People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

University 8 Mai 1945 – Guelma ‫قالمة‬-5491 ‫ ماي‬8 ‫جامعة‬

Faculty of letters and Languages ‫كلية اآلداب واللغات‬

Department of Letters and English Language ‫قسم اآلداب واللغة اإلنجليزية‬

OPTION: CIVILISATION

The Titanic Tragedy between Reality, Myths and Conspiracy Theories

A Dissertation Submitted to the Department of Letters and English Language in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Master’s Degree in Language and Culture

Board of Examiners

Chairman: Prof TOULGUI Ladi University of 8 Mai 1945-Guelma

Supervisor: Prof. Abdelhak ELAGGOUNE University of 8 Mai 1945-Guelma
Examiner: Dr. BOUDECHICHE Hamid University of 8 Mai 1945-Guelma

Submitted by: Supervised by:

MENAI Mouna Prof. ELAGGOUNE Abdelhak

2021
 Acknowledgments

The completion of this dissertation has been a long journey from its inception to its

fruition. For all the knowledge, skills, and experience I have amassed, I am indebted to many

more people than I can mention here by name.

My special thanks and appreciation go to my supervisor Prof. ELAGGOUNE Abdelhak.

Thank you a lot for offering me help and guiding me throughout my research the way you did.

Thank you for the valuable advice, information you provided me with, thank you for spending

hours reading and correcting my work, and for being my supervisor. It was an honor for me

and I am so grateful for this.

I am grateful to my Committee members: Prof. TOULGUI Ladi for setting an example of

a prolific teacher and supervisor; and for the amazing ability to demystify the most daunting

of tasks like dissertation writing; and Dr. BOUDECHICHE Hamid, for nurturing students

and cheering them on through their academic career.

Thank you to all the teachers of the department of English, who wholeheartedly and

generously contributed their time, valuable thoughts, and experiences.

Special thanks are due to my beautiful and lovely mother Fatima Zohra Mohellel. Without

your help; this study would not have been possible. Thank you endlessly. To the rest of my

family members who gave me all the support I needed: Amine, Hakim, Sara, Amina, Sihem,

Assia and Khadidja, I am so grateful to have you in my life.

Finally, my deepest and most heartfelt thanks go to my best friends Fatma, Roza,

Soundous, Hanene and Lamis who really helped me a lot through this academic task, thank

you dear friends.

 Dedication

To the one who raised me and made me the person who I am right now, my dear father

Abdel Ghani MENAI, who stood by me through the highs and lows of my life, and supported

me in my achievements and setbacks, never questioning my decisions, rather always

encouraging me to be the best I can be and do the best I can do. I could never thank you

enough! I hoped to have you alive to witness my graduation.

 Abstract

The main aim of this dissertation is to reveal the real reasons behind the sinking of the world‘s

famous ship, the ‗Titanic‘. It essentially explores facts, hidden or given less attention, ever

since the enormous vessel was drowned. Accordingly, this study sheds light on theories and

myths put forward by scholars, mythologists, anthropologists, and other experts in the field, in

addition to the official outcomes and results released right after the American and British

inquiries. Taken together, each of these perspectives is in an attempt to explain the causes of

the Titanic‘s crash. Subsequently, the goal of this work is to analyze these different

perspectives put into theories and various types of accounts, and to relate the closet likely

justifications to the accident, through highlighting the different works, which investigated the

Titanic‘s tragedy. Since most of the accounts provided tangible proofs, this research

concludes that it is hard to believe which was the real story of the sinking, including the

factual and commonly admitted conditions that led to the occurrence of such terrible

catastrophe.
 ‫الملخـــــص‬

‫ذٓذف ْزِ انًزكشج انى انكشف عٍ االسثاب انحميميح ٔساء غشق اشٓش سفيُح في انعانى "انريراَيك" ٔعالٔج عهى رنك يًيم‬

‫ْزا انثحس إنى اسركشاف انحمائك انخفيح انًضًشج انري نى يعطى نٓا إْرًاو يُز غشق ْزِ انسفيُح انعظيًح َٔظشا نزنك ذسهظ‬

‫ْزِ انذساسح انضٕء عهى انُظشياخ ٔاالساطيش انري طشحٓا عهًاء االَثشٔتٕنٕجيا ٔغيشْى يٍ انخثشاء في ْزا انًجال‬

‫تاإلضافح إنى انُرائج انري أسفشخ عُٓا انرماسيش انري ذى إصذاسْا يثاششج تعذ انرحميماخ االيشيكيح ٔانثشيطاَيح ٔانٓذف‬

‫انشئيس يٍ ْزا انعًم ْٕ ذحهيم ٔجٓاخ انُظش انًخرهفح انري طشحد نششح أسثاب ذحطى انريراَيك ٔيحأنح ستظ انًثشساخ‬

‫انًحرًهح نهحادز ٔانُريجح االساسيح انًرٕصم إنيٓا ْي أَّ يٍ انصعة اٌ َصذق ياْي انمصح انحميميح نهغشق ‪.‬خاصح ٔاٌ‬

‫كم انُظشياخ لذيد تشاْيٍ ٔحجج ٔالعيح ٔ جذ يهًٕسح‪.‬‬

 List of Figures

Figure 1: The Construction of the Olympic and the Titanic……………………………..…10

Figure 2: The Titanic was Towed and Outfitted into the Dry Dock, where Work on the

Empty Hull Began…………………………………………………………………………..11

Figure 3: The Titanic Inner Design including Boilers, Engine, Anchor and, Propeller..…..14

Figure 4: The Titanic‘s Crew……………………………………………………….………15

Figure 5: The First Class Accommodation…………………………………………………18

Figure 6: ―Road Map‖: The Area of High Pressure……………………………………..…23

Figure 7: The Unlucky Mummy Displayed in the British Museum…………………….….64

 Table of Contents

Introduction………………………………………………………………………...................1

Chapter One: The Prevalent Reality about the Titanic………………………………..…..9

1.1. Erecting the Vessel…………………………………………………………………….…..9

1.2. The Luxurious Design of the Titanic……………………….…………………….…...…12

1.3. The Titanic Staff………………………………………………………….…………...…14

1.4. The Three Classes of Travel among the Titanic…………………………………...…… 16

1.4.1. First Class Travel………………………………………………………………...…16

1.4.2. Second Class Travel……………………………………………………………..….19

1.4.3. Third Class Travel…………………………………..…………………………....…19

1.5. From Southampton to the Devastating Crash………………………….……………...…20

1.5.1. After the Collision…………………………………………….……...………….…..23

1.5.2. The Deadly End…………………………………………………….…...……..……25

1.6. The American and the British Reactions to the Disaster……………………….…….….27

1.6.1. The United States Senate Inquiries………………………………………….………27

1.6.2. The British Official Investigations…………………………………………………..29

1.7. The Core Factors Contributing to the Collision…………………………………..…...…30

1.7.1. High Speed…………………………………………………………………......……30

1.7.2. Ignoring the Signals………………………………………………………….…...…31

1.7.3. Fewer Lifeboats…………………………………………………………………...…32

1.7.4. The Shortage of Coal………………………………………………………...…...…33

1.7.5. The Production of Steel Plates…..……………………………………………..…....34

1.7.6. The Brittle Rivets……………………………………………………….……….…..36

1.7.7. The Structure Flaws…………………………………………………………………37

Chapter Two: The Mythical Representations of the Titanic……………………………..40

2.1. What is a Myth?.................................................................................................................40

2.2. The Importance of Myth…………………………………………………………...…….45

2.3. The Mythical Titanic ………………………..……...…..……………………………….46

2.4. The Symbolic Relevance of the Titanic‘s Tragedy …………...………......……………..49

2.5. The Memorialization of the Titanic……………...…………...………………………….51

2.5.1. The Australian Titanic‘s Memorializing Process………………………..…………..52

2.5.1.1. The Titanic‘s Bandsmen...…………………………………………………..….52

2.6. Legends and Myths Told about the Titanic……………………..…………………….…53

2.6.1. The Unsinkable……………………………………………..………….…...……….53

2.6.2. David Sarnoff Wireless Reports and the Use of the SOS……..……………….……55

2.6.3. The Titanic‘s Band……………………………………………………….………….55

2.6.4. The Titanic‘s Sinking was Prophesied….…..…………………...……….………….57

2.6.5. The Mystery Ship………………………………………………...………………….58

2.6.6. The Titanic‘s Curse………………………………………………...…….………….59

2.6.7. The Foreshadowing of the Disaster……………………….………………………...60

2.6.8. No Binoculars aboard the Ship…………………………………………...…………61

2.6.9. The Cursed Mummy of Amen-Ra……………………………………...……...……62

2.6.10. The Champagne Curse……………………………..…………………………...…64

Chapter Three: The Titanic’s Conspiracy Theories…………………………………..…..68

3.1. What is a Conspiracy Theory?……...………..…………………………………….…….68

3.2. Reasons Behind Adopting Conspiracy Theories………...………..……………………..70

3.2.1. Epistemological Justifications………………...……………………………………..71

3.2.2. Social Motives…………………………………..………...…………………………72

3.2.3. Political Motives…………………………………...………………………………..73

 3.2.4. Ideology……………………………………………………………………… …….74

3.3. Results of Adopting Conspiracy Theories………….……………..…….……………….75

3.3.1. Potential Benefits of Conspiracy Theories……….…………………….………..….75

3.3.2. Attitude Effects……………….……………………………………………….…….76

3.3.3. Prejudice…….…………………………………………………………………...….77

3.3.4. Political Engagement..……………………………………………………..…….….78

3.3.5. Violence, Radicalization and Extremism…………..………………………….…….78

3.4. The Conspiracy Theories Surrounding the Titanic‘s Sinking…………………..…..……79

3.4.1. Fire in the Coal Banker………………………………..………………….…...…….80

3.4.2. The Titanic was Switched for its Sister Ship the Olympic……………..…...…..…..81

3.4.3. The Jesuits Conspiracy to Sink the Titanic………………………………..….….….84

3.4.4. The Titanic was Attacked by a German U-Boat………………………...……..……88

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………93

Works Cited.…………………………………………………………………………………97
 1

Introduction

As it is commonly known, The Titanic, or the British Royal Mail Ship (RMS), was a

