pavement, and consist of a higher-quality soil are
material than that for the subgrade. sometimes referred to as the guideway.
• Materials used for subbase construction should meet • Their main purpose is to guide the train and ensure that
certain particle size distributions (gradation), strength, and it travels along the required path.
plasticity requirements. • They also transfer the loads from the train wheels to the
• When the subbase material satisfies these requirements, ties.
the subbase course is usually omitted. • There is also no structural component of the highway
• Materials not meeting these requirements can be treated pavement that is directly related to the rails, as the travel
with other materials (stabilization) to achieve the paths of automobile are not restricted as that of the rail.
necessary properties.
Subballast Course Module 6
Purpose and Need of Condition Surveys
• Highway pavement condition deteriorates with time due
to one or more of the following factors: design Types of Pavement Distresses
inadequacies, traffic loading, material ageing, construction • Pavement distresses are generally related to the
deficiencies, environmental forces, etc. deficiencies in construction, materials, and maintenance
• A typical deterioration trend of pavement condition with strategies, but not directly to pavement design.
time is • Identification of pavement distresses and their causes are
illustrated below. It is important for an engineer to know important in establishing pavement distress survey
the procedures.
condition of its pavements at various stages of their lives to
plan for maintenance and rehabilitation strategies. Types of Pavement Distresses
• Pavement condition surveys, also known as distress • Distresses in flexible pavements and causes:
surveys, are conducted as a part of Pavement – Deformation
Management Systems (PMS) in order to assess current – Cracking
pavement condition and the need for maintenance and – Surface defects
rehabilitation treatments. – Edge defects
• The focus of these surveys is to determine pavement • Distresses in rigid pavements and causes:
surface condition at a given point of time. These surveys – Deformation
usually help to address the causes of the distresses – Cracking
present. – Joint sea and spalling
• A distress survey generally provides detailed distress – Surface defects
information including: – Edge defects
– Distress type
– Severity Flexible | Deformation
– Extend and location • Deformation in pavement is defined as the change in the
• It is desirable that a distress survey must also identify, pavement surface profile and it can affect roughness
classify, and quantify the causes of all distresses and condition and skid resistance when water ponding occurs.
factors that may influence pavement performance. Deformation may also accelerate crack initiation. The
• Traditionally, these surveys are conducted through visual common pavement deformations are corrugations,
inspection by traveling along the pavement, and depressions, rutting, and shoving.
identification and classification of the distress present. • Corrugations | Corrugations in flexible pavements are
• Many authorities and organizations have devised identified as closely and regularly spaced transverse
methods and equipment to objectively measure pavement undulations. These are plastic movements of the pavement
surface conditions. The latest developments in this area surface and usually occur where acceleration and
include the use of laser sensors and video imaging deceleration take place such as, bus stop, bends, and
technology to classify and quantify pavement distresses intersections. Lack of stability in the surface or base course
objectively. is the possible cause for corrugations.
• Depressions | Depressions are localized bowl-shaped
Concept of Rideability and Serviceability settlement in the pavement caused by one or combination
• Pavement serviceability refers to the ability of a of the following: (1) settlement of service trenches, (2)
pavement to provide the desired level of service to the consolidation in the poorly compacted subgrade, and (3)
user. change of moisture in the subgrade. Water ponding in the
• The ability of pavement to perform at its desired level of depressions causes cracking and other pavement damages
service is affected by pavement condition. such as roughness and skidding problem.
• The graph below illustrates a general trend of loss of • Rutting | Rutting is the longitudinal depression that
serviceability due to pavement condition affected by time occurs in the wheel path due to inadequate surface
or traffic loading. thickness, and lack of compaction or stability in the surface
• The Present Serviceability Index (PSI) is the subjective or base course. Rutting in early pavement life may be due
assessment of “service-ability” by a panel of evaluators to poor compaction, high moisture content, or lack of
and is related to objective measures of surface condition lateral
by response-type road roughness resistant. On the other hand, under-strength material and
measuring systems (RTRRMS). over loading are among the causes for rutting in the later
• PSI is expressed on a scale of zero to five where scale five part of pavement life. Untreated significant rutting may
refers to an excellent ride conditions and scale zero lead to further damage such as cracking and hydroplaning
indicates a very poor ride quality. especially when water ponding occurs.
• The serviceability of a pavement section is obtained from • Shoving | Shoving or creep is the horizontal
a group of evaluators who drive on the pavement and displacement of surfacing materials occurring mainly in the
assign ratings based on their subjective judgement of the direction of traffic where breaking or acceleration action
ride condition. take place. Permanent displacements can cause single
ridges or depressions similar to corrugations. Possible stresses developed in the pavement due to traffic loading.
causes for shoving are weak bond between pavement Weak bonding between surface layers and underlying
layers, lack of edge support, and insufficient pavement layer, inadequate surface thickness, and high stresses due
thickness. to braking and acceleration are primary causes for these
types of cracks.
