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Vol.M26ANAGEMENT .
(5) 929-942 May 2022

Sustainable Environment: A Comprehensive Evaluation of the Effects of Gas flaring in

the Niger Delta, Nigeria
*1UCHEGBULAM, I; 2ALIYUDA, A; 3JOHN, YM
*1
Department of Physics Production Technology, School of Science Laboratory Technology, University of Port Harcourt, Choba, P.M.B.
5323, Nigeria.
2
Department of Automatic Control and Systems Engineering, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK.
3
Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, and Informatics. University of Bradford, Bradford, West Yorkshire BD7
1DP, UK.

*Corresponding Author Email: uche.aberdeen.ac.uk@gmail.com

Other Authors Email: aliyuda.ali6@gmail.com; yakubujohnmandafiya@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: The objective of this review is to provide an extensive assessment of the impacts of gas flaring from
the ancient to modern life conditions at the Niger Delta as an area of global significance was reviewed from Millennium
development goal (MDG) sustainable environmental perspective. These effects of flared gas took so long to persist due
to its underdeveloped market, technological deficiency in its conversion into profitable byproducts and/or reinjection
into geologic reservoirs until when needed. Findings show that these upstream emissions from flared gas have led to
precipitation of acid rain and anthropogenic emissions like GHGs, VOCs, PM and over 250 toxins that have caused
innumerable adverse effects on the Niger Delta communities and to the global community as climatic changes and
global warming. Categorically, the environmental effects ranged between air, soil, water, heat, light and noise pollution
as well as loss of biodiversity, vegetation and inflicted severe impacts on the health, and socioeconomic destitution of
the Niger Delta residents including deterioration of the houses they live and shoreline threats as a coastal habitat.
Despite the Nigerian government’s achievements in recovering the accrued carbon debt through liquefied natural gas
(LNG) projects and other strategic measures as attested by international agencies, yet a detailed discussion on the
constraints to effective anti-flare deadlines were also highlighted. Also, suggestions for substantial sustainability of the
Niger Delta was made towards a climatic justice and zero-carbon footprint.

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.4314/jasem.v26i5.21

Open Access Article: (https://pkp.sfu.ca/ojs/) This an open access article distributed under the Creative
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medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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Copyright: © 2022 Uchegbulam et al

Dates: Received: 05 February 2022; Revised: 13 April 2022; Accepted: 17 May 2022

Keywords: Gas flaring effects; Niger Delta; Greenhouse gases; sustainable environment

Historical Background of Gas Flaring in The Niger awarded the rights for exclusive exploration in 1937,
Delta: It is well known that Nigeria is endowed with the oil prospection was suspended in 1946 due to the
petroleum crude oil in commercial quantities at an second world war and resumed in 1951 when the first
estimated reserve around 23 billion barrels (bb) of oil oilwell was drilled at Ihuo at Owerri in Imo state. The
and about 184 trillion cubic feet (tcf) of natural gas, breakthrough came in 1956 as the first successful
Giwa, et al., (2014). Based on these, Nigeria became oilwell pumped out oil at Oloibiri in Bayelsa state
the highest African producer of crude oil and 11th on while first exportation took place in 1958 (Obi, et al.,
the global table which enlisted her as an OPEC 2021b; Ukala, 2010). After this, explorative
member since 1971 in addition to being the largest expansions cut across other parts of the 75,000 km2
proprietor of natural gas reserves in Africa and 7 th area of Niger Delta bound southwards by the Atlantic
globally, Mafimisebi Nkwunonwo, (2014) and Ogbe, Ocean with coastlines spreading from the bank of the
et al., (2011). Historically, attempts to explore crude Imo River eastward and Benin River at the west
oil started in 1908 by the German company known as (Ololube, et al., 2013). Geologically, the Niger Delta
the Nigerian Bitumen Corporation, Shell D‘Arcy was basin is at the foundation of the top Benin, middle

*Corresponding Author Email: uche.aberdeen.ac.uk@gmail.com

Sustainable Environment: A Comprehensive Evaluation of The Effects….. 930

Agbada and base Akata formations (Ehirim and with one of the principal objectives of the Niger Delta
Abbey, 2016). It has huge reserves of petroleum crude Development Commission (NDDC) which stipulates
oil and gas as much as 800 to 1000scfd (standard cubic thorough research on the environmental status of the
feet per day) of gas to oil ratio which drew global Niger Delta region. To achieve this, the present study
attraction to the 1958 success recorded by Shell was structured in a way that after this historical trend
Petroleum Development Corporation (SPDC) of gas flaring development in the Niger Delta, next
(Kaladumo and Ideriah, 2014). As an inland tertiary was an inventory of the emissions from flared gas in
sedimentary basin with typical features of both this region and to cascade on the consequences of
structural and stratigraphic complexities arising from these emissions with a focus on critical atmospheric,
formational developments, these structural features environmental, noise, heat and light pollution as well
are responsible for its hydrocarbon development. The as socio-economic and health effects recorded in
wealth of Niger Delta’s structural characteristics came literature. Also, a detailed attention was drawn to the
from its synsedimentary tectonics and the effects of inhaling flared gas emissions with a focus on
accompanying sediment loading (Emam, 2016). With carbon monoxide. A correlation between GHGs and
these, the region was endowed with commercial global warming in the context of flared gas as well as
reserves of petroleum crude oil and gas. When this oil a highlight on the effect of gas flaring facilities’
is extracted, it comes with natural gas as an associated proximity to both biotic and abiotic components of this
gas which must be separated before the oil refinery. localized ecosystem were also discussed. An
While the oil was exported massively, there was no assessment of achievements of MDG 7 with respect to
identified market for the natural gas as well as no sustainable environment towards a zero-carbon
technological means of utilizing it. The only option footprint was also made. A detailed performance
was to burn it off by flaring and this indicates that gas appraisal of interventionist agencies on the
flaring commenced with the first oil production in environmental sustainability of the Niger Delta from
1956. Ironically, this same Niger Delta region that the colonial government through several military and
produces the economic fortunes of the country has civilian governments with a focus on the NDDC was
faced devastating situations from gas flaring while also demonstrated. The concluding section came after
(Ogwu, et al., 2021) reported that the major problems evaluating the constraints to realistic anti-flare
in the Niger Delta are all traceable to the Nigerian oil deadlines and the Nigerian government’s
and gas industry. If Americans are worried about achievements so far in reducing the accrued carbon
residents up to 17.6 million living within 1 mile from debt. Finally, there were recommendations to the way
oil or gas wells (Cushing, et al., 2021), then, the forward for a cleaner soil, water and air quality in the
Nigerian government is unfair to the Niger Delta Niger Delta.
people who live within flare zones to the extent that
they dry their food using the heat from flare sites. Inventory of Flared Gas Emissions and their
There has been reports of soil, water and air pollution Consequences in the Niger Delta: Gas flaring can only
that has caused harm to fishes, crops, vegetation, be allowed as a safety measure to dispose associated
human health and socioeconomic lifestyle including gas or to relieve built up pressure during emergency,
detrimental effects on the houses they live in. The testing or equipment failure (Emam, 2016; Edino, et
worsts are the release of GHGs and radioactive forcing al., 2010; Chang, et al., 2017; Fagbami, et al., 2015).
(Cushing, et al., 2021), leading to severe irreversible From this safety standpoint to a permanent production
climatic alterations that has attracted global attention activity, gas flaring has taken an unplanned effect of
in recent times. Clarion calls from several researchers heat and noise on the host environments to the extent
(Ogbe, et al., 2011; Adekomaya, et al., 2016; Ogolo of making most host communities uninhabitable. It has
and Onyekonwu, 2015) on the urgent need to end the also caused human displacement with the antecedents
anthropogenic emissions from gas flaring need to be of a dilapidated ecological habitat. In fact, it has been
sustained towards a global attention to this ecological a controversial practice (Rahimpour, et al., 2011), as it
and climatic injustice. It is then the aim of this paper became a severe case too delicate to evict. The
to join in the campaign of raising passionate appeals to upstream and downstream emissions from gas flaring
stakeholders, opinion analysts and policy makers to are rather ubiquitous especially to climatic changes.
join hands for remediating the already accrued carbon This associated gas flaring is a source of significant
debt and other effects linked to gas flaring. amount of global GHGs and other poisonous
Objectively, this will be done by evaluating the emissions. The volume of pollutant gases emitted
correlation between gas flaring and the environmental, depends on the combustion efficiency of the flare
socio-economic and health status at the Niger Delta as system, while the brightness and colour depend on the
well as the Nigerian government’s efforts so far in original composition of the generated associated gas.
handling gas flaring situations. This study is in line One established factor is the effect of proximity to the
UCHEGBULAM, I; ALIYUDA, A; JOHN, YM
Sustainable Environment: A Comprehensive Evaluation of The Effects….. 931

