LESSON I as well as evaluation and choice of

Introduction to Transportation Planning project.

and Engineering • The process is useful for describing
the effects of a proposed
Introduction transportation alternative and for
• Transportation is essential for a explaining the benefits to the traveler
nation's development and growth. of a new transportation system and
• In both the public and private its impacts on the community.
sector, opportunities for engineering • The highway and traffic engineer is
careers in transportation are responsible for developing forecasts
exciting and rewarding. of travel demand, conducting
• Elements are constantly being added evaluations based on economic and
to the world's highway, rail, airport, non-economic factors, and
and mass transit systems, and new identifying alternatives for short-,
techniques are being applied for medium-, and long-range purposes.
operating and maintaining the
systems safely and economically. Basic Elements of Transportation Planning
• Many organizations and agencies
exist to plan, design, build, operate,
and maintain the nation's
transportation system.

Importance of Transportation
• carries necessary raw materials to
factory for production of goods and
supplies finished goods to
consumers.
• creates place and time utility of
goods by transporting from one place
to another.
• carries finished to the hands of those
who need and use them.
• Efficient transport is critical for
strengthening the country's
investment climate and enhancing
economic growth.
• The islands need to be linked by a
seamless transport network to
enable the cost-efficient movement
of goods and services within the
country and to facilitate inclusive
economic growth.

TRANSPORTATION PLANNING
• involves the elements of situation
and problem definition, search for
solutions and performance analysis,
Morales, Vince Michael O. (CEM-3204)
TRANSPORTATION AND TRAFFIC system in the sense that each of its
ENGINEERING PRACTICE components is part of a grand plan or
• Transportation Engineering is a field was developed in a conscious
or branch of Civil Engineering that manner to meet a set of specified
deals with the application of regional or national goals and
technology and scientific principles objectives.
to the planning, functional design, • Rather, the system has evolved over
operation and management of a period and is the result of many
facilities for any mode of independent actions taken by the
transportation in order to provide for private and public sectors, which act
the safe, rapid, comfortable, in their own or in the public's interest.
convenient, economical, and • A transportation system may be
environmentally compatible defined as consisting of the fixed
movement of people and goods. facilities, the flow entities, and the
• Traffic Engineering is that phase of control systems that permit people
Transportation Engineering that and goods to overcome the friction of
deals with the planning, geometric geographical space efficiently in
design, and traffic operations of order to participate in a timely
roads, streets and highways, their manner in some desired activity.
networks, terminals, abutting
lands, and relationships with other Transportation as a System
modes of transportation (Evans • A transportation system consists of
1950). In the United States, it was in different components which
1921 when the title "Traffic together allow people and goods to
Engineer" was first recognized, overcome the hindrance of geography.
although several traffic
engineering-related activities were The different components are:
already going on. ○ Fixed facilities
○ Flow Entities
○ Control System
LESSON 2 ○ Fixed Facilities
Transportation as a System - These are the physical
components of the system that are
Transportation system fixed in space and constitute the
• consists of vehicles, roads and network of links and nodes.
highways, terminal facilities, and - Road, railway track, ocean or
control systems that move freight waterways, airports harbor etc.
and passengers. These systems are are fixed facilities of their
usually operated according to respective modes.
established procedures and
schedules in the air, on land, and on ○ Flow Entities
water. - These are the components that
• The set of physical facilities, control traverse (travel through) the fixed
systems, and operating procedures facilities. They mainly include
referred to as the nation's vehicles and are considered based
transportation system is not a on shape, size, weight,
Morales, Vince Michael O. (CEM-3204)
 acceleration and deceleration Forces that Change the Transportation System
abilities. ● At any point in time, the nation's

- For example, road vehicles, trains, transportation system is in a state of

aircraft, ships etc. equilibrium as expressed by the
traffic carried (or market share) for
○ Control System each mode and the levels of service
1. Vehicle Control System provided (expressed as travel
- refers to the technological way attributes such as time, cost,
in which the vehicles are frequency, and comfort).
guided either automatically or ● This equilibrium is the result of
manually. market forces (state of the
2. Flow Control System economy, competition, costs, and
- consists of the means that prices of service), government
permit the efficient and actions (regulation, subsidy, and
smooth operation of stream promotion), and transportation
of vehicles and the reduction technology (speed, capacity, range,
of conflicts between them. and reliability).
- Eg: traffic control using traffic
● As these forces shift over time, the
lights, at the intersection, road transportation system changes as
signs and markings, air traffic well, creating a new set of market
control etc. help in the smooth shares (levels of demand) and a
flow of vehicles. revised transportation system.
Vehicle Type and Size
● For this reason, the nation's
Motor vehicles influence the following: transportation system is in a
1. Clearance for bridges, tunnels, and
constant state of flux, causing
grade separation short-term changes due to
2. Geometric design of streets, roads, immediate revisions in levels of
and parking lots service (such as raising the tolls on
a bridge or increasing the gasoline
The design of roads and highways still tax) and long-term changes in
requires information about the minimum lifestyles and land-use patterns
and maximum dimensions of vehicles, (such as moving to the suburbs after
specifically allowable weights that can pass a highway is built or converting auto
through a certain roadway. production from large to small
cars).