Flexible | Cracks • Diagonal cracks | These are single cracks that form
• Cracks are fractured pavement condition resulting from a diagonally across the pavement, as shown. Differential
number of causes and are found in a variety of patterns settlement, service trenches, and shrinkage crack or joint
ranging from single to an interconnected pattern. Possible in the underlying layers are possible causes for diagonal
causes of cracks are deformations, fatigue life exceeded, cracks.
reflection of cracks from underlying layers, shrinkage, and • Meandering cracks | These are unconnected irregular
poor construction joints. Presence of cracks causes single cracks that run in any direction. Possible causes are
numerous problems in the pavement including limiting reflection of a shrinkage crack in the underlying layer, weak
load spreading capability through loss of structural pavement edge, differential settlement between cut and
strength, loss of waterproofing, and loss of roughness sill, and tree roots.
level.
• Crocodile cracks are interconnected cracks forming a Flexible | Surface Defects
series of small polygons resembling a crocodile skin. • As the term implies, surface distresses are associated
Crocodile cracks are usually fatigue cracks and are the early with the pavement surface and usually do not indicate
signs of pavement distress. They indicate a pavement structural problem in the pavement layers. However, they
condition where excessive movements occur in or more cause significant effect on pavement serviceability and skid
underlying layers. These cracks are caused due to resistance, and, if not treated, may lead to structural
inadequate pavement thickness, low modulus base course problems.
and aged wearing course, shrinkage of aged bitumen, very • Delamination is defined as the distress condition when
low temperature, and over-loaded vehicles. They usually wearing course debonds from the underlying layers and as
appear only in the traffic loading areas and allow water a result part of pavement wearing course of uniform
entering in the pavement. thickness is lost. Possible causes of delamination are lack
• Longitudinal cracks | Single or a number of parallel of bonding due to poor construction practice, inadequate
cracks appear longitudinally along the pavement due to surface thickness, seepage of water through surface
reflection of a shrinkage crack or joint in the underlying affecting bond between layers, weak underlying layer, and
layer, weak bond between pavement lanes, asphalt adhesion of binder to tires.
hardening, volume change in the subgrade, and differential • Flushing or bleeding | Flushing occurs when aggregate is
settlement between cut and fill. Poorly constructed lane immersed in the bitumen resulting excess binder on the
joint may also cause longitudinal cracks. These cracks do surface with very little texture. Flushing causes soft
not usually result from load but wide cracks will permit pavement surface in hot weather and slippery in wet or
water to enter the pavement structure. cold weather. It is normally associated with sprayed seal
pavements, though it may appear in asphalt pavements.
• Transverse cracks run transversely across the pavement Possible causes for flushing are (1) application of excess
and are common in aged asphalt surfaces. These cracks are binder, (2) use of excess prime coat, (3) excess binder in
caused due to primarily reflection of a shrinkage crack or the underlying surface, (4) flaky aggregate, and (5) low
joint in the underlying layer, construction joint, and strength base causing aggregate penetration into the base.
structural failure in the cement base. Similar to • Polishing is referred to the effect of smoothing or
longitudinal cracks, wide cracks permit water in the rounding of the upper part of the aggregates by the action
pavement. of heavy vehicular traffic. Polishing usually occurs at the
• Block cracks | Interconnected cracks that form a series of wheel paths and can be identified by the relative
rectangular blocks over the entire pavement are known as appearance of the trafficked and untrafficked areas. Use of
block cracks. Block cracks are generally non-load assisted, aggregate of low polishing resistance is the primary cause
but repeated loads increase severity. These cracks indicate of polishing.
that the asphalt has hardened significantly and the • Raveling is used to define a distress condition where
possible causes are (1) shrinkage and fatigue cracking in both aggregate and binder are progressively lost from
the underlying cemented materials, (2) joints in the pavement surface. Raveling is caused due to inadequate
underlying layer, and (3) fatigue and shrinkage cracking in binder, deterioration of binder condition, or inferior
the asphalt surfacing layers. asphalt mix design. Inadequate compaction or
• Crescent shaped cracks commonly appear on pavements construction in the wet or cold periods may also cause
as a set of closely spaced parallel cracks along with raveling. Delamination and raveling in sprayed seal
shoving, usually in the direction of traffic. These cracks pavements may not be easily differentiated.
appear when part of the asphalt surface moves away from • Stripping is normally associated with sprayed seal
the rest of the surface caused by the lateral and shear pavements and is a condition where only coarse aggregate
is lost leaving the binder in good condition. Possible causes rocking, (4) pumping as result of loss of fine material under
of stripping are (1) poor mix design, (2) weak bonding one slab, and (5) warping effects due to temperature and
between binder and stone, (3) aging or absorption of moisture gradients. Faulting is a major distress in rigid
binder, (4) use of weak aggregate, (5) presence of water, pavements as it allows water entry in the pavement and
and (6) poor compaction. affects ride quality.