famous ship that was owned by the White Star Line Company, built by Harland and Wolf

shipyard, and operated by Captain Smith. It was commissioned in 1911, and sailed off on her

inaugural and only voyage from Southampton on April 6, 1912. Eventually on April 14, 1912;

at 11:40 p.m., she collided with an iceberg, causing much panic and the loss of more than half

of the passengers and crew when the vessel sank several hours later. As one of the most

popular tragedies in recent history, the sinking of the Titanic has influenced countless

interpretations and tales, a variety of films, and a great deal of music and science.

At the beginning of the 1900s, transatlantic passenger traffic was extremely lucrative and

competitive, with ship lines carrying rich passengers and settlers. The White Star and the

Cunard were two of the chief lines companies. By the end of 1907, with the launch of two

new ships, Lusitania and Mauretania, Cunard looked able to expand his share of the market.

The White Star responded to his opponent by having Chairman J. Bruce Ismay and William

Pirrie met in order to formulate a scheme to create a group of large liners which would be

highly estimated because of their speed and for their comfort. Three ships were constructed:

the Olympic, the Titanic and the Britannic. The ships were finally completed.

The keel, or the structural element, for the Titanic was placed on March 31, 1909; three

months after the start of the Olympic construction. Both sister ships were constructed side by

side in specially designed gateways, which could match their historically unprecedented size.

A huge first-class saloon, four elevators and a swimming pool were also featured in the

Titanic, and so are the decorations. Her accommodation in second-class was similar to those

on other ships in first-class conditions and its fairly comfortable offering in third-class was,

however, modest. The Titanic was one of the world's largest and most extravagant ships.
 2

When she was preparing to embark on her inaugural voyage, the Titanic had a recorded total

tonnage of 46,328 tons.

The sinking of the Titanic is one of the most prominent events in history, one that has been

surrounded by a great deal of mystery. People also have been always fascinated and

concerned about what contributed to the Titanic rapid collapse because of the horrific loss of

lives and the destruction of what everyone felt was an "unsinkable" vessel. Since the sinking,

numerous hypotheses have been established to describe the events of the fatal night. Was it a

real natural accident that happened because of flaws in the ship‘s design, safety lapse, the

dismissal of iceberg warnings, the high speed of the ship and the problems with the materials

used for shipbuilding? Or were there other hidden intentions that planned to settle the ship to

the bottom of the North Atlantic?

Immediately after the disaster, the American and British governments‘ investigations

concluded that the huge iceberg caused the Titanic‘s dipping to the bottom. The ship's

deceased captain, E. J. Smith, was found guilty to 22 knots of speeding in the dark waters off

the coast of Newfoundland through a known ice field. The Titanic case has been considered to

be closed ever since. The significance of this research lies in revealing all the reasons that

were mentioned as being behind the sinking of the Titanic. More precisely, it also sheds light

on many other theories that were put forward by many specialists and researchers, in an

attempt to explain the fact that there were other possible causes of the vessel‘s maritime loss.

Accordingly, this research work investigates how the lack of convincing accounts, on the

Titanic‘s tragedy, led shipping interests, media, the British and American governments, and

the public opinion on both sides of the Atlantic to contest the then provided reasons of the

devastation. Their opposition was particularly based on the medium that caused that

inevitable sinking. This dissertation specifically inquiries into the true and logical facts behind

this ship‘s sinking. It analyzes the given reasons of the sinking and the extent to which they
 3

are realistic and convincing. Besides, it scrutinizes other compelling perspectives, untold

stories, secrets and forceful theories, which in different ways explained the end of the

Titanic‘s transatlantic adventure.

The sinking of the Titanic led to the emergence of many curious theories after the accident.

Each theory intended to justify the tragic loss of the Titanic giving its own interpretations.

Some assumptions were built on myths, which revealed the presumably overlooked ominous

bad luck‘s signs of the ship. Others shared intricate conspiratorial theories to justify the

sudden and unexpected sinking of the ship. Still, other realistic interpretations said that

irresponsible manoeuvres throughout the crossing and the lack of basic sailing safety

measurements played the key role in the Titanic‘s sinking.

The present dissertation believes that the mysteries surrounding the sinking of the Titanic

were neither designed nor mythical, but were simply accidental. At the beginning of the 20th

century, people were too naive and more innocent and trusting than they are these days. They

believed everything that was told them. The news reported that the Titanic had hit an iceberg,

and people believed it and were deeply shocked. When time went on, various explanations

related the disastrous sinking of the RMS Titanic to conspiracy or to sin mysterious events,

and they also believed it.

The Titanic‘s tragedy, that of a ship considered unsinkable, still looms large in people‘s

minds on both shores of the Atlantic Ocean and around the world. The unexpected sinking of

the Titanic raised doubts, mystery and curiosity and raised a multitude of questions.

Accordingly, this research work, whose main intention is to delve into the different myths, the

conspiracy theories and the real facts put forward to explain the loss of the Titanic, provides

room for numerous questions.

Such queries were raised about various realistic and unrealistic aspects related to the loss

of the Titanic: Why did the unsinkable ship sink? Was it the sinking that made the ship world
 4

widely famous? Would it still be famous if it did not sink? What is the real story behind the

Titanic‘s loss? Was the iceberg crash real? Or the accident happened because of the high

speeds? Could it be the weather conditions? Were there any flaws in the vessel‘s structure?

Was it because of a wrong design?

Other questions include: Why were not enough lifeboats on the largest luxurious ship?

Why was there a sister ship (the Olympic) of the Titanic? Was the Titanic switched with its

sister ship before the fatal trip? Were the stories related by newspapers soon after the disaster

realistic? Was the world misled about the real reason of the sinking? Was there a secret

conspiracy to sink the Titanic? If yes, who did so? Why were many myths told to explain the

sinking of the Titanic? The conclusive answers to these questions would help us to better

understand how people generally react to deadly disasters.

For several years, the sinking of the Titanic has been the topic of both national and

international interest. The tragic accident has inspired a variety of analyses across literature,

art and media. It motivated the publication of several books, articles, and novels, the

production of a wealth of movies, the composition of music and poetry, and the creation of

artworks. It has, in many ways, been interpreted as a natural accident, however in other ways

it was accounted for as a plotted accident. Still, it was even explained by legends, or stories

people told to give an explanation for the reasons that caused the accident.

Although the debate is still going on the reasons of the sinking of the Titanic, a

considerably satisfactory literature on the issue is available for this research work. For

instance, in his book Eyewitness Titanic, Simon Adams asserts that during the night of April

14, 1912; the Titanic crashed into an iceberg which caused its sinking on the North Atlantic

Ocean due to bad weather conditions. In the same context, in her book The sinking Of the

Titanic, Rebecca Aldridge alleges that the large vessel could not avoid the iceberg on its way.
 5

She added that the Titanic received several warnings, eight as to icebergs in the region, just

before it hit the fateful iceberg that sank it.

Another writer, who goes in the same framework, David G. Brown in his book, The Last

Log of the Titanic, confirms the fact that the Titanic ran over the iceberg because the berg was

on her way and was drowned because the hull was full of water. The writer puts the blame

over Captain Smith, because the latter had too much confidence; and overconfidence can be

the only major cause of transport accidents. In a similar vein, Anita Yasuda in her book, The

Sinking of the Titanic, agrees on the fact that the iceberg smashed the Titanic side straight.

Seawater began rushing in, and subsequently the unthinkable occurred: the Titanic was

sinking.

In the last century, there were many shared tales, which aimed at explaining the horrific

tragedy of the sinking of the Titanic, relating the shipwreck to the negligence of the true

existence of threatening signs indicating that bad things were going to happen. Indeed, after

the sinking of the Titanic beneath the surface of the icy North-Atlantic Ocean, many stories

with a lot of myths were written or told. Many of the myths included in the Titanic story have

disguised what really happened, making the Titanic story a legend, full of myths. For

instance, in his book, Titanic: The Legend, Myths and Folklore, investigated and explained

those stories that overtime have given birth to a legend, attempting to provide the real reports

and explanations of the Titanic disaster, while identifying the myths that continue in literature

written since 1912.