Role of Transportation in Society

● Transportation is an inseparable part of

a society.
● the measure of the development of

any society is characterized by how

developed transportation system is.
● Advancement in transportation has

made a vast change in the quality of life

of people.
● Impact of transportation can be

Morales, Vince Michael O. (CEM-3204)

 summarized as below: road density of 0.53 km/sq. km or 2.35
1. Economic role km per 1,000 people.
2. Social role ● Philippine roads are mostly made of
3. Political role
concrete pavement. Due to heavy,
4. Environmental role
overloaded trucks, pavements are
often damaged, a factor that
Philippine Transportation System contributes to traffic accidents.
BACKGROUND ● Due to a long rainy season, floods occur
● The Philippines, a member of the throughout the Philippines, Floodwaters
Association of Southeast Asian often cause damage to road pavements
Nations, is an archipelagic country due to inadequate drainage.
consisting of more than 7,100 islands. ● There are about 11,500 bridges in the
With a total land area of about 300,000 national network (measuring about
sq. km, it has 81 provinces, 136 cities, 335,500 lineal meters), of which 1,700
and 1,494 municipalities (NSCB 2007). bridges are temporary (DPWH 2004).
● Metro Manila is the seat of the
government and the primary center of Public Transportation
● The mode of public transportation in
business and trade. Other urban centers
include the major cities of Cebu and Metro Manila is predominantly road-
Davao. based, consisting largely of jeepneys
● The population of the Philippines is
and buses for primary and secondary
about 80 million, with a growth rate of routes, and motorized tricycles and
2.2 percent per annum. The population pedicabs for feeder routes.
● There are about 330 bus routes and 600
density stands at 227 persons/ sq. km.
● Metro Manila comprises sixteen cities
jeepney routes. These routes include
and one municipality (NSCB 2007). Its those serving the adjoining areas of
land area is 636 sq. km, and it has a Metro Manila.
● The jeepneys cover more than 610 km
population of 10.4 million. This implies
that about 14 percent of the country's of roads while buses operate mainly on
population is concentrated in only 0.3 about 350km of roads (ALMEC Corp
percent of the country's land area. Its 1999).
● During rush hours, the inadequate
population density is about 16,000
persons/sq. km, one of the highest in provision of public transportation
Southeast Asia. becomes apparent. Many commuters
● The population growth rate is about 3
can be seen standing on the
percent, higher than the national carriageway while waiting for buses
average (ALMEC Corp. 1999). and jeepneys. Passengers clinging to
anything at the back of jeepneys are a
Road Transport Network common sight.
● Some 80% of domestic passenger

traffic and 60% of freight traffic Traffic Management

● Traffic control devices such as traffic
currently use the road, and 75% of
government expenditures on transport signs and markings generally follow
infrastructure goes to road systems the international standard, the
(Abueva 2004). Philippines being a signatory to the
● The Philippines has a total road length
Vienna Convention in 1968.
● However, many of the signs installed
of about 161,000 km, with an average
conform neither to color nor shape as
Morales, Vince Michael O. (CEM-3204)
 provided for in the standard. The number inaccessible to the elderly and the
of traffic signs installed is generally handicapped.
insufficient. Vehicle Registration
● In highly urbanized areas, these signs ● The registration of vehicles in the
can hardly be recognized, much less Philippines is handled by the Land
read, as they compete with giant Transportation Office (LTO), a line
billboards in terms of visibility and agency of the Department
craftsmanship. Transportation and Communication
● Traffic signals are commonly installed (DOTC).
at major intersections in many cities ● The number of utility vehicles or
and towns in the Philippines although jeepneys has a share of 37 percent.
the number is still inadequate. ● The number of motorcycles has
● Oftentimes, these signals do not provide increased tremendously in the last three
display phase exclusive for pedestrians. years due to the influx of cheaper
● In Metro Manila, there is a growing models into the country. It reached the
concern about the safety of 1.5 million mark in 2002. However, this
pedestrians due to the closure of number accounts for both the
intersections and with the U-turn slot motorcycles (MCs) for private use and
scheme replacing the control of traffic tricycles (TCs) for public transport
signals. use.
● Pedestrians have practically no ● There is therefore a need to separate the