• Potholes, bowl-shaped cavity in the pavements, are • Pumping in the concrete slab occurs when excessive
developed due to the loss of surface and base course moisture enters into the pavement through crack or poorly
material that become weak and loose when water enters constructed joint and the excess water is ejected through
into the pavement through cracking. Localized cracks and joints, due to the upward wrap and curl of the
disintegration and freeze-thaw cycles also cause potholes slab near the joint or crack, and movements of traffic.
in the pavement. Traffic and water in the cavity accelerate Pumping causes erosion of fine particles in the basecourse
the development of pothole. and thus causes structural deterioration such as, rocking,
• Patches | Pavement sections repaired to fix loss of faulting, and cracking.
serviceability or structural capacity are termed as patches. • Rocking is felt at a joint or crack with the passage of a
Patches are considered as the distress when it is raised or vehicle where pumping has caused loss of support.
depressed below the surface level. Other distresses may Inadequate subbase or subgrade support or differential
also occur in the patches. Patches include surface repair settlement in the subgrade may also cause rocking.
without digging out pavement layers, reconstruction of
surface or other layers, and excavation for services. Rigid | Cracking
• Shrinkage cracks are common in rigid pavements but it
Flexible | Edge Defects does not affect pavement performance if the pavement is
• Defects that occur along the joint of the pavement edge properly designed and constructed. Many patterns of
and shoulder are known as edge defects. These defects cracks ranging from single isolated cracks to
may appear in isolated areas or continuously along the interconnected multiple cracks are found in rigid
joint and they are particularly significant for unsealed pavements. The possible
shoulders. Edge defects reduce pavement width and affect causes of cracking in rigid pavements include: insufficient
ride quality. They also allow water entry into the slab thickness, shrinkage, weak subbase or subgrade, and
pavement. Two types of edge defects, such as, edge break differential subgrade movement. Cracking causes a number
and edge drop-off are common in flexible pavements. of problems such as loss of load spreading capability, loss
• Edge break | Irregular or broken pavement edge is of appearance, deteriorate
caused due to lack of edge support, inadequate pavement • Block cracks | Interconnected cracks that form a series of
width, poor bonding between seal and base course, and rectangular blocks over the entire pavement are known as
improperly designed pavement alignment. block cracks. Possible causes for block cracking are (1)
• Edge drop-off | The difference between the elevation of inadequate slab thickness, (2) loss of subbase or subgrade
pavement surface and shoulder is termed as edge drop-off. support, and (3) subgrade settlement.
Inadequate pavement width, lack of support to protect • Longitudinal cracks | Single or a number of parallel
shoulder erosion, and pavement resurfacing are common cracks appear longitudinally along the pavement. Possible
causes for the drop-off. causes for longitudinal cracks are (1) lateral shrinkage, (2)
insufficient slab thickness, (3)
Rigid | Deformation differential settlement, (4) lateral shrinkage, and (5)
• Deformation in rigid pavements results from cracking of longitudinal joint too shallow or too close to traffic lane.
slabs or from relative movement between slabs due to Poorly constructed joints can also cause longitudinal
load assisted and non-load assisted factors. Deformation cracks.
affects pavement ride quality and helps water entering in • Transverse cracks run transversely across the slab.
the pavement structures. The common types of Shrinkage, rocking action, and insufficient slab thickness
deformations found in the rigid pavement are depression, are possible causes for these cracks. Late saw cutting of
faulting, pumping, and rocking. construction joint can also cause these cracks. Transverse
• Depressions in rigid pavement occur across a crack or cracks generally start near construction joints.
joint, and are generally associated with significant cracking. • Diagonal cracks are single cracks run diagonally across
Poor compaction, weak subgrade support, and differential the slab. Settlement, shrinkage in the slab, inadequate slab
settlement of subgrade are possible causes for thickness, and rocking actions are possible causes for
depressions. It allows water ponding and increases the diagonal cracks in the rigid pavement.