In his book, The Myth of the Titanic, Richard Howells claims that a myth is not a

misinterpretation. Rather, it is a complex relation between history, reality, culture,

imagination and identity. Today, popular culture is both the repository and the provider of

myth, a role once held by the "primitive society's" fortunetellers and tellers of stories. A

modern myth par excellence is the story of the Titanic. ―Nearer, My God, to Thee‖, the band
 6

image played on as the ship went down is one of the most captivating and everlasting

ingredients of the Titanic myth.

In their book, The Titanic in Myth and Memory: Representations in Visual and Literary

Culture, Tim Bergfelder and Sarah Street, believe that the myth of the Titanic was mainly

created and sustained by the West over the decades. They reckon that the myth extended

beyond its transatlantic associations, mainly in countries and individuals from outside wanting

to participate by proximity in that particular Western heritage. This book examines the

distinct representations of the Titanic tragedy in cinema, history, literature and art. It

highlights the similarities and the differences in the way past and present artists and audiences

have dealt with the tragedy, and it provides a painstaking examination of its most recent

interpretation.

Being surrounded by a great deal of ambiguity, the wreck of the RMS Titanic, which

deeply stunned the world, gave birth to a series of conspiracy theories that tended to explain

that the accident was carefully designed, and perfectly executed. In his book The Great

Titanic Conspiracy, Robin Gardiner ascertains that the detailed description of the vessel in the

report of the official British Disaster Survey shows quite clearly that the front of the vessel

was specially strengthened to prevent damage in case of being hit by thin ice. It would have

evidently needed a huge amount of force to break the hull near the bow everywhere. Instead,

Robin Gardiner suggests other theories explaining how the collision happened.

In the same path, Erick Trickey in his article ―Fact-checking QAnon Conspiracy Theories:

Did J.P. Morgan Sink the Titanic?‖ claims that the sinking was an arranged plan and firmly

refuted the version saying that it was a natural accident. He opines that when the Titanic sank,

a number of famous millionaires were numbered among the 1,503 dead. But the destiny was

avoided by one of the richest men in the world, namely J. Pierpont Morgan. The Washington
 7

Post on April 19, 1912, reported that he thought of returning back to America on the Titanic,

but then he decided to extend his visit outside the country.

In her paper, ―6 Weird Conspiracy Theories about the Titanic that are Still Fascinating

Today‖, Eliza Castile points out six different theories. One of the theories says that the

wrecked ship was not the Titanic. Rather, its sister ship, the Olympic, was exchanged with the

Titanic and, as part of an insurance scheme it was made to sink in a deliberate accident. The

same theory also appeared in the article of Savana Malam ―Conspiracy Theory Column: Is

that Really the Titanic at the Bottom of the Ocean?‖

The lingering inquiries about the fact full reasons of the Titanic tragedy require deep

investigations and detailed analyses. Accordingly, this research will be conducted through

both the historical and the qualitative methods. These approaches aim at analyzing the

different perspectives, critical thoughts, findings, and contributions that were delivered by

many scholars specialized in this case. Moreover, the adopted methods highlight the

retrospectives of the historical overview of the collision, and attempt to give tangible

explanations about the facts and reasons of the disaster.

The first chapter of the dissertation, entitled ―The Prevalent Reality about the Titanic‖,

highlights the common knowledge about the Titanic collision. It tackles how the world

reached that knowledge, and who was behind it. It starts with the origins and construction of

the vessel, then features the maiden voyage and how the strike happened, coming up to the

final aftermath and investigations made by the American and British governments, the

primarily concerned parts in that tragic accident.

The second chapter, entitled ―The Mythical Representations of the Titanic‖, points up

to the myths that were told and retold about the tragic story of the Titanic sinking, the biggest

and most comfortable and expensive ocean liner the world had ever seen, which sank on her

inaugural and last voyage in April 1912. First, it analyzes the meaning of the term ‗Myth‘ in
 8

the context of the Titanic disaster before interpreting it mythically. Besides, it explores the

meaning of these myths from different perspectives.

Under the title of ―Conspiracy Theories behind the Sinking of the Titanic,‖ as a third and

final chapter investigates how many people, since the accident took place in the last

century, have elaborated conspiracy theories to explain the true reas ons that led to

the Titanic sinking in attempt to give more sense to that tragic and apparently

random accident.. It essentially accentuates all kind of conspiracy theories revealed by

critics and researchers opposing the fact that the Titanic sank because of an iceberg. In

addition, it examines the extent to which these different theories were realistic.
 9

Chapter One

The Prevalent Reality about the Titanic

This chapter is a theoretical analysis of the commonly and widely accepted reality about

one of the world‘s most known maritime tragedies, namely the sinking of the Titanic. It

recounts much of the events of the enigmatic Titanic sinking in three sections. The first

section emphasizes on many crucial facets related to the birth of the Titanic and the way it

was constructed. Then, it describes the Titanic‘s huge leading stuff on board and the three

travel classes within their design and type of passengers. The second section highlights the

sail of the maiden voyage from Southampton until the catastrophic incident. It draws the

aftermath of the tragedy of what happened exactly, and subsequently sheds light on the most

important results of the American and British hearings that were undertaken forcibly

following the accident. The last section of this chapter underscores the prominence of the

important factors that led one way or another to the collision of the Titanic.

1.1. Erecting the Vessel

The White Star Line1 had commissioned its new ships from the Harland and Wolff2

shipyards in Belfast, Northern Ireland, after its foundation in 1871. The yard was outstanding

in design and construction and the workforce was very proud of the many renowned ships it

had designed. The Titanic broke ground on March 31, 1909; and since that time on the work

was advanced at a furious pace. The yard resounded each day the sound of constantly

hammering heavy machinery. The keel plate was placed first, then the beams and the plates

were assembled once the structure was in place, and the steel hull plates, about 30 feet (9 m)

long, were fixed by more than three million rivets. The Titanic was ready for release by May

1911, less than two years after the construction began (Adams 8).
 10

Figure 1: The Construction of the Olympic and the Titanic

Source: Adams, Simon. Titanic: Eyewitness. London, England, New York, New York, 2014.

The Titanic was dragged into the dry dock by tugs after its launching on May 31, 1911,

where work on equipping the empty hull began. Engines, boilers, and other equipment were

designed, and passenger cabins, staterooms, and dining areas were constructed and outfitted.

The Titanic was transported to the dry dock on February 3, 1912; where propellers and a final

coat of paint were mounted. The huge central anchor of the Titanic was the largest of the

ship's three anchors. A team of 20 horses hauled the heavy load to the shipyard, where it was

installed on the forecastle (bow) deck. The weight of the two side anchors was half that of the
 11

center anchor. A total of 107 tons (97.5 metric tons) of cable was used to lift and lower the

side anchors (Adams 9).

Figure 2: The Titanic was Towed and Outfitted into the Dry Dock, where Work on the

Empty Hull Began

Source: Adams, Simon. Titanic: Eyewitness. London, England, New York, New York, 2014.

The new vessel for the White Star Line was the biggest vessel ever designed at the time.

Millions of dollars were spent in Belfast, Ireland, to construct the ship. When completed, the
 12

ship was 883 feet (269 meters) long and 92 feet (28 meters) wide. It had the height of an 11-

story building. The White Star Line named it the Titanic in 1908 to represent the ship's

enormous size. The Royal Mail Ship (RMS) Titanic would be the name of the ship. In

addition to passengers, the ship would transport mail and cargo. The Titanic would go down

in history as one of the most known ships, though not for the causes the ship's designers

anticipated (Yasuda 5-6).

1.2. The Luxurious Design of the Titanic

Harland and Wolff, together with all those who helped build the Titanic, did not spare any

effort in ensuring it was the best vessel on sea, and it undoubtedly earned the name "the ship

of dreams." She was not just enormous but unbelievably impressive and luxurious, once

complete (Freeman 10). The Titanic was outfitted with eight electric cranes, two of which

could pull 3,360 lb and the other six could each raise 5,600 lb. They were built by Stothert

and Pitt of Bath3, and electricity was preferred as the power source because the cranes were

close to traveler accommodations and required to be as quiet as possible. Three steam

winches and four electric winches rounded out the loading and unloading machinery (Gill

152).

The Titanic‘s machinery exemplified the most recent advances in marine engineering.

Combining reciprocating engines with Parsons' low-pressure generator engine, it resulted in

enhanced power with the same amount of steam expenditure as a significant improvement

over the use of reciprocating engines alone. The rotating engines powered the wing-propellers

and the turbine powered the mid-propeller, transforming her into a triple-screw ship. She had

29 massive boilers and 159 furnaces to power these engines. Three elongated funnels, the

largest of which was 24 feet 6 inches in length, removed smoke and water gases, while the

fourth served as a dummy for airflow (Beesley 6).

 13

The Titanic comprised 16 compartments separated by 15 longitudinal watertight bulkheads

that ran from the double lower part to the top floors in the forward end and to the saloon floor

in the back end, both of which were far above water line. The contact between the engine

rooms and the boiler rooms was via waterproof doors, all of which were immediately shut

down from the captain's bridge: they were operated by one single switch controlling powerful

electric magnets. They could also be hand closed with a lever, and, if the floor below was

accidentally flooded, the float below the floor would immediately shut them. These

compartments were designed to make the ship quite safe if the two largest ones were flooded

with water (Beesley 7).