flare facilities as disclosed in table 1, showing the Development Corporation (SPDC) facilities and a
distribution of pollutant gases within Shell Petroleum location with no history of gas flaring (Eneka village).

Table 1: Air quality of selected Niger Delta locations: a non-flare area and 200 m from two flare stacks (Nwaichi and Uzazobona, 2011).
Location CO (μg/m3) CO2 (μg/m3) SO2 (μg/m3) NO2 (μg/m3)
Non-Flare area (Eneka Village) 5.71 5.54 <0.01 <0.01
Flare area (SPDC, Agbada 1) 55 59.25 7.45 16.3
Flare area (SPDC, Agbada 2) 11.2 69.05 24.2 37.3

The results show remarkable increase of emissions emissions are hydrolyzed according to the following
towards the flare site. These emissions have taken stoichiometric relations (Abdulkareem, et al., 2012):
turns to affect the environment, air quality, noise and
heat levels as well as socioeconomic life of the Niger CO2 (g) + H2 O(l) → H2 CO3 (aq) 1
Delta residents until now. SO3 (g) + H2 O(l) → H2 SO4 (aq) 2
NO2 (g) + H2 O(l) → HNO2 (aq) + HNO3 (aq) 3
Atmospheric Effect: Up to 2013, about 0.456 million
tons of the global black carbon emission as part of Naturally, atmospheric CO2 is responsible for the
PM2.5 came from the Niger Delta of Nigeria which can slight acidity of rain water up to pH of 6.0 which has
be linked to gas flaring and other incomplete been rated to be harmless. However, the contributions
combustions of fossil fuel (Giwa, et al., 2014). Also, of anthropogenic CO2 with these other acidic gases
Black carbon’s destructive role in human health, (SO2 and NO2) in the atmosphere expressed in
physical visibility and the ecosystem is of immense equations 1 to 3, rainwater acidity can range between
global concern. For instance, notwithstanding that 2.0 and 4.0 in pH which is quite devastating to any
black carbon resides in the atmosphere for few days, 1 living tissue (Ekpoh and Obia, 2010). From equations
g of it can warm the atmosphere hundreds of times 1 to 3, the resultant dilute acid solutions formed are
than 1 g of CO2 floating on the atmosphere in 100 precipitated as acid rain which comes down as toxic
years making the contribution of black carbon to rainfall causing skin disorders and carcinogenic
global warming to be about 70% that of the CO2 effects, alteration of compositional parameters of sea
(Giwa, et al., 2014; Giwa, et al., 2016). In addition, the and domestic water quality. Also, it causes damage to
residual (unburnt) components consist of methane and vegetation, discoloration of walls, corrosion and
VOCs. Findings reveal that within 20 years of leakage of roofing sheets, deterioration of monuments,
exposure, 1 kg of CH4 is 62 times more damaging accumulation of debris on rooftops and structures of
compared to exposure to 1 kg of CO2 (Mafimisebi and economic values despite the unquantified effects on
Nkwunonwo, 2014) and 25 times as a potential global the aquatic ecosystem (Ekpoh and Obia, 2010;
warming greenhouse gas than CO2 based on their Abdulkareem, et al., 2012; Adoki, 2012; Udoekanem,
masses (Kaladumo and Ideriah, 2014). Specifically, 2013).
the GHGs and VOCs have been labelled in
photochemical formation of Tropospheric Ozone and Environmental Impacts: Petroleum crude oil
this bad ozone consequently is harmful to both plant exploration and exploitation are accompanied with
and humans (Emam, 2016; Ghorbani, et al., 2013; destruction of existing ground surface leading to both
Nwosisi, et al., 2019). Also, more than 250 toxins have environmental and socioeconomic implications
been identified within flared gas including dioxin, (Ehirim and Dagogo, 2016). Public opinion has faulted
H2S, toluene, xylene, styrene, benzopyrene, oil spillage and gas flaring as root causes of the present
naphthalene, benzene and its metabolites etc. (Giwa, level of environmental dilapidation in the Niger Delta
et al., 2014; Mafimisebi and Nkwunonwo, 2014; Obi, (Akpomuvie, 2011). Its spillage has been proven as a
et al., 2021a; Obi, et al., 2021b; Giwa, et al., 2017; major contributor to soil saturation with trace metals
Ekpoh and Obia, 2010; Ismail, and Umukoro, 2012). which increases the human exposure and
The Niger Delta have been selected as a case study in bioaccumulation of these metals (Zabbey, and
this review since Nigeria gas flaring through this Babatunde, 2015). Majority of the spilt oil are not
region is responsible for 18 million metric ton of recovered and the root cause of the spillage has been
GHGs and other lethal emissions (Obi, et al., 2021a). linked to inadequate pipeline inspection and
The atmosphere naturally conducts self-purification maintenance as well as the use of pipelines that has
periodically by rinsing off excessive pollutant loads exceeded their life expectancy leading to corrosion
with suspended liquid scrubbers. With water vapour and ease of sabotage, (Emoyan, 2008). Most of
and fog as the primary scrubbing or precipitation emitted GHGs come from flare stacks and majority of
media, the atmosphere enriched with oxides of the world’s flare sites are localized at the Niger Delta
Carbon, Sulphur and Nitrogen from anthropogenic
UCHEGBULAM, I; ALIYUDA, A; JOHN, YM
Sustainable Environment: A Comprehensive Evaluation of The Effects….. 932