opportunity to cross the road categories since they serve completely

because of the "uninterrupted" flow of different purposes. About 40% of the
traffic. total numbers of vehicles are registered
● Without traffic signals controlling the in Metro Manila. Motor vehicles are
traffic flow at intersections, driving has classified as follows: Private vehicles For
become riskier because of frequent hire vehicles Official/ Government
swerving/ weaving. There is an urgent Vehicles Diplomatic Vehicles.
need to evaluate the effectiveness of the
scheme, which has the sole purpose of Insurance
improving speed along the arterials ● Motor vehicle owners are required to

without consideration of safety. obtain insurance covering third-party

liabilities.
Pedestrian Facilities ● The minimum insurance to be paid to

● Sidewalks are in relatively good victims of traffic accidents (fatal) was

condition; however, many P50, 000 in 2002.
obstructions can be found on them ● The Insurance Surely Association of
such as illegal vendors, electrical the Philippines under the Office of the
posts, police outpost, etc. Insurance Commissioner accredited
● With the sidewalk occupied, pedestrians 112 insurance companies all over the
have to walk on the carriageway. Philippines by 2002. It regulates the
● There are still very few overhead industry to prevent the proliferation of
pedestrian bridges even in Metro Manila fly-by-night insurance companies.
and at places where these have been
constructed, pedestrians still prefer to Driving License
risk their lives or limbs by crossing the ● The issuing procedure of driving license
road at grade level. in provided for under Republic Act (RA)
● Pedestrian overpasses are often
Morales, Vince Michael O. (CEM-3204)
 4136. LESSON 2.1
● The LTO has the full responsibility for the Traffic Management
issuance of driving licenses. Introduction
● There are three types of driving licenses: • Traffic management is a term used to
○ Student driver's permit embody the activities undertaken by a
○ Nonprofessional driver's license highway transportation agency to
○ Professional driver's license improve roadway system safety,
Traffic Engineering in the Philippines efficiency and effectiveness for both
● The traffic engineering practice in the providers and consumers of
Philippines is still new. Most transportation services.
intersections were previously • There are two distinct types of traffic
controlled by traffic police officers or management.
by manually operated traffic signals. ▪ The first one is through the use
● Outside Metro Manila, manually of traditional traffic
operated semaphore signals displaying engineering tools or simple
STOP or GO message were installed on devices to regulate and control
top of police outposts located at the traffic.
center of the intersection. ▪ The second relies more on
● In 1977, the Traffic Engineering and simple devices to regulate and
Management (TEAM) Project first control traffic. The second
implemented an area traffic control relies more on advanced
system in Metro Manila. It was almost at technology through the use of
the same period when the Traffic Intelligent Transportation
Control Center, later renamed as the Systems (ITS).
Traffic Engineering Center (TEC), was • Advancement of ITS has been the
established. primary goal of many developed
● The center was responsible for the countries. The more conventional
implementation of various traffic applications are common in
engineering and management measures developing countries. However, it is
such as traffic signalization, geometric not uncommon in both developed and
improvement of intersections, etc. developing countries to have a
● In 1976, the Transport Training Center combination of conventional methods
(TTC) was established in the University of and ITS application.
the Philippines with assistance from
Japan through the Japan International TRAFFIC REGULATIONS
Cooperation Agency (JICA). ▪ Traffic regulation must cover all
● TTC started its training program in aspects of the control of both vehicle
1978 in the fields of traffic engineering, (registration, ownership, mechanical
transportation planning, and traffic fitness, accessories, size, and weight)
management for traffic law enforcers. and driver (age, ability to operate
● TC was renamed as the National Center specific types of vehicles, financial
for Transportation Studies and became responsibility).
a regular unit of UP Diliman in 1993, with ▪ Traffic regulations must be
research and support to graduate reasonable and effective. This can
programs in the fields of transportation only be achieved through careful
engineering and transportation planning study. Facts must be sought through
as additional functions. the conduct of traffic studies,

Morales, Vince Michael O. (CEM-3204)

 accident analysis, keeping driver c. Guiding devices
records, and other data. ○ These are employed simply to
▪ All traffic regulations are inform the road user of route,
dependent upon the laws of the destination, and other
states and local governments, pertinent traffic.
especially the ordinances of cities. ○ example: street sign, guide sign,
Legislative bodies and traffic arrows
authorities must keep in mind that TRAFFIC SIGNS AND MARKINGS
unreasonable restrictions or Traffic signs are classified depending on
regulations are not likely to last very their intended uses:
long.
a. Informative:

- the signs are intended to guide users

Effective Traffic Regulation
while they are traveling.
There are fundamental
- example: hospital, school
requirements for traffic regulation to be
effective. These are as follows:
b. Regulatory:
• Regulation should be rational. - the signs are intended to inform
• Regulations should be developed users of special obligations,
progressively. restrictions, or prohibitions with
• Regulations alone often are not which they must comply.
enough. - example: speed limit sign, stop sign

Three Elements of the Road System c.Warning:

1. ROAD/ ENVIRONMENT - these signs are intended to warn

2. VEHICLES users of a danger on the road and

3. DRIVER /HUMAN to inform them of its nature
Elements of Design
TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES Uniformity in design includes shape, color,
There are three distinct functional groups of dimension, symbols, wording, lettering, and
traffic control devices: illumination or reflectorization.
a. Regulatory devices

○ These have the authority of law and

1. SHAPE
impose precise requirements upon the Shapes of signs are standardized as follows:
actions of the road user. a. Equilateral triangular shape with

○ example: stop sign, speed limit one side horizontal - danger

warning signs.
b. Warning devices b. Round shape - regulating traffic.

○ These are used to inform road c. Rectangular shape -informative

users of potentially hazardous signs.

roadway conditions or unusual d. Octagonal shape - STOP signs only.
traffic movements that are not e. Inverted equilateral triangle -
readily apparent to passing YIELD signs only.
traffic.
○ example: marking, sharp curves,
intersections, pedestrian

Morales, Vince Michael O. (CEM-3204)

2. COLOR STOP and YIELD signs
1. Danger warning signs - a yellow or 4.ILLUMINATION AND REFLECTORIZATION
white background with black Signs are intended to convey messages
symbols and red border. during both daytime and night time. During
2. Prohibitory signs and restrictive hours of darkness, this can be achieved
signs - a white background with black through illumination or by using reflective
symbols and red border. materials for signs.
3. Mandatory signs (except STOP and

YIELD signs) - a blue background and 5.LATERAL PLACEMENT

white symbols.
Rural areas (uncurbed roads)
4. STOP signs - a red background and

white symbols. ● The sign should be at least 60 cm

5. YIELD signs - a yellow background
clear of the outer edge of the road
and red border. shoulder, the line of guideposts, or
6. Informative signs - a white or light-
face of guardrails.
colored symbol on a dark-colored ● The clearance should not be less
(blue or black) background or a blue than 2 m nor more than 5 m from
or dark-colored symbol on a white or the edge of the traveled way, except
light-colored background. for large guide signs on expressways
where ample clearance may be
required.
3. SIZE
The minimum dimensions of signs
Urban areas
depend upon the intended
● signs should be located away
applications. Larger sizes are necessary
from the face of the curb not
at wider roadways and on high speed
less than 30 cm but not more
highways.
than 1 m. If the curb is
According to section 2.5 of DPWH mountable or semi
Highway Safety Design Standards Part mountable, the minimum
2: Road Signs and Pavement Markings clearance should be 50g cm.
Manual, regulatory signs are of four ● On uncurbed roads, the
sizes based on the speed of the facility distance given for rural areas
as follows: shall be used.
● A for urban low-speed roads 6.HEIGHT
● B for rural roads with speed Rural areas
limits between 60 kph and 70 ● the height of the sign should
kph normally be between fi m and fi.5 m
● C for high-speed rural above the nearest edge of the
highways traveled way. For intersection
direction signs, the height should
D for expressways
●
be increased to 2m.
Table 2.1 Recommended dimensions for
● Final height is dictated by visibility

factor as the sign should be

mounted clear of vegetation and it
must be clearly visible under
headlight illumination at night.

Morales, Vince Michael O. (CEM-3204)

Urban areas (curbed roads)
● the signs should be mounted at a

minimum of 2 m above the top of

the curb to prevent obstructions to
pedestrians.

Lateral Placement and Height

Priority Signs
Priority signs have various forms.
The two most commonly used priority signs
are the STOP and YIELD signs.

7. LOCATION OF ADVANCED WARNING

SIGNS
Rural areas
● they should be placed no less than
75 m but no more than 225 m ahead
of the hazardous area.
● The final location shall be
determined based on the nature of
the hazard, reaction time, and
operating speed in the area.

Urban areas
● warning signs should be placed no

less than 30 m but more than

fi00m in advance of the hazardous
area.
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD TRAFFIC SIGNS
Warning Signs
The Vienna Convention allows two forms for
the warning sign:
1. triangular in shape with a red

border
2. diamond in shape.