The Titanic‘s boilers were made by the cylindrical Scotch navy, a type of the year 1870

that favored to retain high pressures due to their compact size and capacity. The boilers

themselves were contained in the base of the 320ft long vessel, in 6 different back-to-back

rooms, occupying the floor space. Each room had five of those boilers. There were four in its

forward compartment. Everything on the Titanic was oversized, especially the control

equipment. The Titanic sailed with three stockless steel anchors, two of which weighed 734

tons each and were suspended 60 feet above the keel on either side of the bow. Her third was

lying straight on the deck. This 17ft-long, 10ft-wide anchor weighed 15.8 tons and had to be

relocated by its own crane. The central anchor was designed to stabilize the bow in rough seas

and was thus placed on the deck's centerline to aid in the ship's buoyant force (Gibson 45-48).

The Titanic was fitted out with 20 lifeboats; 14 standard wooden Harland and Wolff

lifeboats, each capable of 65 people, and four Englehardt lifeboats (A to D) with a capacity of

47 people each. The life belt, blankets, food, and water were held by each boat. The Titanic

also had two emergency cutters for 40 individuals. These boats were able to house

approximately 1,178 people, only one quarter of the overall potential of the Titanic. In
 14

accordance with the regulations of the Trade Board, however, British ships in excess of 10000

tons could carry only sixteen boats with 990 people each (Rajendran and Singh 4).

Figure 3: The Titanic Inner Design Including Boilers, Engine, Anchor and Propellers

Source: Adams, Simon. Titanic: Eyewitness. London, England, New York, New York, 2014.

1.3. The Titanic Staff

A huge army of staff was kept out of sight, whose duty was to keep the passengers fed and

well cared for, as well as the ship clean, well fitted, and efficiently powered. On the lower

floors, chefs, bakers, butchers, scullions (kitchen workers), mailroom employees, barbers,

mechanics, firemen, stokers, trimmers (luggage loaders), and many others toiled away.

Stewards, pursers, waiters, and other uniformed staff attended to passengers' needs on the
 15

public decks. There were 898 crew members on board, including the captain and his senior

officers, who were in charge of every aspect of life on the vessel (Adams 18).

According to Adams, the 289 firemen and stokers worked in shifts, shoveling coal into the

boilers to keep the engines running at maximum power. To keep their morale high, many of

the staff sang as they worked. The boiler rooms were located deep inside the ship's bowels

and were humid, disruptive, and filthy. A team of 28 engineers ensured that everything ran

perfectly; otherwise, the ship would come to a halt if the boilers ran out of coal or stopped

running. There were only 18 stewardesses among the 898 crew members. In addition, there

were two barbershops, one in first class and the other in second class, which served men with

a regular hot lather and shave (19).

As Aldridge admitted, the workers who functioned on board the vessel were mostly from

England or the middle or working class in Ireland. The salaries for working on the lavish liner

in the world have been low, but at that period times have been difficult and many have been

out of work. Therefore many Titanic employees were glad to have a job along with their

bedrooms and boards (35).

Figure 4: The Titanic's Crew

Source: Aldridge, Rebecca. The Sinking of the Titanic. New York, Chelsea House, 2008.
 16

1.4. The Three Classes Travel among the Titanic

There were three classes; that is to say three distinct coexisting groups separated from one

another and from the vessel's professional areas. Anton Gill noted that class-division

promenades were marked by gates that were never locked and rarely had locks installed, but

they remained closed, and the conventions of the time meant that people quietly appreciated

them (189). In the same logic, Mark Dubowski observed that the Titanic had the appearance

of a floating palace. Elegant restaurants, Turkish baths, and a swimming pool were available.

There were distinct cabins, lounges, and eating halls for each class (8).

Writing on the design of the Titanic, Michael Davie remarked that the most exceptional

aspect of the Titanic, today, is the Edwardian extravagance of the best cabins. Some of them

had fireplaces that burned coal in their sitting rooms and filled double four-poster beds in

their bedrooms. The two most opulent suites, each fifty feet long, had their own promenade

boards. Every architectural style was depicted: Adam, Louis Quatorze, Louis Quinze,

Elizabethan, Dutch, Queen (40).

1.4.1. First Class Travel

In his description of the Titanic‘s structure, Barratt indicated that there were 30 suites at

the bridge deck and 30 on the shelter deck for first-class travelers. Approximately, 350 first-

class cabins were available, 100 of them single rooms (74). The top four decks, as noted by

Noon and Kentley, were mostly reserved for first-class passengers. Each first-class room was

decorated in a unique grandiose outfit (15). Similarly, Tibballs argued that there were almost

330 first-class rooms in total, with 100 of them being single-berth rooms. There was

accommodation for above 750 first-class passengers (36).

Tibballs also added that the first-class promenades on the ship's three top decks were

spectacular. The promenade on the bridge deck was completely enclosed. It had a space that

was over 400 feet long, with a minimum length of 13 feet on each side of the ship and a
 17

strong side screen equipped with huge, square lowering windows. The deck above this was

the major promenade deck, and it was exclusively for first-class passengers. It was more than

500 feet long and thus it shaped a magnificent promenade, with widths exceeding 30 feet in

places. The uppermost or deck of the boat was also for first class walking, 200 meters in

length and the entire breadth of the boat. The first class restaurant was designed to

accommodate 532 guests, and there was a large fumigation room, a restaurant, a lounge,

writing and reading room (37).

Henry Freeman noted that there were many amenities for top class passengers to spend

much time playing squash on a squash court, swimming in the swimming pool, training in the

gym, or steaming into the Turkish Baths (similar to the current sauna). He also indicated the

Titanic passengers enjoyed a meal in complete sophistication in addition to all amusement

areas that were common for the persons of the top classes of the day, whether it was on land

or sea. Every evening dinner was delivered in the principal dining room. This was the biggest

dining room in every vessel and was capable of seating more than 500 diners in the world

(10).

According to Freeman the Titanic also portrayed another first-class common space, namely

Grand Staircase, which was the most epic and magnificent part. There were about 6 stories

from the bottom to the top glass box (which shattered during the sinking). The glass allowed

the wide, rich wooden steps shine with fabulous light. It was elaborately decorated, with a

wood-carved reload and a light wooden cherry fixture at her foot as well as stunning wrought-

iron and wood banisters and galvanizing plates (10-11).

Henry Freeman goes on saying that first class passengers glared at the magnificence of the

Grand Staircase, and its strategic area made it a time setting on the ship. Most guests enjoyed

dinner, where behind it was a large lobby where they often gathered together before sitting for

that extravagant dinner (11). Then, certainly the staterooms themselves were first class. All
 18

the cabins were pleasant, although some were more favored and expensive, than others, just

like in a 5-star hotel. A design firm used by the Dutch royalty has been called in H. P. Mutters

and Zoon for the 12 most luxurious staterooms. These suites and the other included bedrooms,

bathrooms, wardrobes and salons. They were all elaborately decorated, including numerous

French kings, in a variety of styles. Other simpler, more comfortable rooms still looked a bit

like today's hotel rooms (12).

Figure 5: The first Class Accommodation

Source: Davenport-Hines, Richard. Titanic Lives: Migrants and Millionaires, Conmen and

Crew. London, Harper Press, 2012.

 19

1.4.2. Second Class Travel

Jon Stroud comments that the second class rooms were on decks B and C. He describes the

smoking room as being paneled in oak and oak furnishings covered in Moroccan green

leather. On the C deck, a second-class library with coffee tapestries covered in mahogany and

green silk cloths on windows was displayed in sycamore. In many competing liner companies

the quality of the second-class public rooms was comparable to that of the first class (9).

Rebecca Aldridge emphasizes that travelers in the second class may not have had as many

opportunities to have fun as first-class travelers, but they also found ways to make their

journey enjoyable. They, too, dressed up for their meals, which consisted of four courses

rather than seven, and were accompanied by a spread of almonds, fruit, cheese, cookies, and

coffee. Men in both second and first class could visit one of the ship's two barbershops (30).

1.4.3. Third Class Travel

Writing on the Titanic‘s third Class, Daniel Allen Butler said that it has been commonly

described as ―exhausted, poor ... huddled masses‖; as mothers who grab the hands of little,

wide-eyed kids, or as young men in old clothes who grab their few property into loose

bundles, all of them hoping to find their fortunes in exotic areas such as New York, Pittsburgh

or Chicago. The aim was to carry these people, with the ultimate intent of bringing them to

New York from Southampton (or Cherbourg or Queenstown). The Grand Staircase, electrical

ramps, swim baths or smoking rooms were no influence for passengers like these. They were

concerned in clean neighborhoods and decent food. The Titanic served them wonderfully in

this respect (17).

Berthing Third Class has been split into the ship's forehead and after its ends. Single men

and married couples were lodged, while single women and families were lodged behind them.

There was an apparent company peculiar Puritanical line in the White Star Line which did not

allow individual men and women in the cabin to get in close proximity. The cabins were
 20

spacious, spotless and comfortable enough if a bit austere. The unmarried shared a room with

three to five other same-sex passengers, while married couples and families spared rooms (D.