region (Adoki, 2012) of Nigeria. This region with growth and reduced propensity to pollination leading
exceptional biodiversity is the world’s largest wetland, to dwindling agricultural productivity as well as
second largest mangrove in the world and third largest diminishing wildlife and domestic biodiversity
drainage basin in Africa but now saturated with over (Edino, et al., 2010; Ana, 2011; Nwanya, 2011). No
123 gas flaring sites (Giwa, et al., 2014; Ogwu, et al., significant farm practice is currently going on at the
2021; Giwa, et al., 2017; Zabbey, and Babatunde, Niger Delta mainly due to the flared gas effects
2015; Ana, 2011; Tawari and Abowei, 2012; Ite and (Adekomaya, et al., 2016). Comparing the prehistoric
Ibok, 2013) currently in operation while (Olujobi, Niger Delta residents who were fish and food crop
2020), puts it at 144 with all adding to pollution of the farmers to the present-day residents (non-oil working
air, soil and water. In addition, the emissions also class), it is obvious that they have been displaced
contain VOCs such as benzene, H2S, toluene and without an effective program of rehabilitation. The
xylene (Anosike, 2010), that make the water highly water toxicity from acid rain and heating from the flare
toxic for the ecosystem. The dark coloration and stacks has got the fishes extinct while the people eating
soured taste of this rain water due to saturated PM and the surviving intoxicated fishes in turn get poisoned
soot content makes it undrinkable (Adoki, 2012; since biological law has it that once a unit in a food
Nkwocha and Pat-Mbano, 2010; Orimoogunje, 2010). chain is infected, its dependents will be affected.
With limited access to healthy drinking water, Acidified soil profile, (Anosike, 2010); Orimoogunje,
majority of the Niger Delta resident resort to shallow 2010), coupled with anthropogenic photoperiodic
boreholes and hand-dug wells since the water table is effects due to the excessive light from flare stacks has
less than one meter in the rainy seasons. Based on this, led to reduced crop yields. It was observed in the
spilt petroleum crude oil becomes easier to sip into infertility in okra and palm trees which lost their
drinking water, (Emoyan, 2008). Even after sand budding tendencies hence could not bear fruits while
filtration, acidified water has been reported (Adoki, maize, yam and cassava have been warned not to be
2012; Ana, 2011) in shallow hand dug water wells in planted within 2 km from flare stacks if any crop yield
several communities in the Niger Delta. Poisoned is expected. Besides, cassava plants were reported
water bodies have also been reported (Abdulkareem, with stunted growths and diminishing nutritive
et al., 2012), that are both undrinkable and cannot contents in starch, vitamin C and amino acids in the
sustain the fish domain the Niger Delta was formerly root tubers near flare zones, (Nwanya, 2011; Odjugo
known for. Other major opportunity costs of these and Osemwenkhae, 2009). Worst still, to humans,
anthropogenic emissions comprise the rise in sea level, much attention has not been given to the thermal
coastal erosion, wildlife extinction, loss of energy released from the flare stacks having it in mind
biodiversity, acidified water penetration into coastal that this is a place some people call home, (Nwanya,
aquifer and other lethal endemic effects of acid rain on 2011). Sunstroke due to prolonged and extreme
the coastal ecosystem in this area as highlighted in exposure to UV rays above the heat-regulating
(Abdulkareem, et al., 2012; Adoki, 2012; Emoyan, mechanisms of the human body as well as skin
2008; Tawari and Abowei, 2012). disorders are eminent to Niger Delta residents.

Noise, heat and light pollution: It has been proven that Socioeconomic consequences and perceived injustice:
the flare system also emits substantial amount of noise Despite the huge income, the oil sector has not added
and heat pollution 0.5 km from the stack base making significant value to the Nigeria economy looking at the
the flare zone too unlively for human habitation 2% it offers as GDP in addition to its negative impacts
(Emam, 2016; Obi, et al., 2021a; Abdulkareem, et al., to health and environment (Mafimisebi and
2012). The exothermic combustion of associated gas Nkwunonwo, 2014). Regardless of the huge economic
releases significant amount of heat. Fishes as cold- fortunes and developmental platforms from oil
blooded aquatic animals are sensitive to such water discovery in Nigeria, the environmental, health and
temperature rise. Reports (Abdulkareem, et al., 2012), socio-economic consequences of its upstream and
reveal premature hatching of fish eggs before their downstream emissions are rather ubiquitous. In
gestation period due to unusual temperature rise of the addition, the compromise of economic profits by the
aquatic habitat and worse still, not hatching at all. In Nigerian government, the multinational oil companies
addition, the radiated heat around flare stacks have and other stakeholders at the expense of standard
been noticed to be above tolerable limits for certain livelihood of Niger Delta communities is an outright
cash crops to survive, while (Abdulkareem, et al., abuse of human dignity. Reacting to these, the
2012), estimated a 10%, 45% and 100% reductions in restiveness and agitations for commensurate balance
crop yields for plants at 1 km, 0.6 km and 0.2 km from and remediation of the damages have taken
the flare stack respectively. With these regions as a dimensions that were not earlier envisaged. From
heat sink to the flare stacks, plants have met stunted another perspective, looking at the recorded 168 bcm
UCHEGBULAM, I; ALIYUDA, A; JOHN, YM
Sustainable Environment: A Comprehensive Evaluation of The Effects….. 933