Morales, Vince Michael O. (CEM-3204)

Prohibition Signs
● Prohibition signs are round with a
red border and either a white or a
yellow background.
● Access restrictions signs can have
a red bar from low right to top left.
● Parking prohibitions have a blue
background.
● The signs that signal the end of a
prohibition are white or yellow with
a small black border and a black
bar form left below to right top. The
bar can be replaced by a series of
small bars. In addition, the symbol
for which the end of prohibition is
intended is given in gray
Other Prescription Signs
● rectangular with either a blue base
with a white background, or with a
light base with a dark foreground.
● These signs give
prohibitions, obligations, or
danger messages for particular
lanes on a multilane road.
● Each lane is represented by an
arrow, to which the appropriate sign
is affixed.
● The background color blue is used
for major roads, white for minor
roads, and within built-up areas,
and yellow for road works

Obligatory Signs
● The obligatory signs are round and
in blue colors.

Morales, Vince Michael O. (CEM-3204)

Information Signs ○ They may not be clearly visible if
● These signs are rectangular with a the road is wet or dusty (e.g., near
white or yellow plate with a symbol shoulder edge or median).
that stands for the service involved. ○ They may be obscured by traffic.
The signs can be either blue or ○ Their effect on skid resistance
green. requires a careful choice of
materials.
○ They cannot be applied on
unsealed roads.
Despite these limitations, they have the
advantage under favorable conditions of
conveying warning messages or
information to drivers without diverting
their attention from the road.

Legal Authority
○ Markings shall only be applied
and/ or removed by the
Direction Signs Department of Public Works and
Highways (DPWH or an authority
● A profusion of colors and forms is to which these powers are
available. In general, the forms delegated.
shown must be adopted, and in ○ All line-markings plans must be
some cases even the color shown approved by the DPWH before
must be used and not be changed. installation.
Additional Information
These signs are small and rectangular, they Standardization
supplement the information on the main sign. ● As in the case with all other traffic
control devices, it is imperative
PAVEMENT MARKINGS that markings be uniform so
▪ A system of clear and effective that they may be recognized and
pavement markings is essential for understood instantly by all
the guidance and control of vehicles drivers.
and pedestrians. ● Manuals are available from the
▪ They take the form of lines, symbols, DPWH, and on request, it will
messages, or numerals, and may be furnish traffic authorities, road
set into the surface of, applied upon, markers, material suppliers/
or attached to the pavement. manufacturers, and similarly
▪ In some cases, pavement markings interested agencies, detailed
are used as a supplement to other drawings of the standard designs
traffic control devices such as traffic and locations.
signals and road signs. In other
instances, they may simply guide Types of Markings
traffic regulations. Markings are classified into the following
▪ Pavement markings have some groups:
definite limitations: a. Pavement and curb markings
○ They are subject to traffic wear ● Longitudinal lines are those
and require proper maintenance. laid in the direction of travel.
Morales, Vince Michael O. (CEM-3204)
 These include Center Line, Color
Lane Line, Double Yellow Line, The color of pavement markings shall be
"No-Passing" Zone Markings, white, except for the alternative uses of
Pavement Edge Line, yellow in the following cases:
Continuity Lines, and Transition ○ Double yellow "no-passing" lines
Line. ○ Unbroken portion of "no-parking" lines
● Transverse lines are those laid ○ Curb markings for prohibition of
across the direction of travel. parking
These include Stop Line, Yield ○ On island in line of traffic
(Give Way) Lines, and ○ Bus and PUJ lanes
Pedestrian Crossing Markings.
● Other lines, which include Turn Black may be used in combination with
Lines, Parking Bays, Painted white or yellow in hazard markers to warn
Median Islands, and Bus & PUJ drivers at locations where the protruding
Lane Lines. objects - such as bridge piers, traffic
● Other markings, which include islands, or other protruding objects - on or
Approach Markings to Islands near the windows roadway. However, the
and Obstructions, Chevron use of black does not establish it as a
Markings, Diagonal Markings, standard color for pavement marking.
Markings on Exit and Entrance
Ramps, Curb Markings for PAVEMENT MARKINGS
Parking Restrictions, • used to convey messages to roadway
Approarch Railroad Crossings, users.
Messages, and Symbols and • indicate which part of the road to
Pavement Arrows. use, provide information about
b. Object markings conditions ahead, and indicate
● Object within the roadway where passing is allowed.
● Object adjacent to the roadway
c. Reflector markings Yellow Lines
o Retro-reflector raised • Broken Line - passing is allowed