A. Butler 18).

A large number of permanent cabins, in front and rear as well as large parts of berths made

of movable wooden dividers, were provided in the third class accommodation so that the

numbers and sizes of the cabins could be adapted according to the number of travelers and

unoccupied space for open public spaces. In British and German liners, the days of the closed,

dark holding and rushing of unwashed humanity and bilge were long overdue but, as in so

many other ways, the Titanic set new principles. In some situations, especially in the most

deprived Irish counties, the driving passengers ate better than at home onboard a ship. The

galley of the Third Class was a fare that was unspectacular and offered good food. Overall,

when they paid their way it was a good deal more than most expected (D. A. Butler 18).

1.5. From Southampton to the Devastating Crash

Five days earlier on April 10, 1912, the Titanic left Southampton, England. According to

Michael D. Cole, the ship steamed into the sea after short halts in Ireland and France to take

more passengers. There were more than two thousand passengers and crew (9). Bruce M.

Caplan revealed that the Titanic crossed 484 miles on her first day of service, with her

powerful new engines spinning at a rate of seventy revolutions. On the second day out, the

pace was increased to 73 revolutions per minute, and the total distance covered was 519

miles. The rate of revolution of the engines was increased to 75, further improving the pace,

and the day's run was 549 miles, the longest ever planned (24).

On Sunday morning, April 14, 1912, as indicated by Tim Maltin and Nicholas Wade, the

magnificent ship, the epic of all vessels ever birthed by the human mind, had traveled for

three and a half days from Southampton to New York over a sea of glass, so level it looked,

without confronting a ripple carried on the water's surface by a storm (Wade 34). As the
 21

Titanic sped through the North Atlantic, it picked up a number of messages from other ships

in the area alerting about ice. Captain Smith was adamant that his ship was not in risk, and the

ship's owner, Bruce Ismay, encouraged him to demonstrate the vessel's speed and

dependability by arriving in New York sooner than anticipated. ―Full speed ahead,‖ stayed the

order, and despite the fact that the captain guided the ship 16 miles (25.7 km) south before

turning toward New York, no other consideration was given to the increasingly accurate

warnings about the ice ahead (Adams 30).

Brian Lavery recounted that one of the ship's six lookouts, Frederick Fleet peered out from

the crow's nest of the new White Star liner Titanic into a sparkling night. It was bright, cool,

and bitterly cold. There was no moon, but the clear sky was ablaze with stars. The Atlantic

was as smooth as polished glass. This was the fifth night of the Titanic's maiden voyage to

New York, and it was obvious that she was not only the world's biggest ship, but also the

most glamorous. Frederick Fleet was specifically warned that night to keep an eye out for

icebergs. As the Titanic sailed at 22.5 knots through the calm black sea On Sunday, April 14,

1912, it was nearly 11.40 p.m. Suddenly Fleet saw an iceberg ahead and rang the crow's-nest

bell to warn of a threat ahead (19-20).

Walter Lord asserted that Frederick Fleet and Lee the watch out men stood quietly beside

each other the next thirty-seven seconds, witnessing the ice approaching. They were nearly up

and the ship was still not turning. The berg turned wet and sparkling far above the forecastle

deck, and the two men were prepared for an accident. The bow started to swing unexpectedly

to port. On the final second, the stem gleamed into the clear, and the ice quickly glided

alongside the stem. It looked like a narrow rib (23).

Likewise, Leighly Jr. et al. asserted that at a distance of 500 meters ahead, there was a

giant iceberg expected to weigh between 150,000 and 300,000 tons. The ship's engines were

then stopped, and the ship was turned to port (left) in an effort to avoid the iceberg. The ship
 22

collided with the iceberg below the waterline on its starboard (right) side near the bow in

about 40 seconds. The iceberg hauled the ship's hull for 100 meters, crushing the integrity of

the ship's six forward watertight compartments. The RMS Titanic sank in 2 hours and 40

minutes (15).

Sean Potter observed that according to the final report of the US Senate inquiries into the

tragedy, the Titanic encountered conditions that were ―clear, with the sole exception of 10

minutes of fog‖ during its entire voyage until the point it sank. As indicated by the same

report, the sea was "calm during the trip, with sunshine all day and brilliant starlight at night."

The journey was not marred by any untoward incidents. Based on a testimony by Second

Officer Charles Lightoller, in the final report of the British inquiry, the weather was calm and

good from 6 p.m. to the moment of the crash (2).

The report declared that there was no moon, the stars were visible, and there were no

clouds in the atmosphere. However, the temperature dropped by 10 degrees in less than two

hours, and by 7.30 p.m., the temperature was 33 ° F, finally falling to 32 ° F. The RMS

Titanic had reached an area of Arctic high pressure over the North Atlantic about 10 hours

before the crash, with reasonably calm winds and clear skies. The region of high pressure was

located behind a cold front, with temperatures ranging from 40 to 45 degrees north latitude

(Potter 3).
 23

Figure 6: “Roadmap” The Area of High Pressure

Source: Potter, Sean. ―Retrospect: April 15, 1912: Sinking of the Titanic.‖ Weatherwise, vol.

65, no. 2, 23 February 2012, pp. 10–11, 10.1080/00431672.2012.653933. Accessed 27 April

2021.

1.5.1. After the Collision

The appalling and uneven trajectory of the break, which combined with the long distance

along the hull on which the collision happened resulted in a very light, and often

unrecognized shock in all but the most forward locations of the Titanic. Maltin and Wade

attested that leading Fireman Frederick Barrett, who was functioning in Boiler room number

six at the time of the crash and saw seawater burst through the ship's side, attributed the

collision to a "big gun" going off. They added that passengers further away from the impact

barely felt anything, and some even fell asleep through it. The evident kindness of the

collision may have provoked many travelers' skepticism that the ship could have been

severely affected. Passengers were thrown from their seats, and broken dishes and glass were

strewn across the dining saloons. The passengers immediately panicked and raced to the

decks, screaming and shouting (84).

Aldridge reported that in other parts of the ship, the bridge also received water reports: the

first 3 cargo holds, the fifth and sixth boiler rooms and the firemen' cabin. Engineers and
 24

firemen attempted to suck out water using sleeves, but the water of the ocean came too

quickly so they had to surrender. He added that Thomas Andrews4 was closely familiar with

the ship; he, therefore, accompanied Captain Smith on a tour of the destruction. To prevent

floods, the Titanic was equipped with 15 watertight bulkheads. However, Andrews and Smith

found out that the water had already entered five of the ship's holds, which Andrews realized

was more than the three holds of water that the Titanic was supposed to manage. The ship's

water level rose to 14 feet in less than ten minutes. Andrews broke the bad news to Captain

Smith: he suspected the seemingly unsinkable ship would sink in just 90 minutes (52-53).

Goldstein and Taylor argued that the captain did all he could to turn around the vessel

when the iceberg was noticed, but it was too late to break the hull. They noted that six water

resistant compartments, scraping down the deck of the vessel, had been opened and the

Titanic had no opportunity of surviving. The Titanic would not have collapsed if only four

were opened. When the collision was occurring, a ship was found off the Titanic's port,

which, if answered, could have saved many passengers' lives. Unfortunately it was never

identified and did not provide aids. It was said to be the Californian or the Sampson vessels

(12).

Nilsson narrated that deep within the ship's bowels, Fred Barret, the black gang's chief

fireman, went all the way in the bowels. Once the water resistant doors were shut down, the

furnaces were damped and men started to work to put the fires out. Hardly steaming and out

of the ventilation pipes on each front of each forward funnel was caused by the huge pressure

from the motors stopping and the valve being shut down, and the sound was roaring. Pumps

were carried in as they tried desperately to reduce the rate at which water flows were

alarming. Signals on each deck were sent to the stewards and they knocked at all the doors of

the room. Passengers had been commanded to wear warm clothes, to put their life jackets and
 25

right onto the deck quietly like a precaution. The environment looked smooth with people

feeling more upset than concerned (58).

Dean King admitted that by midnight, Captain Edward J. Smith had realized that the worst

had happened and commanded the lifeboats to be filled and lowered. There were only enough

for one-third of the ship's crew. The principle was, of course, ―Women and children first.‖

The Titanic issued her first distress call at 12:15 a.m. And at 11:45 she started shooting

rockets because there was a light on the horizon, unnervingly close. The light remained

unmoving (6).

1.5.2. The Deadly End

The first report broke from the Titanic, which sent urgent messages to Cape Race and

other ships. The first rescuers on the sea started to run into the Titanic in order to save the

passengers and crew. The warning had become profoundly desperate: ―We are sinking by the

head,‖ read the letter from the Titanic (Rossignol 12). Even before the Titanic sank, the first

headlines started to circulate around the world, thanks to wireless telegraph reports to

newspaper offices around the world.

Within hours, presses in London, New York, and Washington, D.C., as well as around the

different continents spread the news. According to the New York World, the ―liner takes off

passengers; the Titanic was claimed to be sinking.‖ On April 15th, the same front page

announced that the ship was being towed. The Titanic had arrived at its final destination at the

bottom of the sea, some two miles below the ocean; by the time the newspaper broke the story

(Rossignol 13). "Titanic Sunk, No Lives Lost" was the tagline of London Daily Mail's first

edition on August 16, 1912. This could not have been more tragic than the truth, with 1514

souls the actual loss (Goldstein and Taylor 12).