chance of water entering through joints and cracks. • Corner cracks appear at the corners of slabs diagonally
• Faulting is a condition where concrete slab breaks into from a longitudinal edge to a transverse joint. The causes
two pieces along joints or cracks and the vertical for corner cracks are inadequate slab thickness, loss of
displacements between the broken slabs create a step. support of subbase or subgrade, overloading, curling or
Possible causes for faulting are (1) volume change in the corners, and poor joint design.
subgrade, (2) poor support in the subbase or subgrade, (3)
• Meandering cracks | Similar to flexible pavements, settlement between the shoulder and the edge of the slab
meandering cracks in rigid pavements are irregular single that may cause due to incorrect geometry, poor shoulder
cracks that run in any direction. Rocking action, settlement, drainage, and loose shoulder materials.
shrinkage, and inadequate slab thickness are possible
causes for meandering cracks. Module 7
Traffic Engineering
Rigid | Joint Seal and Spalling • Traffic Engineering is the science of measuring traffic and
• Joint seal defects are the most common defects in travel. It is the study of the basic laws relating to traffic
jointed concrete pavements. They can be easily identified flow and generation and the application of this knowledge
when seal is lost leaving a gap between the joints or when to the professional practice of planning, designing, and
sealant extrudes from the joint. Defective seal joints operating traffic systems to achieve safe and efficient
permit water to enter in the pavement structures and movement of persons and goods.
allow incompressible rubbish to lodge in the joint. • Objective of traffic engineering:
Incompressible material keeps the joint permanently open – Achieve efficient “free and rapid” flow of traffic
and limits the horizontal expansion of slabs. As a result, – Reduce the number of accidents
high stresses are developed in the pavement. Sealant • Various phases of traffic engineering:
construction quality, ageing of sealant, too much or too – Engineering (design, construction)
little sealant in the joint, and poor sealant performance are – Enforcement (traffic laws, regulations, and control)
primary causes for joint seal defects, though rocking and – Education (publicity through school and television)
pumping actions may also cause these defects.
• Spalling is found when small pieces of concrete, usually Traffic Characteristics
in angular shape, are separated from the pavement • Road user characteristics:
surface. Spalling generally occurs at joints, edges, corners – Physical
or cracks, or directly over reinforcing bars. Infiltration of – Mental
incompressible particles into joints or cracks, corrosion of – Psychological
rebars or dowels, misalignment of dowels, subbase • Vehicular characteristics:
movement, and poor-quality concrete aggregate are – Vehicle dimension
possible causes for spalling. – Weight of loaded vehicle
– Power of vehicle
Rigid | Surface Defects – Speed of vehicle
• Surface defects in rigid pavements include scaling, skid – Braking characteristics
resistance, pothole, and patching.
• Scaling or raveling is a condition when mortar and Traffic Studies
aggregate are lost through progressive breakdown of slab • Traffic studies are carried out to analyze the traffic
surface due to poor aggregate quality, inadequate curing, characteristics. These studies help in deciding the
local cement deficiency, or overworking of surface during geometric design features, traffic control for the efficiency
construction. of traffic movement.
• The various traffic survey studies generally carried out
are:
– Traffic volume study
• Skid resistance | Smooth, polished or glassy appearances – Speed study
indicate lack of skid resistance. Loss of skid resistance can – Origin and destination study
occur from low microtexture and macrotexture of the – Traffic flow characteristics
aggregates, as well as due to spillages, poor construction – Traffic capacity study
finishing, and poor-quality mortar that worn by traffic. – Parking study
• Pothole | Potholes in rigid pavement are bowl-shaped – Accident study
cavity in the surface. Potholes are developed due to
localized cracks, freeze–thaw action, and rebars too close Traffic Volume Study
to the surface. Traffic and water in the cavity accelerate the • It is the number of vehicles crossing a section of road per
development of pothole. unit time at any selected period.
• Patch | Original material from localized area of the • It is used as a quantity measure of flow. The commonly
concrete surface is removed and replaced with asphalt or units are vehicles/day or vehicles/hour.
concrete material to repair localized distresses. Variety of • The objectives and the used of traffic volume study are:
distresses may occur at the patches including cracking, – It is generally accepted as a true measure of the relative
spalling, and distortion. importance of roads and in deciding the priority for
• Edge defects | shoulder drop-off is the most common improvement and expansion.
pavement edge defect found in concrete pavements. – It is used in planning, traffic operation, and control of
Shoulder drop-off is characterized as the differential existing facilities and also for planning the new facilities.
– It is used in the analysis of traffic patterns and trends. or it is the average of instantaneous speeds of observed
– It is useful in structural design of pavement. vehicles at the spot.