pavement markers when safe

o Hazard Markers • Solid Line & Broken Line - you may

o Delineators pass only when it is safe and the

broken line is on your side
Materials • Double Solid Line - no passing

▪ Road markings should be of non-skid allowed

materials and should not protrude • Single Solid Line - passing is allowed

more than 6 mm above the level of the with extra caution

carriageway. • Double Broken Yellow Line - lane is

▪ Raised pavement markings should Reversible

not protrude more than 15 mm above • lane control signal will show
the level of the carriageway. The if you may use this lane.
following are the commonly used
materials for road markings:
o Pain
o Thermoplastic materials
o Pre-cut sheeting
o Raised pavement markers
Morales, Vince Michael O. (CEM-3204)
White Lines area and identifies the
• Single Solid Line - do not change lane. projects to be constructed
• Broken Line - lane changing is allowed over a 20-year period
when safe. ● involve programs such as
• Stop Line - stop before this lane. adding new highway elements,
• Pedestrian Crosswalk - stop for additional bus lines or freeway
pedestrians in the crosswalk lanes, rapid transit systems
and extensions, or access
roads to airports or shopping
malls.

LESSON 3
Urban Transportation Planning

INTRODUCTION
● Urban transportation planning
involves the evaluation and COMPREHENSIVE URBAN AREA
selection of highway or transit TRANSPORTATION PROCESS
facilities to serve present and ● Inventory of Existing Travel and
future land uses. Facilities Establishment of Goals and
● The process must also consider
Objectives
other proposed developments and ● Generation of Alternatives.
improvements that will occur ● Estimation of Project Cost and Travel
within the planning period. Demand
● Urban transportation planning is
o Planning - Level Cost
concerned with two separate time Estimation
horizons: o Planning - Level Demand
SHORT-TERM PROJECTS Estimation
- implemented within a one- to three-
year period ● Evaluation of Alternatives
- designed to provide better ● Choice of Project
management of existing facilities
- involve programs such as traffic PLANNING - LEVEL COST ESTIMATION
signal timing to improve flow, car and
Updating Costs for a Rail Feasibility Study
vanpooling to reduce congestion,
The following table shows indices for 2001
park-and-ride fringe parking lots to
and 2005 for railroads, highways, and the
increase transit ridership, and transit
Consumer Price Index. A study of a freight
improvements.
rail improvement project was completed in
LONG-TERM PROJECTS
2001 that recommended improvements
● deals with the long-range
such as siding, track extension, and track
transportation needs of an
Morales, Vince Michael O. (CEM-3204)
maintenance and estimated a total cost of PROCESS
$120 million in 2001 dollars, The study cost TRAFFIC FLOW FUNDAMENTALS
$250,000 to perform, and the state agency FLOW RATE OR VOLUME (VEH/HR)
would like to convert this cost estimate to Flow rate is defined as the number of
2005 dollars without redoing the entire vehicles passing a point during a specified
study. How much should the improvements period of time.
cost in 2005 dollars?

Example:
Let us suppose a 15-minute count of vehicles
bound for Manila was conducted at a
particular location on Ǫuezon Avenue. A
summary is shown in the table below.

Estimate the flow rate in vehicles per hour.

ROUTE PLANNING
SPEED (KPH, MPH, M/S)
PUBLIC TRANSPORT ROUTE PLANNING
Speed is defined as rate of motion in
distance per unit time. When describing
traffic stream, two types of speed are used:
time mean speed and space mean speed.

Time Mean Speed / Spot Speed

- is simply the arithmetic mean of the
speeds of vehicles passing a point
within a given interval of time.

Morales, Vince Michael O. (CEM-3204)

Example:
The speed of 25 cars was observed. 10 TIME HEADWAY
cars were noted to travel at 35 kph, 5 Time headway is defined as the time interval
cars at 40 kph, 2 cars at 50 kph, and 5 between passage of consecutive vehicles at
cars at 45 kph. Assuming that each a specified point on the road with a unit of
car was traveling at constant speed, time per vehicles.
determine the time mean speed.

Example:
During morning peak hour, the average
headway of UP-Katipunan jeepneys is
estimated at 5 minutes. If the passenger
demand during the same period is 240,
Space Mean Speed / Harmonic Mean Speed determine whether there is a need to increase
- is used to describe the rate of the number of jeepney units (or shorten the
movement of a traffic stream within a headway) for this route. Assume that
given section of road. It is the speed passenger demand is evenly distributed
based on the average travel time of within that period and the average
vehicles in the stream within the load/occupancy is 14 passengers per
section. jeepney. (Note: This assumption may not
necessarily be true due to fluctuation of
passenger demand and variability of
passenger occupancy.)

Example:
The speed of 25 cars was observed. 10 cars
were noted to travel at 35 kph. 8 cars at 40
kph. 2 cars at 50 kph, and 5 cars at 45 kph.
Assuming that each car was traveling at
constant speed, determine the space mean
speed.