In his depiction of the way newspapers dealt with the tragedy, Allen Gibson wrote that

each regional and national newspaper hurried for a scoop on the sinking, suspending print
 26

runs in order to be the first to provide their readership with every horrifying detail. Any

Titanic printed account, whether that was a version, hearsay, or a view, was glorified and

circulated as fact by editors who were too time-pressed to validate authenticity. Fact became

romanticized, and much of what happened on the night of the tragedy was disseminated

through the years in a cloud of nostalgia (327).

In its book, Titanic: Uncovering the Secrets of the World's Greatest Shipwreck, National

Geographic remarked that miles ahead, the Titanic had called the Cunard liner Carpathia5

through the distress calls. Carpathia got into the ice field of the final radioed position of the

knocked ship, and was generally 14, 5 knots high, but its Captain Arthur Rostron turned the

engines over every ounce of energy. Carpathia at 17, 5 knots struck out as an additional

lookout inspected for bergs. The fire of rockets was ordered every 15 minutes, giving

survivors hope, the medical personnel was told to build three make-up facilities, making chefs

preparing hot soups and drinks, and prepared the ship for devastated passengers (16).

Carpathia showed up in the scene at 3:30 am, led by a green flare fired by Joseph Boxhall,

its fourth officer, and burning paper held aloft. At 4:10 a.m. Lifeboat No. 2 arrived alongside

and then 15 other lifeboats with four collapsible Engelhardt, one of whom was precariously

hung on top of the round floor. None of the survivors came out of the water directly. It took

only four hours to load. About forty thousand people came to witness the entrance of

Carpathia in New York on April 18 in a cold rainstorm. The ship steamed into the pier of the

White Star Line and sent the life boats back to the agents of the company. It remains a

mystery what happened to the boats. Carpathia then traveled back to the Cunard pier,

followed by the Titanic's to take her own travelers (National Geographic 1-18).

Richard Davenport-Hines opined that Carpathia could have adjusted its coverage once

solid facts had emerged. He added that women had obviously died and men of the first class

survived, more than they previously reported. He provided the following facts saying that of
 27

324 passengers of first class, 201 survived, and of 277 passengers of second class, 118

passengers survived. However, only 181 passengers survived of a total of 708 third class

passengers. In determining passengers' survival, gender has been more decisive than class:

74.3% of female passengers managed to survive, 52.3% of young children, and 20% of men.

Third-class women were 41 percent more likely than first-class men to survive. 24% of the

crew (212 out of 885) stayed alive, including 65% of the Deck Department, 22% of the

Engine Department, and 20% of the Stewards. 87% of female crew members were rescued

(20 out of 23), and only 22% of male crew members were rescued (281).

1.6. The American and the British Reactions to the Disaster

While most of the dead were crew and passenger in third class, many of the richest and

most prominent families in the period lost their members. The glamor of the ship, its first

voyage, and its remarkable passengers magnified the tragic events of its sinking in the popular

mind. Many legends arose almost immediately about the events of the night, the dead and the

survivors.

The press identified and honored heroes and heroines such as American Molly Brown who

helped command a lifeboat, and Carpathian captain Arthur Henry Rostron. Another was

Ismay, in particular, who made space in a lifeboat and managed to survive. The tragic events

were strongly explained and inquiries into the sinking took place in the United Kingdom and

the United States (Tikkanen). In particular, a serious body of US senators worked cautiously

to expose the truth, not just to take responsibility for what has now become one of the most

striking chapters in the history of the sea, but also in the intent of developing restorative laws

to prevent their repetition (Mowbray 182).

1.6.1. The United States Senate Inquiries

The East Room was the location for the first day of the inquiry in Waldorf Astoria in New

York. A large conference table was located in the center of the attractive surroundings and
 28

members of the press and the general public were positioned at every corner of the room.

Bruce Ismay, the managing director of the White Star Line and Chairman of the International

Mercantile Marine, was in a high-level chair. He has been associated with two lawyers, two

bodyguards and the President of the International Mercantile Marine Company (IMM), Philip

Franklin. Charles Herbert Lightoller, the senior surviving second officer whose place was

next to Ismay, was portrayed by the press as a square jawed man who had been powerfully

constructed, and was the second high-ranking surviving officer in the committee (Nilsson 83).

Senator Smith started the meeting with the decisions that President Taft discussed and

agreed. The ship's designers, manufacturers and owners, wireless operators, hydrographic

organizations, and everyone else who could offer him the appropriate response he needed,

were present to give their testimonies. He knew that the senior team: Chief Executive Officer

Wilde, First Officer Murdoch and Captain Smith died in the tragic accident, and so the other

officers could clarify the tragic events (Nilsson 84).

Senator Smith wanted to talk to the Titanic's owner first, so the first to testify was Bruce

Ismay. Senator Smith blamed Ismay on the completely insufficient number of lifeboats,

saving only one third of the passengers and crews in the boat. Ismay replied that the numbers

complied with the regulatory requirements of the Board of Trade and that, actually, four were

more than mandated by law. He strongly rejected the Titanic's desire to move faster although

two key witnesses testified they heard him say so (Nilsson 85).

The second officer, Charles Lightoller, arrived at Smith's sights during the afternoon. In

the US and British investigations, this man, as the senior surviving officer, would play a key

role. He explained during his testimony that there was no panic, everything was calm and no

prevention of safety for steering passengers had occurred. He revealed how he instructed the

lifeboats to go for a ship they thought would be a steamer, and afterwards he went into some
 29

detail about how the vessel "left him" and that he was sucked into the water by a funnel

(Nilsson 86).

Charles Lightoller also told how he saved himself by clambering on a revolved lifeboat

with 30 additional men. Another lifeboat came by, and they walked aboard, and then

Carpathia rescued them. Second officer Lightoller had been permitted to go, but in four days

he was called to question. In the following days, the hearings moved into a bigger room to

serve the increasing public of journalists and spectators. Witnesses from the head of Wireless

Marconi and two of the operators and a first-class steward continued to be questioned by

Senator Smith and other Committee Members (Nilsson 87).

1.6.2. The British Official Investigations

The British investigation began on May 2nd, 1912, and was chaired by first viscount John

Bigham Mersey. Sir Cosmo Edmund Duff-Gordon6 was the first to testify in the court which

was scheduled to take place on Friday, May 17, 1912. The women, who dressed in their new

spring hats and frocks, made the scene resemble "a fashionable morning for a popular

charity," according to the journalist of the New York Time, Lady Duff-Gordon7 wore a black

ensemble with a white lace necklace, and her large black hat and veil indicated a hint of

grieving. She spoke clearly and strongly negated what the reporter had brought into the New

York Time's story. She denied hearing any sinking cries after the Titanic crashed (Brewster

275).

Lucy Christina Duff-Gordon's time in front of the inquiry was brief because she followed

her husband Cosmo, who had already been grilled for so many hours that morning and the

previous Friday. Cosmo's upper class reticence made him an unconvincing witness in his own

defense. When he was asked what if more people could have been rescued in Boat 1, he

agreed on that opinion; and admitted that more people could have been saved (Brewster 276).
 30

The British investigation had criticized the inadequate requirements for life boats. During

the 28 days of the testimony little new evidence was found. The final report results approved

that the loss of the Titanic was the result of an iceberg collision resulting from the excessive

speed at which the ship was operating. The first viscount John Bigham Mersey said he could

not blame Captain Smith; however, he did only what other qualified men in the same position

would have done. Captain Lord and the Californian vessel drew strong rebuke. The British

investigators said that the ship was some 9 to 19 kilometers from the Titanic and that many or

all of them could have been saved (Daugherty).

1.7. The Core Factors Contributing to the Collision

The British luxury passenger liner, namely the Titanic sank on her hirst voyage south of

the Grand Banks of Newfoundland on the night of April 14-15, 1912, after crashing with an

iceberg. The ship in question was considered unsinkable because of her double-bottomed hull,

which was separated into 16 watertight compartments. 1,513 lives were lost as a result of an

inadequate number of lifeboats (1,178 boat spaces for 2,224 people on board), the speed at

which she sank (about 2 hours), the frigid state of the water, and the absence of immediate

response to the Titanic's distress signals (Relyea 450).

1.7.1. High Speed

Undoubtedly, the great ship moved at a considerable speed under the command of the

captain, who clearly attempted to carry out the orders of his employers. If the Titanic was not

as quick as the Lusitania or the Mauretania, she was supposed to set a decent record on her

inaugural voyage, something she could not do because she followed a predetermined course.

Everett observed that as risky ice was detected overhead, it was definitely beyond Mr. Ismay's

control to have the Titanic's course shifted to the south. The alert had come from Amerika8

via wireless the day before the tragedy. However, taking a more southerly direction all at once

may have resulted in a time loss of several hours at the very least on the maiden voyage (73).
 31

Following the horrific accident, it was deceptive that the course was not altered if the new

ship was to be pushed at 21 knots. The option was to move slowly through the ice zone, but at

a pace that would allow her to maintain complete control. In an emergency, a steamship the

size of the Titanic must sustain a speed substantially higher than the speed at which a vessel

of half her volume can be managed. So, what explains her forging through ice-strewn water at

near-breakneck speed? Is there any doubt that the danger was underestimated? To denounce

too quickly is to overlook the fact Captains of transatlantic liners have little experience with

ice fields, especially with partially submerged bergs (Everett 74).