– It is used in planning one-way streets and other
regulatory • Running speed | it is the average speed maintained by a
measure. vehicle over a particular stretch of road, while the vehicle
– Turning movement study is used in the design of is in motion. This is obtained by dividing the distance
intersections, in planning signal timings, channelization of covered by the time during which the vehicle is actually in
control devices. motion.
– Pedestrian traffic volume study is used for planning side • Journey speed | or travel speed is the effective speed
walk, cross walks, subway, and pedestrian signals. with which a vehicle traverses a particular route between
two terminals. It includes delay and stoppages.
Counting of Traffic Volume • Types of speed study
• Mechanical count – Spot speed study
– These may be fixed type or portable type. It – Speed and delay study
automatically records the total number of vehicles crossing • Use of spot speed study
a section of road in a desired period. – To use in planning traffic control and in traffic regulation
– Other methods of working the mechanical detectors are – To use in geometric design for redesigning the existing
by videos or by radar detectors. highway
– The advantage is that it can work throughout the day and – To use in accident studies
night for the desired period. – To study the traffic capacity
• Manual count • Speed and delay study
– It is possible to obtain data which cannot be collected by – The speed and delay studies give the running speeds,
mechanical counter such as vehicle classification and overall speed, fluctuations in speeds, and the delay
turning movement. between two stations of a road.
– It gives the information such as the amount, location,
Presentation of Traffic Volume Data duration and cause of delay in the traffic stream.
• Average annual flow (veh/yr) – The result of the spot and delay studies are useful in
• Annual average daily traffic (AADT or ADT) | Average detecting the spot of congestion.
daily traffic (ADT) represents the total traffic for a year – The delay or time lost during the travel period may be
divided by 365, or the average traffic volume per day either due to fixed delays or operational delays.
(veh/day). – Fixed delay occurs primarily at intersections due to traffic
• Hourly average traffic (veh/hr) signals and at level crossings.
• Thirtieth highest hourly volume | or design hourly – Operational delays are caused by the interference of
volume is found from the plot between hourly volume and traffic
the number of hours in a year that the traffic volume is movement, such as turning vehicles, parking vehicles,
exceeded. The 30th highest traffic volume is found to be pedestrians, etc.
satisfactory for both facility and economic considerations.

Spot Speed Data

• A graph is plotted with the average value of each speed
group on x-axis and the cumulative percent of vehicles
Speed Study travelled at or below the different speeds on y- axis.
• Spot speed | It is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at • 98th percentile speed – design speed
a specified location. • 85th percentile speed – maximum speed
• Average speed | It is the average of spot speed of all • 50th percentile speed – median speed
vehicles passing at given points on the highway. • 15th percentile speed – minimum speed
• Space mean speed | or harmonic mean is the average • Modal average speed
speed of vehicles in a certain road length at a given instant. – A frequency curve of spot speed is plotted with average
value of each speed group of vehicles in x-axis and the
percentage of vehicle in that group on the y-axis.
– The speed corresponding to peak value of curve is
denoted as modal speed.

Methods of Speed and Delay Study

• Time mean speed | or arithmetic mean is the mean • Floating car or riding check method
speed of vehicle at a point in space over a period of time • License plate or vehicle number method
• Interview method • Closely associated with the concept of capacity is the
• Elevated observations concept of level of service (LOS).
• Photographic technique • The quality of operations or level of service for a given
facility is a direct function of the flow or usage level on the
Floating Car or Riding Check Method facility.
• In this method, a test vehicle is driven over a given • For many transportation facilities, the level of service
course of travel at approximately the average speed of the along a section of the facility is described by assigning the
stream, thus trying to float with the traffic stream. section a letter from A to F, with LOS A referring to the best
• A number of test runs are made along the study stretch operating conditions and LOS F the worst.
and a group of observers record the various details.
• One observer is seated in the floating car with two stop Service Flow Rate
watches. • This represents the maximum flow rate that can be
• One of the stop watch is used to record the time at accommodated while maintaining a certain LOS.
various control point like intersections, bridges, or any • We would have a service flow rate for LOS A, another for
other fixed points in each trip. LOS B, and so on, up to LOS E.
• The other stop watch is used to find the duration of the • Service flow rate corresponding to LOS E is defined to be
individual delays. equal to the capacity of the facility.
• The time, location, and cause of these delays are • There is no service flow rate defined for LOS F because it
recorded by the second observer. corresponds to unstable flow conditions and to a
• The number of vehicles overtaking the test vehicle and breakdown in operations.
the
overtaken by the test vehicle are noted in each trip by third Highway Capacity
observer. • From a traffic flow analysis standpoint, highway facilities
• The number of vehicles traveling in the opposite can be divided into two broad categories:
direction in each trip is noted by fourth observer. – Uninterrupted flow facilities| are those in which there
• In this method, the detailed information is obtained are no external controls interrupting the flow of the traffic
concerning all phases of speed and delay including stream. Example is a freeway, where there are no at-grade
location, duration, and causes of delay. intersections, no traffic lights, and stop and yield signs.