DENSITY (VEH/KIM) SPACING

- Density is defined as the number of Spacing is the distance between two
vehicles in a given length of road at vehicles measure from the front bumper of a
an instant point in time vehicle to that of another.

Morales, Vince Michael O. (CEM-3204)

Example: Example:
During heavy traffic congestion, it was Data on density and speed were obtained
observed that the average spacing of vehicles from a four-line, two-way rural highway (in
in queue in the innermost lane of EDSA is one direction only);
6.5 m. Determine the jam density of stopped
vehicles.

RELATIONSHIP OF FLOW, SPEED, AND

DENSITY
- A relationship exists among the three
most important traffic variables:
Flow rate, space mean speed, and
density. Example:
- A dimensional analysis of the units Using the results of the previous example,
will show that flow rate (veh/hr) is determine the free flow speed and jam
simply the product of density (veh/km) density. The density-speed relation
and space mean speed (km/hr), or obtained from the previous example is

As mentioned earlier, density is the most Free flow speed occurs when density k = 0
difficult variable to measure. It can be
obtained indirectly using this relation.

SPEED-DENSITY RELATIONS

Jam density occurs when speed u = 0

The regression line takes the form

u = a + bk VOLUME-DENSITY RELATIONS
where
u — speed
k — density
a, b — constants to be determined

Morales, Vince Michael O. (CEM-3204)

 • the information gathered provided
VOLUME-SPEED RELATIONS useful insight concerning the
characteristics of the trip maker, the
land use at each end of the trip and
the mode of travel.
• travel data then could be aggregated
by zone and/or be used at a more
disaggregated level to formulate
relationships between variables and
to calibrate models.
Example:
In the previous example, determine the capacity of Intercity Travel Demand Forecasts
the rural highway in one direction. • data are generally aggregated to a
greater extent than for urban travel
forecasting, such as city population,
average city income, and travel time
or travel cost between city pairs.
• The availability of travel data
improved considerably with the
formation of the Bureau of
Transportation Statistics
• The availability of data from the
Census Bureau's American
Community Survey is another
LESSON 4 positive development.
Travel Demand Forecasting
INTRODUCTION FACTORS INFULENCING TRAVEL DEMAND
• Travel demand is expressed as the 1. Land-use Characteristics (primary
number of persons or vehicles per factor)
unit time that can be expected to 2. Socioeconomic Characteristics
travel on a given segment of a (lifestyle, behavior)
transportation system under a set of 3. The availability of Transportation
given land- use, socioeconomic, and Facilities and Services "Supply"
environmental conditions. (supply, convenient, safety)
• Forecasts of travel demand are used
to establish the vehicular volume on Sequential Steps for Travel Forecasting
future or modified transportation
system alternatives.
• The travel demand forecasting process
is as much an art as it is a science.

DEMAND FORCASTING APPROACH

Urban Travel Demand Forecasts
• when first developed in the 1950s and
1960s
• required that extensive databases be
prepared using home interview
and/or roadside interview surveys
Morales, Vince Michael O. (CEM-3204)
Feedback loop depending on the complexity of significant proportion of all trips.
the model • The first step is to develop a
- Trip Generation / relationship between socioeconomic
Generation/Attraction - "How measures and trip production. The two
many trips will be there in the variables most commonly used are
future in the study area?" (Trip average income and auto ownership.
Ends) • Other variables that could be
- Trip Distribution - "From which considered are household size and
zones are these trips generated stage in the household life cycle. The
and to which zones are these trips relationships are developed based on
bound?" income data and results of 0-D
- Mode Choice / Modal Split - surveys
"Which mode of travel will be
used?"
- Assign Trips to Network /
Assignment - "Which route will
these trips take?"

Lesson 4.1 - TRIP GENERATION

Trip Generation
• is the process of determining the
number of trips that will begin or
end in each traffic analysis zone
within a study area PROBLEM: Region A is made up of zones 1, 2,
• each trip has two ends, and these are 3, 4, and 5. A census was done within the
described in terms of trip purpose, or region to determine the number of trips per
whether the trips are either produced household size by auto ownership. The data
gathered are presented in Table 4.1. The
by a traffic zone or attracted to a traffic
zone forecasted number of household in Zone 3 by
size and auto ownership are presented in
• Trip generation analysis has two
Table 4.2. Solve for:
functions:
a. Trip rates by auto ownership and
- to develop a relationship between
household size
trip end production or attraction
b. Total number of trips generated in
and land use
Zone 3
- to use the relationship to
estimate the number of trips
generated at some future date
under a new set of land use
conditions.
CROSS-CLASSIFICATION
• Cross-classification is a technique
developed by the Federal Highway
Administration (FHWA) to determine
the number of trips that begin or end
at the home.
• Homebased trip generation is a
useful value because it can represent a