The circumstances that sank the Titanic faced no dangers that required Captain Smith to

slow down to headway level or reasonable maneuvering speed; according to the Titanic's

captain, a veteran who had made the passage hundreds of times. It was enough for Smith that

the night was clear and the ice was thawing. He was convinced, as he had said before taking

command of the ship, that she was unsinkable. A fatal faith, though he had no idea of the

ability of a large mass of floating ice to rip out the side of a 45,000-ton ship and crash into her

watertight compartments. It is obvious that the Titanic's downfall and the sacrifice of two-

thirds of her passengers and crew were caused by negligence and mistaken trust rather than

criminal carelessness (Everett 75).

1.7.2. Ignoring the Signals

The Titanic was notified wirelessly of the ice in the North Atlantic by the La Touraine

during the darkness of Friday, April 12th, 1912. On the Sunday morning, Cunarder Caronia9

and Noordam10 from the Dutch liner received wireless warnings to bergs, growlers, and ice

right in the front. Additional warnings were received early on Sunday afternoon from the

Baltic White Star Liner and the German American Liner (Davenport-Hines 218).

Ballard and Archbold pointe that Captain Smith handed Ismay a wireless message from the

steamer Baltic that said: "Greek steamer Athinai reports passing icebergs and large quantities
 32

of field ice in latitude 41°5rN, longitude 49°52'W... wish you and Titanic all success". The

ice layer was some 250 miles ahead of the Titanic. Ismay slid the message into his jacket

casually. Later that afternoon, Mrs. Arthur Ryerson and Mrs. John B. Thayer, two famous

passengers, could see Ismay waving with the message. It was as if Ismay was emphasizing on

how enormous and strong the ship was (22).

These wireless warnings demonstrated that the Titanic's captain was aware of ice to the

north, south, and directly ahead of the southerly steamship pathway on which he was

steaming. According to the evidence, Captain Smith told the officer on duty on the bridge, "If

it is in a slight degree hazy, we shall have to go very slowly". Therefore, the officer of the

watch commanded the lookouts to keep a sharp watchful eye for ice (C. Martin 60). Within a

year, public inquiries into the Titanic's sinking started in both the United States and Great

Britain. Too often, these numerous investigations ended with criticizing Captain Smith for

having failed to respond properly and in time after receiving repeated threats about the

presence of icebergs (Ewing 17).

1.7.3. Fewer Lifeboats

Despite the fact that the Titanic had sophisticated safety measures such as watertight

compartments and remotely controlled watertight doors, there were insufficient lifeboats to

hold those on board due to obsolete maritime safety laws. The Titanic only had enough

lifeboats for 1,178 survivors, which was marginally more than half of the overall number of

passengers on board and one-third of her overall ability (Ghandour and Abdalla 1-2). Two-

thirds of the passengers and crew on the Titanic died that night, due in major part to a

shortage of lifeboats and insufficient procedures for launching them. For example, the first

lifeboats were released half-empty for fear of breaking apart while they were sunk into the

water. Even if packed to maximum, the Titanic's 20 lifeboats could only hold about half of the
 33

more than 2,200 passengers and crew. At last, over 1,500 people died that night in the frozen

waters of the North Atlantic (Potter 3).

The arrangement was of course highly inefficient. The only humanistic strategy is to have

a more seat in a boat allocated to each passenger and a crew member. This number should be

mentioned when booking a berth, and there should be a plan in each cabin displaying where

the boat is and how to get there the quickest, a crucial recognition with a ship like the Titanic

with over two miles of deck space. Boat drills for passengers and crew on every boat should

be held as quickly as possible after setting sail. One aspect where the Titanic's administration

suffered miserably was in providing each lifeboat with a fully qualified crew (Beesley 100-

102).

1.7.4. The Shortage of Coal

There were many stories which reported that the Titanic was running out of coal. Captain

Edward J. Smith had been disturbed by a fuel shortage since the start of the journey. At its

speed of 75 engine revolutions per minute or about 22.25 knots, the ship needed a ton of coal.

To keep up with the speed, sweaty stokers had to throw 650 tons of fuel into the furnaces

every 24 hours. This was a typical fuel investment for a ship of the Titanic's size, but owing to

a coal strike, the bunkers were less than half full when the ship departed from Southampton

on April 10, 1912. According to the British Board of Trade reports, the Titanic only had

enough coal to make it to New York at 22 knots, with a 10% margin of safety (Brown 15-16).

When the ship was docked in Southampton, the initial fuel supply was decreased slightly

since it required over 400 tons to supply heat and electricity while taking on last-minute

resources, mail, and passengers. When the ship set sail, it was most likely carrying no more

than 5,400 tons of bunkered coal. Ismay was probably banking on this unburned coal to

power his high-speed dash on Monday. Nonetheless, his strategy was a risk of a brand-new

ship holding over 2,200 passengers. With the ship's fuel savings over the first two days,
 34

Captain Smith was right in his effort to convince Ismay not to exceed 22.25 knots for the rest

of the journey. Their ship lacked the required fuel for such advertising stunts (Brown 17-20).

Hinke firmly believed that the Titanic essentially went down because of an iceberg, but if

it had not already been on fire, the big ship would not have fallen down. Under the public

rooms of the Titanic and the cabin of passengers, things were far from quiet in the gray

bowels of the Titanic. After the iceberg crash, the firemen and fire crews rushed to the scene

and finally tried to kill flames which had burnt since the Titanic took off from Southampton

(241).

This was only one of the many exciting stories of the Titanic's first and last journey, as told

for the first time by the members of the crew who were shipped back to England on board the

liner Lapland. ―The Titanic sailed from Southampton at noon on Wednesday, April 10,‖ said

J. Dilley, a Titanic fireman. ―I was assigned to the Titanic from the Oceanic where I had

served as a fireman. From the day we sailed, the Titanic was on fire and my sole duty,

together with eleven other men, had been to fight that fire. We had made no headway against

it‖. This fireman had been transferred from the Oceanic to the Titanic, which was on fire.

From the day they embarked their highest priority was to combat this fire alongside eleven

other men. Despite the fact that they did not make any progress to put it off (qtd. in Rossignol

40).

Though the Titanic was completely destroyed by an immense iceberg, it is still believed

that if the great ship had not already been on fire, it would not have gone down to the bottom

of the Atlantic. Therefore, and according to Veronica Hinke, even if the iceberg crushed the

Titanic, the fire was a major cause in drowning the vessel down too fast (241).

1.7.5. The Production of Steel Plates

It was also believed that the hull steel and wrought iron rivets failed due to fragile fracture

when the Titanic collided with the iceberg. Brittle fracture is a type of a major collapse in
 35

structural materials that arises without previous plastic deformation and at high rates of speed.

Brittle fracture is caused by low temperature, high impact heating, and high sulphur content.

Any of these three causes was present on the night of the Titanic's sinking: The water

temperature was below zero, the Titanic was going at high speed when it collided with the

iceberg, and the hull steel was contaminated with sulphur (Bassett 5).

The metallurgical inspection and chemical investigation of the Titanic's steel revealed

important insights that allow an understanding of the severity of the hull damage. While the

steel was possibly as strong as what was available at the time the ship was built, it was much

inferior, by all standards, to modern steel. The spot hardness of the steel was very poor (4

joules) at the time of the crash due to the cold water temperature (-2 °C) in the North Atlantic

(Leighly Jr. et al. 1).

The chemical composition, microstructure, and mechanical properties, especially notch

durability are usually taken into account to determine the potential contribution of the hull

steel to the fate of the RMS Titanic. The steelmaking procedure may have a significant impact

on these variables. Steelmaking practices between the time of the RMS Titanic's building,

from 1909 to 1911, and modern steelmaking procedure are significantly different. It has been

said that Harland and Wolff used less expensive and inferior steel; however, there was no

motive to use such steel because, as previously said, they had a cost-plus fixed-fee contract

with the White Star Line to manufacture the three RMS Olympic class ships (Leighly Jr. et al.

3).

The steelworks of David Colville and a Company based in the Borough of Dalzell in

Motherwell, Scotland, were thought to have supplied the majority of the steel plates used in

the building of the RMS Titanic. In 1906, Colville constructed a 50 ton acid-lined open hearth

furnace. Acid refractories such as silica, fireclay, and ganister were used as the furnace lining

in an acid-lined open hearth furnace (Leighly Jr. et al. 4).

 36

1.7.6. The Brittle Rivets

Researchers are still seeking to solve the puzzle of what happened on that fateful night, 86

years after the RMS Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank to the bottom of the Atlantic

Ocean. According to Wu, the iceberg slashed several long slits into the ship's side, each less

than an inch across. Despite this, the allegedly unsinkable vessel sank in less than three hours.