(billion cubic meters) of gas flared globally per year, disposal of used vehicle oils have contributed
the Nigeria’s Niger Delta contributes 13% which is immensely to pollutant saturated atmosphere (Ana,
about 23 bcm and are in surplus for both export and 2011; Osuji and Avwiri, 2005; Zitte, et al., 2016;
domestic demand. This amounts to an annual loss of Marais, et al., 2014). A report, (Zitte, et al., 2016),
$2.5billion to all Nigerians at the detriment of showed that improper disposal of used oil can pose
potential returns on natural gas investments (Giwa, et lethal effect than oil pollution as one gallon of it can
al., 2014; Mafimisebi and Nkwunonwo, 2014; Ogolo contaminate one million gallons of fresh water. Apart
and Onyekonwu, 2015; Edino, et al., 2010; Giwa, et from being a colossal waste, the natural gas meant to
al., 2016; Ite and Ibok, 2013; Olujobi, 2020; Anosike, be put in useful values has turned the Niger Delta into
2010; Nkwocha and Pat-Mbano, 2010; Dung, 2008; civil unrest, socioeconomic devastations, ecological
Mrabure and Ohimor, 2020; Ighalo, et al., 2020). A degradation as well as the global threats of climatic
recent study, (Calel and Mahdavi, 2020), puts this changes and global warming (Giwa, et al., 2017).
figure at 16% of global flared gas with the economic Although the opinions of previous studies have
annual loss still at $2.5 billion meanwhile Nigeria differed on the link of these effects with the political
remains among the poorest countries with more than and security instability in the Niger Delta region, yet,
half the populace living below US$ 2.0 per day, it is imperative that socioeconomic and cultural
(Maduka and Tobin-West, 2017). As at 2004, Nigeria heritage in the area have been adversely affected.
alone contributed 14% of the 160 bcm of gas flared While reports claim that it will take up to 30 years to
globally, making her the second behind Russia in gas detoxify the Ogoni area of the Niger Delta, (Uwagie-
flaring (Giwa, et al., 2014; Ukala, 2010; Ogolo and Ero, 2015), yet more anthropogenic emissions are
Onyekonwu, 2015; Giwa, et al., 2016; Osuji, and introduced into the environment extending both the
Avwiri, 2005; Anejionu, et al., 2014; Onyejekwe, degree of damage and the hope of restoring normalcy.
2013). Instead of second position, other researchers Pertaining to perceived injustice, human security is not
(Mafimisebi and Nkwunonwo, 2014; Adoki, 2012; restricted to an individual’s freedom to movement.
Emoyan, 2008; Ana, 2011; Inumidun, et al., 2021), The Niger Delta residents are subjected to other severe
have placed Nigeria as the number one gas flare human security threats like instabilities to daily routine
country contributing roughly 19.79% of the total life whether in their homes, source of income or as a
global quantity and 46% of African flared gas per ton community as well as threats of hunger, diseases and
of produced petroleum crude oil. With Nigeria leading natural tragedies. Attention has been drawn to these
the flare table with 24.1 bcm behind Russia at 14.7 threats to life as they can wipe out an entire community
bcm, yet six out of the first 20 highest farers were even more than war, genocide and terrorism put
African countries. It has been reported that, Nigeria together, (Ololube, et al., 2013). Therefore, there is an
flares 42.6% of her gas, Equatorial Guinea, Angola, urgent need to rehabilitate the Niger Delta as the
Gabon, Congo and Algeria at 94.9, 80, 66.7, 16.9 and people have lost confidence in the leadership to the
2.3% respectively on same chart with the UK and USA extent that even best intentions have always been
at 1.7 and 0.4% respectively (Oni and Oyewo, 2011; misunderstood (Emoyan, 2008). This can be seen in a
Adekomaya, et al., 2016). This also indicates that common practice where different sets of youthful
before 2004, Nigeria has already flared about 76% of groups demand royalties from contractors before
her produced gas at the rate of about 70 million/m3 per commencement of any industrial activity believing
day (Emoyan, 2008; Orimoogunje, 2010). This 42.6% that all projects in the area have political interests
lost as an asset daily is enough to meet the electric alone.
energy needs of the country with more to lend to
neighbors. Despite the gas reserves enough to generate Health Implications: In the Niger Delta region,
constant electric power supply, within massive residents have been striving with the flaring of crude
industrialization and increasing socio-economic oil associated gas which is heavily laden with CO,
developments, the citizens were left with no option CO2, SO2, NO2, soot enriched with Black Carbon
than self-auto-generation sets and electric power (BC), hydrocarbons and polycyclic aromatic
plants which also contribute to downstream emissions. hydrocarbon (PAH) alongside noise and heat (Emam,
Apart from gas flaring and private electric power 2016; Giwa, et al., 2017; Nwosisi, 2021; Fawole, et
generation, illicit refineries, oil spillage, pipeline al., 2019; McEwen and Johnson, 2012), which are all
leakages and explosions have also submitted their detrimental to the ecosystem. Records (Nwosisi, et al.,
quota to the total anthropogenic emissions in this 2019; Obi, et al., 2021a; Giwa, et al., 2017) show that
region without successful control measures. Worst short time human exposure to NO2 can cause breathing
still, the state of road network, presence of adulterated complications, increased exacerbation of asthma and
fuel and number of malfunctioning vehicles on the other respiratory morbidities. Residents exposed to
road as well as heavy road traffic and indiscriminate other gas flare pollutants are noticed to suffer different
UCHEGBULAM, I; ALIYUDA, A; JOHN, YM
Sustainable Environment: A Comprehensive Evaluation of The Effects….. 934