Morales, Vince Michael O. (CEM-3204)

 PROBLEM: A commercial center in the
downtown contains several retail
PROBLEM: A travel survey produced the establishments and light industries.
data shown in the table. Twenty households Employed at the center are 220 retail and
were interviewed. The table shows the 650 non-retail workers. The employees
number of trips produced per day for each of have the following demographic:
the households (numbered 1 through 20), as
well as the corresponding annual household Retail Employees - 35% home-based work,
income and the number of automobiles 35% home-based other and 30% non-
owned. Household income is classified into home-based
three: low income (<$32,000), medium Non-retail Employees - 50% home-based
income (> $32,000 - $48,000), and high work, 30% home-based other and 20% non-
income (>$48,000). Solve for the trip rate by home based.
income classification and auto ownership
in trips per household Determine the number of trips per day
attracted to this zone. Table 4.4 shows the
trip rate in trips per employee by type of
work and type of employee.

Morales, Vince Michael O. (CEM-3204)

Regression Analysis Lesson 4.2 - TRIP DISTRIBUTION
A multiple regression analysis shows the Trip Distribution
following relationship for the number of • is a process by which the trips
trips per household. generated in one zone are allocated
to other zones in the study area.
Formula: T = 0.82 + 1.3P + 2.1A • considers internal-external trips (or
vice versa) where one end of the trip is
Where: within the study area and the other end
is outside the study area.
T = number of trips per household per day • several basic methods are used for trip
P = number of persons per household distribution
A = number of autos per household - Gravity Model
- Growth Factor Models
PROBLEM: If a particular TAZ contains 250
households with an average of 4 persons and Two basic methods by which this connection
2 autos for each household, determine the can be achieved.
average number of trips per day in that zone. 1. Growth factor method
Step 1. Calculate the number of trips per ○ Constant Factor Method
household. ○ Average factor Method
○ Fratar Method
T= 0.82 + 1.3P + 2.1A ○ Fumess Method (double
= 0.82 + (1.3 × 4) ÷ (2.1 x 2) constrained)
= 10.22 trips/household/day 2. Synthetic Methods
○ Gravity model
Step 2. Determine the number of trips in the ○ Opportunity model
entire zone. GRAVITY MODEL
• The most widely used and
Total trips in TAZ = 250 (10.22) = 2,555 documented trip distribution model
trips/day states that the number of trips
between two zones is directly
Other mathematical formulas establish the proportional to the number of trip
relationships for trip length, percentage of attractions generated by the zone of
trips by auto or transit, or the particular destination and inversely
travel route selected. proportional to a function of time of
travel between the two zones.
FORMULA 1
• measure of attraction
• distance

Morales, Vince Michael O. (CEM-3204)

Example. A survey was done on Study Zone FORMULA 2
A. The survey shows that 110 trips per day ● Production

are produced in the zone, all of them going ● Attraction

to the three shopping centers are located ● With iterations
outside the zone. The shopping centers have
● Stop if + - 5 or if there is an equal
the following characteristics:
between computed a and p

Assuming the floor space is the measure of

attractiveness, and the value of n is 2, solve for
the number of trips attracted to shopping
center 1, 2, and 3. Example. To illustrate the application of the
gravity model, consider a study area
consisting of three zones. The data have been
For Shopping Center 1:
determined as follows: the number of
productions and attractions has been
computed for each zone by methods described
in the section on trip generation, and the average
travel times between each zone have been
determined. Assume K. = 1 for all zones.
For Shopping Center 2: Finally, the F values have been calibrated as
previously described and are shown for each
travel time increment. All necessary
information are presented on the tables below.

Determine the number of zone-to-zone trips

through two iterations
For Shopping Center 3:

First Iteration

Morales, Vince Michael O. (CEM-3204)

 FORMULA 3

Second Iteration

Morales, Vince Michael O. (CEM-3204)

 Step 1: Calculate Friction Factors {Fij}

Step 2: Find Denominator of Gravity Model

Equation {AjFijKij}

Example Step 3: Find Probability that Trip i will be

Given: attracted to Zone j, {pij}
● Target-year Productions, {Pi}

● Relative Attractiveness of Zones, {Aj}

● Skim Table, {Wij}

● Calibration Factor, c = 2.0

● Socioeconomic Adjustment Factor, K =

1.0 Find:
● Trip Interchanges, {Ǫij}

Step 4: Find Trip Interchanges, {Ǫij}

Morales, Vince Michael O. (CEM-3204)

Morales, Vince Michael O. (CEM-3204)