Module 8
The Capacity Concept
• The Highway Capacity Manual (HCM), one of the most
important references for transportation professionals,
defines the capacity of a facility as follows:
• “The capacity of a facility is the maximum hourly rate at
which persons or vehicles can reasonably be expected to
traverse a point or a uniform section of a lane or roadway
during a given time period under prevailing roadway,
traffic, and control conditions.”
• Three important remarks should be made regarding the – Interrupted flow facilities | are those in which there are
HCM’s definition of capacity: external controls interrupting the flow of the traffic stream.
– First, it should be noted that the manual defines capacity Almost all urban surface streets fall under the category of
in terms of either vehicles or persons. The capacity for interrupted flow facilities.
highways, is typically defined in terms of vehicles. For
transit or pedestrian facilities, the capacity will be Traffic Stream Characteristics
expressed in terms of persons. • A highway traffic stream consists of drivers and vehicles
– Second, the definition specifies that capacity is defined interacting with each other and with the roadway
for a point or for a uniform section of a facility. The environment.
capacity of a facility varies based upon its geometric • To describe traffic stream behavior, transportation
characteristics, the mix of vehicles using it, and any control professionals have devised a set of macroscopic
actions applied to it. parameters and microscopic parameters.
– Finally, the HCM defines capacity as the maximum – Macroscopic parameters | describe the behavior of the
number of vehicles or persons that a facility can traffic stream as a whole. (i.e., flow, speed, and density)
reasonably accommodate. – Microscopic parameters | pertain to the behavior of
individual vehicles. (i.e., headways, and spacing)
The Level of Service Concept
Traffic Flow Parameters
• Flow (q) | Flow or volume is defined as the number of • The three basic macroscopic parameters of a traffic
vehicles passing a given point on a highway during a given stream (i.e., flow, speed, and density) are related to each
period of time, typically one hour (veh/hr). other by the following equation:
• An important flow parameter is the maximum flow value • q = uk
a given facility can reasonably be expected to • This equation states that the flow or traffic volume is
accommodate. equal to the product of speed and density.
• This is often referred to as the capacity (qm) of a • So, if a 1-mile stretch of a roadway contains 20 vehicles
roadway section. (i.e., k = 20), and the mean speed of the 20 vehicles is 40
• Speed (u) | Speed is the distance traveled by a vehicle mph, after 1 hour, 800 vehicles (40 x 20) would have
during a unit of time. It is usually expressed in miles/hr, passed.
km/hr, or ft/sec. • The value of the flow (q) or traffic volume in this case
• The speeds of individual vehicles can be averaged would be equal to 800 veh/hr.

Example 1
• Computing Macroscopic Traffic Parameters
• Data obtained from aerial photography showed eight
vehicles on an 800-ft long section of road. Traffic data
collected at the same time indicated an average time
headway of 3 sec.
• Determine the density on the highway.
• Determine the flow on the road.
• Determine the space mean speed.
– over time (by averaging the speeds of vehicles as they
Module 9
pass by an observer)
Hot-Mix Asphalt Concrete
– over space (by averaging the speeds of vehicles
• Hot-Mix Asphalt Concrete (HMAC) consists primarily of
occupying a given stretch of a highway at a given point in
mineral aggregates, asphalt cement (binder), and air.
time)
• It is important to have suitable proportions of asphalt
• This leads to time mean speed (ut) and space mean
cement and aggregates in HMAC so as to develop mixtures
speed (us), respectively.
that have desirable properties associated with good
• Space mean speed is typically used for traffic modeling.
performance.
• Density (k) | Traffic density is defined as the numbers of
• These performance measures include the resistance to
vehicles present over a unit length of highway at a given
the three primary GMAC distresses: permanent
instant in time.
deformation, fatigue cracking, and low-temperature
• Density is typically expressed in veh/mile or veh/km.
cracking.
• Headway (h) | Headway is defined as the difference in
time between the moment the front of a vehicle arrives at
Mineral Aggregates
a point on the highway and the moment the front of the
• Mineral aggregates make up 90 to 95% of a HMA mix by
following vehicle arrives at the same point.
weight or approximately 75 to 85% by volume.
• The time headway is typically expressed in seconds.
• Their physical characteristics are responsible for
• The flow of a traffic stream is equal to the inverse of the
providing a strong aggregate structure to resist
average time headway:
deformation due to repeated load applications.