levels of hematological, skin and eye deteriorations. heart and myocardial destruction. However, more of
Other health issues associated with flared gas which the inhaled CO are reversibly distributed to
have been reported in Niger Delta includes blindness, hemoglobin (Hb) in the red blood cells as (Payne-
aggravated Asthma, Chronic Bronchitis, Cancer, James, 2016):
Leukemia, reduced lung function, Pneumonia,
impotency, miscarriages, stillbirths and other 𝐻𝑏𝑂2 + 𝐶𝑂 → −𝐶𝑂𝐻𝑏 + 𝑂2 4
reproductive disorders as well as dysfunctional
immune system (Mafimisebi and Nkwunonwo, 2014; Since the relative affinity of CO for Hb is higher by
Oni and Oyewo, 2011; Emam, 2016; Ana, 2011; 200 to 250 times than that of Oxygen, it can easily
Anosike, 2010; Osuoha and Fakutiju, 2017). The noise displace Oxygen in the blood to form
and heat have become major causes of insomnia and Carboxyhemoglobin (COHb), (Stork, 2014; Payne-
heat rashes respectively in addition to disruption of James, 2016). Consequently, this ends up in
wake-sleep rhythm of residents especially those at hypoxemia, tissue hypoxia and when the COHb is
close proximity to flare facilities (Ekpoh and Obia, circulated within the body it causes Asphyxia. CO
2010). In addition to gas flaring, oil spillage causes poisoning targets mostly organs with high oxygen
bioaccumulation of trace metals and the health effects demand such as the heart and central nervous system
of consuming intoxicated seafoods can lead to severe leading to dizziness, loss of coordination and headache
poisoning, nephrotoxicity and neurotoxicity, (Zabbey, as well as delayed neuropsychiatric sequelae (Stork,
and Babatunde, 2015). Gas flaring has been suspected 2014; Payne-James, 2016; Lee and Bye, 2019;
to affect the unborn children (Adekomaya, et al., Betterman and Patel, 2014). Since CO health
2016), through transferred toxicities. Even in the US, problems are dose dependent, the inhalation at low
Unconventional oil and gas practices has been linked concentrations can cause fatigue even in healthy
to adverse effects on fetal development and neonates people while at higher quantities it can lead to reduce
(Cushing, et al., 2021). In unborn and newly born blood supply to the heart (myocardial Ischemia),
babies, apart from child malnutrition and premature irregular rhythm of the heart (cardiac dysrhythmia),
births, epidemiologic evidence indicates that newborn lethargy (physical and mental dullness) due to carbon
babies from pregnant mothers with moderate doses of monoxide induced fatigue (Stork, 2014; Payne-James,
Carbon monoxide (CO) were at higher chances of 2016; Lee and Bye, 2019; Betterman and Patel, 2014).
underweight and higher risks of premature death. This In addition, spasm (seizures), coma and death as well
was due to fetal toxicity of CO occurring even when as visual, auditory and memory losses mainly due to
maternal absorption of CO was still at low doses. the destruction of the hippocampus has also been
Death of Neonates has been placed at a child mortality linked to Carbon monoxide poisoning. The
of 16,000 babies dying within the first month after challenging part of COHb formation according to
birth while adult life expectancy in the Niger Delta has Fawole, et al., (2019), lies in the body’s difficulty of
been cut down to 45 years or even less, (Stork, 2014; early detection and the complexities of its clinical
Ratcliffe, 2019) against the national average of 55 diagnosis since it has similar coloration with the host
years (Ebeku, 2020). Fetal toxicity of CO was evident (red blood cells) (Stork, 2014; Payne-James, 2016;
(Payne-James, 2016) as confusion, cerebral edema, Lee and Bye, 2019; Betterman and Patel, 2014).
excessive heartbeat (tachycardia), unusual fast
breathing, (tachypnea) and bluish skin due to Correlation between GHGs and global warming:
insufficient oxygen in the blood (cyanosis) in the There is a direct link between GHGs and global
unborn baby. It was also linked to personality and warming. When the sun emits solar radiations through
behavioral deficits in young people with maternal CO light and heat energies into the earth as visible,
toxicity. Diseases and organ failures attributed to gas ultraviolet and infrared rays, parts of these rays are
flaring in the Niger Delta includes kidney failure, reflected back into space by the ozone layer to protect
diabetes as well as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s the earth. The part of the rays penetrating the earth
diseases (Ratcliffe, 2019). surface are meant to be partly absorbed and partly
reflected back into space but a gaseous blanket of
Epidemiology of oxides of carbon inhalation: The GHGs traps some of the reflected rays and remit it into
toxicokinetic of Carbon monoxide inhalation which is the earth to maintain warmth until the next sunshine.
one of the dominant gas flaring emissions shows that Without this, extreme cold and freezing would set in
when the gas exchange region of the respiratory track especially at night. These gases were named
absorbs inhaled Carbon monoxide, a part of it is bound greenhouse gas similar to the horticultural technology
to myoglobin. Significant amount of CO bound to where a glass house was used to transmit light but
myoglobin reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of the reserve heat energy from the sun for plants to grow in
blood, muscular hypoxia, tissue oxygenation to the otherwise cold environment. This greenhouse effect
UCHEGBULAM, I; ALIYUDA, A; JOHN, YM
Sustainable Environment: A Comprehensive Evaluation of The Effects….. 935