• q = 1/h.average
• Aggregate mineralogical and chemical makeup are
• For example, if the average time headway for a given
important in evaluating characteristics such as hardness
traffic stream is 2 sec, the corresponding hourly flow value
(toughness), soundness (durability), shape, and stripping
would be equal to 3600/2 = 1800 veh/hr.
potential.
• Spacing (d) | The space headway is defined as the
• In ASTM D8 (ASTM, 2003), aggregate is defined as “a
distance between the front of a vehicle and the front of
granular material of mineral composition such as sand,
the following vehicle (in feet or meters).
gravel, shell, slag, or crushed stone, used with cementing
• The average spacing of vehicles in a traffic stream is
medium to form mortars or concrete or alone as in base
inversely related to the density.
courses, railroad ballasts, etc.”
• If the average spacing between vehicles on a roadway
• These aggregates can be divided into three main
stretch is 300 ft, the number of veh/mile (i.e., the traffic
categories:
density) on that stretch is 5280/300 = 17.6 veh/mile.
– Natural
• Therefore,
– Processed
• k = 1/d.average
– Synthetic (artificial)
• Natural aggregates | Natural aggregates are mined from
Relationships among Macroscopic Parameters
river or glacial deposits. They are frequently referred to as
pit-run or bank- run materials.
• Gravel and sand are examples of natural aggregates. • Instead, these values should be established by individual
– Gravel | is normally defined as aggregates passing the 3 agencies for sources specific to their locality based on
in. (75 mm) sieve and retained on the No. 4 (4.75 mm) knowledge and experience in the area. The source
sieve. properties are:
– Sand | is usually defined as aggregate passing the No. 4 – Toughness
sieve with the silt and clay fraction passing the No. 200 – Soundness
(0.075 mm) sieve. – Deleterious materials
• These aggregates in their natural form tend to be smooth
and round. Coarse Aggregate Angularity
• Processed materials | include gravel or stones that have • Coarse aggregate angularity | is defined as the percent
been crushed, washed, screened, or otherwise treated to by weight of aggregates retained on the No. 4 (4.75 mm)
enhance the performance of HMAC. sieve with one or more fractured face.
• Processed materials tend to be more angular and better • ASTM D5821 “Standard Test Method for Determining the
graded. Percentage of Fractured Particles in Coarse Aggregate.”
• Synthetic aggregates | are not mined or quarried. • In this procedure, individual aggregates are manually
Rather, they are manufactured through the application of examined for the presence of fractured faces.
physical and/or chemical processes as either a principal • Once the aggregates are sorted by the number of
product or a by-product. fractured faces, their percentages of aggregate with at
• They are often used to improve the skid resistance of least one or two fractured faces are calculated.
HMAC. Blast furnace slag, lightweight expanded clay, shale • A fractured face is defined as any angular, rough, or
or slate are examples of synthetic aggregates. broken surface of an aggregate particle that occupies more
than 25% of the outline of the aggregate particle visible in
Aggregate Specifications and Tests that orientation.
• Traditional aggregate specifications for HMA: • The percent of fractured particles in coarse aggregate can
• AASHTO M29 or ASTM D1073 “Standard Method of Test provide an indication of inter-particle shear friction or
for Fine Aggregate for Bituminous Paving Mixtures.” stability.
• ASTM D692 “Standard Specification for Coarse Aggregate
for Bituminous Paving Mixtures.” Fine Aggregate Angularity
• ASTM D242 “Standard Specification for Mineral Filler for • Fine aggregate angularity | is defined as the percent of
Bituminous Paving Mixtures.” air voids present in a loose compacted aggregate sample
• During the Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP, that passes the No. 8 (2.36 mm) sieve.
1994), no new research was conducted on aggregate • AASHTO T304 “Standard Method of Test for
properties. Uncompacted Void Content of Fine Aggregate - Method A.”
• However, experts were polled (using a modified Delphi • In this procedure, a nominal 100 cm3 calibrated cylinder
method) on the important aggregate tests and measure is filled with fine aggregate through a funnel
corresponding appropriate test values to ensure adequate placed at a fixed height above the measure.
performance in HMAC. • When the measure is overfilled, it is struck off and the
• This served as the basis for determining the consensus mass of aggregate inside the measure is determined by
properties and source properties used in the Superpave weighing.
mix design system. • The uncompacted void content is the difference between
• The consensus properties are critical properties required the volume of the cylindrical measure and the absolute
to develop a desirable HMA mix. volume of the fine aggregate (calculated from its mass and
• These properties are: bulk dry specific gravity).