has been altered by anthropogenic GHGs in which respectively at Port Harcourt Refinery with 0.16
their concentration has exceeded the natural mg/m3 and 0.05 mg/m3 at the Eleme Petrochemical
greenhouse gas budget leading to excessive gaseous complex. This shows the concentration of emissions
blanket that absorbs and remits more than required. closer to the flare zone relative to distances further
This higher heat balance of the earth is causing away. Similarly, as the flared gas contents are proven
extreme warming called global warming (Kaladumo carcinogens (Edino, et al., 2010), such as Benzopyrene
and Ideriah, 2014; Abdulkareem, et al., 2012). Global and dioxin (Anosike, 2010), study by (Nkwocha and
warming has caused globally detrimental effects like Pat-Mbano, 2010), within the vicinity of flare stacks,
climatic alterations, excessive storms and flooding, highlighted higher health cases like 8 cancer cases, 49
significant melting of snow and ice into water that untimely deaths and 120,000 hits of Asthma. In
consequently increase sea level and temperature. addition, microclimatic condition stimulated by
Projected impacts suggest loss of biodiversity and proximity to gas flaring sites affects soil fertility and
sinking of shoreline human habitats (Emoyan, 2008), was evidenced in (Odjugo and Osemwenkhae, 2009).
in which Niger Delta as a coastal region is a potential Their study noticed a reduced maize yield by 58.2%,
candidate. Apart from reducing the emission of GHGs, 70.2% and 76.4% as distance from fare stack reduced
planting of trees which absorbs CO2 as a major from 2Kilometer (km), 1km and 0.5km respectively.
component of the greenhouse gas is another approach This agrees with previous recommendation (Osuoha
of controlling global warming. However, gas flaring and Fakutiju, 2017), prohibiting maize cultivation near
systems displaces forest trees and releases GHGs into the bund wall of flare sites within 2 kilometers radius.
the atmosphere which are two fundamental causes of Besides, as the heat energy generated and the acid rain
the greenhouse blanket enrichment leading to global showers affects soil moisture content to a great extent,
warming. It has been warned (Rahimpour, et al., findings, (Onyejekwe, 2013; Nwaugo, 2006), indicate
2011), that GHG emissions will certainly increase the a severe ecological and bacterial spectra alteration.
more, looking at the rate of global population growth Their findings demonstrated a reduced Total Coliform
and industrialization that raises downstream Count (TCC), Petroleum Degrading Bacterial Count
emissions. Release of anthropogenic GHGs from both (PDBC) and Total Heterotrophic Bacterial Count
burnt and residual flared gas byproducts such as CH 4, (THBC) towards the bund walls of flare sites.
COX, SOX and NOX raise the GHGs concentration
above the natural budget which mankind is currently Millennium development goals (MDGs) and gas
paying for as global warming. This global pandemic flaring: All of the eight (8) Millennium
has led to undue melting of Greenland and Antarctic Developmental Goals (MDGs) (Giwa, et al., 2016),
ice consequently leading to global changes of ocean affect the Niger Delta which ranged from poverty,
levels and circulation as well as sea-surface quality education, human capital empowerment, child
temperature and acidity (Abdulkareem, et al., 2012; mortality, health, disease control, environmental
Nwanya, 2011; Uwagie-Ero, 2015). sustainability and global development. These have
been significantly desecrated by the upstream and
Effect of gas flaring facilities’ proximity: Several downstream crude oil exploitation and effects of
health challenges have been reported from people pollutant gas emissions in particular. Despite the
living in close proximity to flare stations. For instance, impressive impact of gas utilization at the Niger Delta
it was observed in (Maduka and Tobin-West, 2017), on the amount of flared gas in response to MDG goals
that there is 1.75 likelihood for hypertension in especially the environmental sustainability initiatives,
residents living in the communities hosting gas flare there are still threatening concerns as gas flaring with
stacks than those living in communities further away. its effects are still in progress. These calls for relentless
Typical morbidities in form of skin outgrowths, efforts to continue the zero-carbon emission global
respiratory disorders and diseases were statistically campaign. Even as the Global Gas Flaring Reduction
significant among residents surveyed in a highly Partnership (GGFR) of the World Bank (The World
industrialized community viz a vis air polluted area Bank, 2020a), sets “raising awareness” as one of the
relative to a less industrial neighborhood. Same way, measures to identify solutions to routine flaring of
the effect of close proximity to flare stacks was evident natural gas. This study joins the anti-flare campaign by
from the study by (Ana, 2011). when the flared gas contributing to the continuous sensitization of the gas
contents were recorded at Port Harcourt Refinery as flare status and the harm done so far.
PM10 of 130.3 g/m3 which is higher than the stipulated
100μg/m3 limit from Federal Ministry of Environment From Willink commission to NDDC, failed measures
while there was 81.3 g/m3 at the Eleme Petrochemical to environmental sustainability: The agitations for
complex within the same city. Also, the heavy metal environmental sustainability, inter alia,
(Pb and Ni) levels were at 0.20 mg/m3 and 0.86 mg/m3 socioeconomic and infrastructural development in the
UCHEGBULAM, I; ALIYUDA, A; JOHN, YM
Sustainable Environment: A Comprehensive Evaluation of The Effects….. 936

Niger Delta in both peaceful and militant nomenclature to its failed defunct pioneers (Efebeh,
confrontations dates back from colonial to democratic 2017). Hence, there is no hope that another change of
Nigeria. Historically, (Efebeh, 2017; Otega, 2015; name will be different since the major problems of the
Omotola, 2007; Okolo, 2014), this started in 1956 Niger Delta region being gas flaring, oil spillage, inter
when Harold Dappa-Biriye was sent by the Rivers alia, negligence remained without any recorded
Chiefs and Peoples Conference to present the need for success (Ebeku, 2020; Eni, et al., 2017). Questions
an Oil Rivers State to the pre-Independence have been raised that why the speed used to develop
Constitutional Conferences in London. The Lagos and Abuja cannot be deployed to develop the
presentation led to the colonists establishing the Henry Niger Delta. The factors that configured the NDDC for
Willink’s Minorities Commission of Enquiry which failures includes no community participation in
confirmed that the region was actually impoverished, project conceptualization and execution making the
undeveloped and disregarded in Nigeria. The Harold’s projects absolutely useless to the people it is meant for
struggle and Willink Commission’s recommendation (Uwagie-Ero, 2015; Omotola, 2007). Others are
led to the 1959 creation of the Niger Delta Basin deficient political will to develop the Niger Delta,
Development Authority (NDBDA). More (Ehirim and corruption, conflict of interest, lack of adherence to its
Abbey, 2016) river basin development authorities, master plan, few cases of environmentally sustainable
(RBDAs) were launched in 1978 by the General projects instead of being major emphasis, use of
Obasanjo’s military government with less funding of incompetent contractors, lack of adequate project
the NDBDA. Apart from funding, political interests monitoring and evaluation, political dominance on the
among other factors ruined the agencies’ mandates agencies, inflated overhead costs, misappropriation
until the civil war led to reduction of the 50% and mismanagement of funds (Ebeku, 2020; Isidiho
derivation to 20% before a total withdrawal of the and Sabran, 2015; Ebeku, 2008). To show that the
derivation leading to its final collapse. Next NDDC was built to fail, the people at community and
intervention through President Shagari’s democratic state levels have no power to appoint a member of the
dispensation brought the Revenue Act with a NDDC leadership which forces the board members
Presidential Task Force to manage a 1.5% derivation into political patronage without objections leaving
to the development of the Niger Delta, (Ogundiya, behind their statutory obligations and fast
2009). The agitations remained due to unfruitful deteriorating status of the region (Ebeku, 2020). In
impact attributed to low funding and wide distance reply to the NDDC’s claims of underfunding,
between the people and the administrative office at President Buhari’s response “You just cannot say you
Lagos. The funding was raised to 3% in 1993 by the spent so much (sic) billions and when the place is
General Babangida’s military government with the visited, one cannot see the structures that have been
establishment of the Oil Mineral Producing Areas done”. In addition, the SPDC’s claimed huge remittals
Development Commission (OMPADEC). The were not contested by the NDDC leading to the
OMPADEC had laudable mandates to remediate and President Buhari’s order for a forensic audit of NDDC
rehabilitate the ecologically dilapidated region due to from 2001 to 2019 (Ebeku, 2020).
gas flaring, oil pollution and spillages with projects
mutually consented between the agency and Niger Constraints to realistic anti-flare deadlines: Nigeria
Delta communities. The persistent failures of the flares the largest quantity of natural gas globally (Oni
commission led to creation of the Niger Delta and Oyewo, 2011) with all measures aimed at
Development Commission (NDDC) by the President harnessing this natural resource for electricity and
Obasanjo’s democratic tenure in 2000. Instead of a other forms of utility values facing several constraints.
lasting solution, the NDDC still became a shadow of Legislation has been driving the stop-flare campaign
itself. as gas flare was declared illegal since 1984 emanating
from the first zero-flare target date enshrined in the
In fact, it can be seen that these interventionist Associated Re-Injection Act of 1979. Despite that gas
measures in different platforms of colonial, military flaring reduction is economically practicable, certain
and civilian governments right from Willink’s exemptions and the insignificant levy charged as
Commission to NDDC have failed to address the penalty (US$0.003 per million cubic feet as at 1984
agitations for environmental sustainability, and US$ 3.5 per 1000 standard cubic feet in 2008)
socioeconomic and infrastructural development in the have encouraged corporate defaulters to flare with
Niger Delta from 1956 until today, (Omotola, 2007). minimal remorse (Ukala, 2010; Olujobi, 2020; Osuoha
It is widely reported that the NDDC in particular has and Fakutiju, 2017; Maduka and Tobin-West, 2017).
grossly failed like its predecessors (Ebeku, 2020; Like in the USA, unregulated practice is a major cause
Okolo, 2014; Isidiho and Sabran, 2015; Ebeku, 2008; of flare hazards since the reported data is usually less
Eni, et al., 2017), making it a mere change in than actual records (Cushing, et al., 2021). In the
UCHEGBULAM, I; ALIYUDA, A; JOHN, YM
Sustainable Environment: A Comprehensive Evaluation of The Effects….. 937