– Coarse aggregate angularity • For fine aggregate with a given gradation, the void
– Fine aggregate angularity content
– Flat and elongated particles determined from this test provides an indication of the
– Clay content aggregate’s angularity, sphericity, and surface texture
relative to other fine aggregates with the same gradation.
• During the SHRP program, criteria were developed for
consensus properties and have been modified to reflect
later developments in Superpave research, as will be Flat and Elongated Particles
discussed under the Superpave mix design section. • Flat or elongated particles are defined as aggregate
• In addition to the consensus properties, properties having a ratio of width to thickness or length to width
specific to each aggregate source (source properties) are greater than a specified value.
also important. Since the critical values are source specific, • ASTM D4791 “Standard Practice for Flat Particles,
a range of universally acceptable values could not be Elongated Particles, or Flat and Elongated Particles in
established. Coarse Aggregate.”
• This test is conducted on aggregates retained on the No. • This test covers a procedure for testing aggregates up to
4 (4.75 mm) sieve. 1.5 in. (37.5 mm) in size. ASTM C535 should be used for
• In this procedure, a proportional caliper is used to aggregates with a larger maximum size up to 3 in. (75 mm).
measure the dimensional ratio of a representative sample • In this procedure, aggregate is degraded through
of coarse aggregate. abrasion, impact, and grinding in a rotating steel drum
• Aggregates exceeding the 5 to 1 ratio are considered flat containing steel spheres.
and elongated in the Superpave mix design system. • The Los Angeles abrasion loss is the difference between
• The percent of flat or elongated aggregates is reported as the original and final mass of the sample is expressed as a
a percentage of total aggregates tested. percentage of the original mass after washing off the No.
• Some people believe that this requirement should be 12 (1.70 mm) screen.
more stringent, possibly at 3 to 1 or 2 to 1. • It should be noted that the Los Angeles abrasion test
• Aggregates used in HMA mixes should be cubicle rather primarily evaluates an aggregate’s resistance to
than disproportionate in their dimensions. degradation by abrasion and impact.
• Aggregates particles that are significantly longer in one • However, results from this test do not correlate
dimension than in the other one or two dimensions have a satisfactorily with HMA performance in the field.
propensity to break during the construction process or • For example, slag and soft limestones often produce
under traffic loading. good
performing mixes even though their Los Angeles abrasion
Clay Content loss is high.
• Clay content is defined as the percentage of clay material
contained in the aggregate fraction that passes the No. 4 Soundness
(4.75 mm) sieve. • Soundness is the percent loss of material from an
• AASHTO T176 “Standard Method of Test for Plastic Fines aggregate blend during the sodium or magnesium sulfate
in Graded Aggregates and Soils by Use of the Sand soundness test.
Equivalent Test.” • AASHTO T104 “Standard Method of Test for Soundness of
• In this procedure, a sample of fine aggregate is placed in Aggregate by Use of Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium
a Sulfate.”
graduated cylinder with a flocculating solution. • In this procedure, aggregate samples are put through
• The cylinder is then agitated to loosen the clayey fines repeated cycles of immersion in saturated solutions of
within and surrounding the aggregate particles. sodium or magnesium sulfate followed by oven drying.
• The presence of a flocculating solution and the agitation • The percent loss of material is determined by taking the
to the container cause the clayey material to go into difference between the original and final (after the
suspension above the aggregate. specified number of cycles) masses expressed as a
• After allowing the constituents to settle for a specific percentage of the original mass.
length of time, the height of suspended clay and
sedimented aggregate is measured. Deleterious Materials
• The sand equivalent value is the ratio of the sand reading • The percentage of deleterious materials in blended
to the clay reading as a percentage. aggregate is determined.
• A low sand equivalent value, or high clay content, means • AASHTO T112 or ASTM C142 “Standard Method of Test
that there is “dirt” on the surface of the aggregates. for Clay Lumps and Friable Particles in Aggregate.”
• This “dirt” can reduce the bond between the aggregate • In this procedure, aggregates are individually subjected
and asphalt cement. to finger pressure (while soaking) to determine materials
• Consequently, the mix would have a greater tendency for that are friable or clay lumps.
stripping. • The percent of clay lumps and friable particles is
• Cleaner aggregate with higher sand equivalent values will determined by taking the difference between the original
enhance the performance of HMA. and final mass retained on a No. 200 (0.075 mm) sieve,
after wet sieving, expressed as a percentage of the original
mass. The percent of deleterious materials can range from
0.2 to 10%.

Toughness
• Toughness is the percent loss of material from an
aggregate blend during the Los Angeles Abrasion test.
• AASHTO T96 “Standard Method of Test for Resistance to
Degradation of Small-Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion
and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine.”