Nigerian case, there is an uncertainty on the actual created a gap between the expectations and realities.
quantity of oil and gas produced annually due to wide Even as more gas is flared in Nigeria than any other
margins between produced and announced figures place in the world (Ogbe, et al., 2011; Akpomuvie,
(Efebeh, 2017; Akpomuvie, 2011). This has been 2011; Oni and Oyewo, 2011; Tawari and Abowei,
linked to corruption to the advantage of some 2012; Anosike, 2010; Nwanya, 2011) showing her
stakeholders. Based on this, the realities of reducing enriched natural gas reserves and potential benefits yet
the carbon debt accumulated over the years has been the country is among the 30 poorest nations with more
elusive. than average of her citizens living below poverty line
(Ukala, 2010; Nwanya, 2011).
Another root cause of the delayed abatement of gas
flaring can be traced to deficient political will of the Role of government in abatement of the gas flaring:
government to enforce the anti-flare deadlines in The strategic measures to stop-flare deadlines have
addition to suspected conspiracies with the been following gradual processes since strict
multinational oil companies to give precedence to regulations to flaring can drive the oil companies into
economic profit over environmental sustainability unintended venting. Venting must be avoided because
(Oni and Oyewo, 2011). the intricacies of detecting gas venting is high
In addition, the role of the court has been faulted over compared to flaring. On the other hand, the lethal
a long time which can be linked to their lack of consequence of venting is so ruthless that in every
autonomy from other influences. Jules Lobel’s Model metric ton of methane vented there is an equivalent
(Ukala, 2010) sees the court as a forum for protest and global warming tendency of up to 20 years spread of
a tool for social change permitting the court to be an 86 metric tons of CO2 (Calel and Mahdavi, 2020;
unbiased arbitrator on social justice like ecological McEwen and Johnson, 2012). The only way Nigeria
status of the environment. However, the absence of has been recuperating from this colossal loss due to
judicial independency has led to shortcomings of this flaring of a supposedly valuable gas is by converting
mandate with a typical example being the Mr Jonah the associated gas into products of benefit (Fagbami,
Gbemre lawsuit of 2005 to stop gas flaring. This et al., 2015). In modern technology which Nigeria has
report, (Ukala, 2010), shows that as immediate as one been taking part in, petroleum crude oil’s associated
of the major oil companies violated the anti-flare court gas is recovered for several uses such as for electric
orders, the trial judge over the case was transferred out power generation, conversion into Liquifies Natural
of the judicial district and the case file was reported gas (LNG), production of byproducts like plastics for
lost. This was likely a strategy to suspend the case petrochemicals, fertilizer for agriculture, fabrics for
followed by the military detention of the plaintiff, Mr textile and feedstock for allied companies. Also, the
Jonah Gbemre. recent sequestration technology has been used in
Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) where the
Technically, the top five countries in gas flaring associated gas can be mineralized by isolating and
Russia, Nigeria, Iran, Iraq and Algeria are also top- compressing it before it is injecting into geological
rated in political instability and corruption, (Calel and formations like saline aquifers, deep coal beds, oil and
Mahdavi, 2020), making anti-flaring policies difficult gas reservoirs for future recovery when needed.
to regulate and implement. The Nigerian government Hence, gas flaring can only be allowed as a safety
has actually instituted policies at different occasions to measure to dispose associated gas or to relieve built up
extinguish the gas faring without realistic results pressure during emergency, testing or equipment
making the exactitude that government’s priority of failure (Emam, 2016; Edino, et al., 2010; Chang, et al.,
economic proceeds over quality life at the Niger Delta 2017; Fagbami, et al., 2015).
more factual than indicting. If this is contested, why
can’t the same strategies used to increase oil Apart from encouraging the LNG project, alternative
production not being deployed to reduce flaring or technological approaches like gas turbine
better still used to diversify gas utilization. Despite commercialization for electric power generation
government’s negligence on the human integrity at the and/or improved oil recovery through sequestration
creeks, the dishonesty among operating oil companies have been suggested by several studies (Emam, 2016;
in the region is another hinderance to prospective end Edino, et al., 2010; Anosike, 2010; Orimoogunje,
to gas flaring (Oni and Oyewo, 2011; Udoekanem, 2010). Much credit has been awarded to the several
2013; Osuoha and Fakutiju, 2017). Despite these efforts to diversify Nigerian gas to products of value.
waste gas recovery projects with operative gas master For instance, the Bonny Liquified Natural Gas (LNG),
plans for a sustainable energy mix for Nigerians, Brass LNG, Olokola LNG, OSO NGL project,
bureaucratic bottlenecks on policymaking, Excravos Gas Project, Excravos Gas to Liquid (GTL),
regulations, enforcements and flare-out deadlines have Belema Gas injection project, Trans-Sahara Gas
UCHEGBULAM, I; ALIYUDA, A; JOHN, YM
Sustainable Environment: A Comprehensive Evaluation of The Effects….. 938

project, Gbaran-Ubie Integrated oil and power, Afam energy resources so as to decongest the
Integrated Gas and power project as well as the overdependence on fossilized fuel that raises the
Ajaokuta-Abuja-Kaduna and Aba-Enugu-Gboko carbon debt.
Pipeline networks to distribute domestic consumption 2. There should be maximum
of natural gas for power generation (Ogbe, et al., commercialization of the natural gas with a national
2011). Despite the failures of the established grid that spreads across the country to meet both
interventionist agencies like the NDDC, (Emoyan, domestic and industrial energy demands.
2008), the statutory obligations of such agencies have 3. An investment in export potentials of natural
raised the Niger Delta’s level of social inclusion and gas as a means of foreign exchange should be extended
human capacity development. Though some to the global market in full capacity.
researchers (Ogolo and Onyekonwu, 2015), have 4. It will make economic sense and provide
expressed doubt to the possibility of gas flaring employment opportunities if attention will be devoted
eventual phase out based on the inconsistencies to to science and technological advancement of the
Nigeria’s carbon footprints, between 2010 to 2013, the natural gas utilization and sequestration.
Nigerian government recorded reductions in flared gas 5. Bilateral relations with countries in need of
with 540 bcf (billion cubic feet) and 428bcf in 2013, the natural gas in exchange of basic needs of Nigerians
(Maduka and Tobin-West, 2017). Also, despite about should be established for shared prosperity within the
91.13% increment in the volume of natural gas global community.
production between 2001 and 2016, further reduction 6. There is also the need for economic
in volume of gas flared has been recorded at 38.06%, empowerment and environmental rehabilitation of this
(Ighalo, et al., 2020). An additional reduction from region for agriculture and fishery so as to foster self-
7.31 bcm in 2016 to 7.83 bcm in 2019 shows a reliance of the Niger Delta residents.
remarkable 7.11% reduction in gas flaring volume. 7. It is also a necessity to promote peace, social
Also, recently, out of the 150 bcm of global gas flared inclusion and political stability in the Niger Delta
in 2019, Nigeria flared 7.83bcm while the former which will proffer effective governance to the
contender Russia flared 23.21 bcm. This has placed grassroots for sustainable environment.
Nigeria at the 7th position behind Algeria, Venezuela, 8. To offset the constraints facing effective
Iran, the United States, Iraq and Russia in the realization of anti-flare deadlines, a need to redesign
increasing order of volume of gas flared in 2019. the policies into enforceable and practicable
knowing that oil and gas exploitation of this riverine dimensions should be embarked on.
countryside has caused rapid depreciation of its 9. The government should also desist from
environmental qualities especially by turning arable monetizing the violations as fines and carbon tax
land and fishing waters unproductive as well as the rather stringent measures like confiscation of
atmosphere that has received up to 350 million tons of operating licenses should be considered.
CO2 as at 2018 (Akinwumiju, et al., 2020; Ozigis, et 10. Global partnership in line with the MDGs
al., 2019; Edegbene, et al., 2021; Motte, et al., 2021), should be reviewed for practicability towards the
then, the rising hope from the above achievements has targeted beneficiaries cutting across the biotic and
to be sustained. In fact, there are signs of hope for abiotic components of the environment.
further reductions in volume of gas flared as the billion 11. Global climate treaties that address eco-
cubic meters flared in the first quarter of 2020 has friendly best practices to the grassroots of emission
already fallen by 10% across the first 30 oil producing sources and enforcement of existing ones should be
countries with Nigeria inclusive, (The World Bank, embarked on in the Niger Delta.
2020b). This is a welcomed development that must be 12. The court and enforcement agencies should
both encouraged and sustained which can be attributed be granted autonomy and their recommendations
to commercialization of the Nigerian flared gas, should be acted on without bias, undue influences and
reduced air pollution and job creation in the Niger selfish interests.
Delta. 13. Downstream emissions should also be
monitored and reduced by encouraging the reuse,
Suggestions for substantial sustainability of the Niger recycle and reduction of wastes in industrial
Delta: As the need for a sustainable environment at the production lines that pose environmental threats.
Niger Delta attract increasing global concern, there 14. There should be a focus on the reduction of
will be a climatic justice and zero-carbon footprint in downstream pollution levels from vehicles, industry
the region if the following recovery measures are and domestic burning of timber to permissible levels.
considered: This can be done as a federal road safety regulation
1. The government as the chief custodian of the where annual testing of motor vehicles’ emissions
national economy should diversify into alternative
UCHEGBULAM, I; ALIYUDA, A; JOHN, YM
Sustainable Environment: A Comprehensive Evaluation of The Effects….. 939

should be a considered as a part of road worthiness and Electricity Generation in Nigeria”. J. Nat. Gas Sci.
for issuing or renewal of driving license. Eng.
15. Pollution and GHG monitoring stations
should be established especially close to the point of Adoki, A (2012). “Air Quality Survey of Some Locations
emissions in the Niger Delta equipped with state-of- in the Niger Delta Area”. J. Appl. Sci. Environ.
the-art devices for acquiring primary data for Manage. 16(1):137-146.
environmental protection policy making.
16. Policy makers should handle with caution the Akinwumiju, AS; Adelodun, AA; Ogundeji, SE (2020).
Geospatial Assessment of Oil Spill Pollution in the
data they use in simulating ecological protection
Niger Delta of Nigeria: An Evidence-Based
models as some of the data may have been biased
Evaluation of Causes and Potential Remedies.
hence are not be true reflections of reality. Environ. Poll. 267(115545).
17. Partnership with the academia in research
and development is highly recommended. Empirical Akpomuvie, OB (2011). “Tragedy of Commons:
analysis and pilot testing at laboratory scales to these Analysis of Oil Spillage, Gas Flaring and
alternative energy sources are needed. Sustainable Development of The Niger Delta of
18. The national university commission should Nigeria”. J. Sust. Dev., 4(2): 200-210.
mandate all universities in the Niger Delta to run
courses on environmental protection and engineering Ana, GR (2011). “Air Pollution In The Niger Delta Area:
up to accredited standards. Scope, Challenges And Remedies”, in Khallaf,M.,
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modelling and simulations should be intensified in Environment And Agricultural Sources”.
researching into the solutions to gas flaring and Intechopen.
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studies have focused mainly on urban centers, there is “Satellite Survey of Gas Flares: Development And
need for baseline studies at the remote and Application of A Landsat-Based Technique in The
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and GHG emissions from the flared gases comprised Neurologic Aspects of Systemic Disease Part II” in
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biodiversity, infertile soil, intoxicated aquatic life, Neurology” 120: 971-979. UK: Elsevier.
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