A jury of naval engineers and scientists has now determined that the Titanic's sudden loss was

caused in large part by the failure of the rivets that held its hull together. The unreliable

quality of the wreaked iron rivets damaged them, allowing the ship's steel panels to rip apart

at the seams, according to a metallurgical analysis of samples (357).

The hull of the Titanic was triple riveted with mild steel rivets in the center three-fifths of

its length, and double riveted with wrought iron in the top and bottom. This was done to

ensure pressure in the middle, which was thought to have the highest wave flex stresses. The

steel rivets were found to be solid, but the wrought iron rivets possessed three times as much

slag as optimal amounts. Furthermore, the slag was in big chunks. Both of these findings led

to deception by incompetent tradesmen, as wrought iron was manufactured by hand at the

time of rivets made from inferior materials indicated that they were still filled near their

maximum strength when assembled. When the Harland and Wolff meeting minutes were

reviewed, it was discovered that the company's struggle to finish the Titanic forced them to

order wrought iron that was one step below that usually specified for rivets, and they were

forced to use previously unapproved suppliers for this process (Foecke 48).

According to Tim Foecke, if the iron rivets had been of significantly higher quality, or if

the builders had chosen triple rows of rivets or steel instead of iron, fewer compartments

would have flooded. With the Carpathia just six hours out, she would have remained afloat

long enough for most people to be saved if there had been five compartments. She would

have waddled into Halifax if four compartments had leaked. If the vessel had been built
 37

properly, it would not have suffered substantial loss in the crash, but only that it would have

sunk more slowly (49).

1.7.7. The Structure Flaws

It is widely assumed that the Titanic sank due to overconfidence in her build, but how

healthy was she actually, and had Harland and Wolff's draughtsmen disappointed her? It is

critical to compare the systemic integrities of other prominent liners of the time to help judge

the efficacy of her compartmentalization. The observations draw informative comparisons

with the Titanic, and the selections examined are equivalent in both size and notoriety, as both

were similarly esteemed in their glory days as being among the safest onboard. No matter

how much better they were, their subdivision not only did not save them, but it exacerbated

their downfall. Despite the subsequent implications declaring the Titanic to be insecure, the

research examined suggests that her compartmentalization was among the soundest of all

(Gibson 314).

According to Connor Martin, it was deduced that despite the terrible degree of the damage,

the Titanic, due to the great height to which her studded structure stretched above the water-

line, and the resulting considerable amount of reserve buoyancy, would have actually

remained afloat for several more hours than she did. If the upper deck E was breached by

hatchways and stairways, allowing water to pour up over the deck and forward over the tops

of the after bulkheads and so-called watertight compartments as the bow settled deeper and

deeper. However the water that boiled up from the forward filled compartments spilled

successively through the open grating of the alleyway window, overflowing the compartments

beneath sequentially (64).

It does not take a technically trained intellect to deduce from this that the Titanic's safety

features were equally flawed above and below the water's surface. The lack of an inner skin

and the existence of these many gaps in her bulkhead deck interacted to sink this large ship,
 38

whose overall buoyancy must have been at least 80,000 tons, in less than two and a half hours

(C. Martin 64-65). Therefore, If the Titanic had struck the ice in a different way; where she

had been constructed with a double hull as well as a double bottom; and her watertight

bulkheads would have carried only one deck higher, she would definitely still be afloat,

debilitated still not dead (D. A. Butler 30).

The Titanic‘s construction endured almost three years of endeavors, employing a huge

number of workers. At the Harland and Wolf shipyard the enormous liner was born, and the

ship seemed to have the most luxurious appearance inside and outside, supposedly nothing

was wrong with its compelling structure. Eventually, in the late four hours of the 14 of April

1912, the ship hit an iceberg and then slowly started sinking. The lifeboats were lowered in

order to save as much as possible, but unfortunately the number of the survivors aboard those

boats was less than expected.

A rescuing liner, called the Carpathia, saved the ones aboard the lifeboats who were mostly

women. Soon after the accident, inquiries in both the United States and Britain took the

responsibility to investigate the catastrophe. Accordingly, so many survivors were called to

court and no one was accused according to the resulted of the inquiries. However, there were

some regulations made so that to prevent similar accidents. Besides the iceberg, which was

determined as being a core reason of the tragedy, there were others reasons that contributed to

the sinking. These additional reasons were revealed as a result of the researches done right

after the Titanic sinking. These causes, for example, include the low quality of some products

used in the building of the ship, as well as the speed of the ship and the firm belief that the

Titanic was unsinkable.

 39

Endnotes
1
The Shipping Line that was purchased by Thomas Ismay and set up to rival Cunard in
Trans-Atlantic passenger traffic. It was founded in 1850 to take advantage of an increase in
trade following the discovery of gold in Australia. History on the Net. ―The Titanic - the
White Star Line.‖ History, June 2, 2014. www.historyonthenet.com/the-titanic-the-white-star-
line. Accessed May 20, 2021.
2
A Belfast firm that constructed liners such as the Olympic and the Titanic. Britannica.
―Harland and Wolff | Shipbuilding Firm.‖ Encyclopedia Britannica.
www.britannica.com/topic/Harland-and-Wolff. Accessed May 25, 2021.
3
A British engineering company founded in 1855 in Bath, England. It was the builder of
various engineering products ranging from Dock cranes to construction plant and household
cast iron items. It went out of business in 1989. Wikipedia Contributors. ―Stothert & Pitt.‖
Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, April 10, 2020.
1en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stothert_%26_Pitt. Accessed June 29, 2021.
4
The Irish shipbuilder who was best known for designing the luxury liners the Olympic
and the Titanic. Tikkanen, Amy. ―Thomas Andrews | Irish Ship Designer.‖ Encyclopædia
Britannica, February 3, 2019. www.britannica.com/biography/Thomas-Andrews-Irish-ship-
designer. Accessed May 17, 2021.
5
A British passenger liner which was best known for rescuing survivors from the ship
Titanic in 1912. The Carpathia was in service from 1903 to 1918, when it was sunk by a
German Uboat. Tikkanen, Amy. ―Carpathia | Ship.‖ Encyclopedia Britannica, 2019.
www.britannica.com/topic/Carpathia. Accessed April 25, 2021.
6
He was a First Class passenger of the Titanic, and he survived the sinking, but followed
controversy surrounding his escape. Fandom.―Sir Cosmo Duff-Gordon.‖ Titanic Wiki, 2019,
titanic.fandom.com/wiki/Sir_Cosmo_Duff-Gordon. Accessed May 17, 2021.
7
She was a first Class passenger of the Titanic. She survived the sinking. Fandom. ―Lady
Duff-Gordon.‖ Titanic Wiki, 2019, titanic.fandom.com/wiki/Lady_Duff-Gordon. Accessed
June 29, 2021.
8
An ocean liner and cruise ship built in the United States. Wikipidia. ―SS America
(1939).‖ Wikipedia, June 30, 2021. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_America_(1939). Accessed
June 14, 2021.
9
Liner built by John Brown & Co, Clydebank, launched July13, 1904; owned by Cunard
Line, maiden voyage February 25, 1905, 19,524grt, 678ft long, 18 knots, originally carried
300 1st, 350 2nd and 900 3rd class passengers, totaling 1,550. Naval History. ―HMS Caronia -
Part 1.‖ Www.naval-History.net, December 18, 2017. www.naval-history.net/WW1Memoir-
Caronia.htm. Accessed June 3, 2021.
10
It was built in 1902, a 12,531 ton passenger liner of the Holland America Line, sailing
mostly between Rotterdam and New York. She was built by Harland and Wolff. In April
1912, she alerted the RMS Titanic to ice early into its ill-fated maiden voyage. Wikipedia.
―SS Noordam (1902).‖ Wikipedia, April 1, 2020.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Noordam_(1902). Accessed June 29, 2021.
 40

Chapter Two

The Mythical Representations of the Titanic

The second chapter aligns the most significant myths and legends of the Titanic. In order

to understand the Titanic as a myth, as well as the myths spread about the Titanic, it is

initially important to define the ‗Myth‘, exactly the way it was drawn by most expert scholars,

mythologists and anthropologists. Moreover, it is imperative to highlight the importance of

the ‗Myth‘, and its enormous impact on the world‘s perspective and how this latter is shaped

through the different interpretation of myths. That said, the last part of this chapter tackles all

kind of myths told about the Titanic, some of these are said to be the reason behind the

sinking of the ship.

2.1. What is a Myth?

Countless books and thousands of dissertations and journal articles about the term myth

and its investigation have been published. It is apparent from the success of contemporary

television production that myth tends to be a strong aspect of modern culture, though the

beginnings of myth stretch back to the beginning of human existence. Considering its

popularity, mythology is afflicted by a complicated web of unproved assertions and

contradictions.

A myth is a metaphorical tale, generally born from unknown origin and at least to some

extent historical, that apparently describes actual occurrences and is particularly related with

religious conviction. Myths are detailed stories of gods or supernatural creatures participating

in unusual incidents or situations in an undefined time that is considered to dwell aside from

regular human life the word mythology refers to both the science of myth and the corpus of

myths associated with a certain belief system (Lugli 38-42).

Therefore a myth was initially brought in religion, where mythical stories of gods were

created. In addition to religion myths took part of many inexplicable human incidents. Despite
 41

the fact that there are certain commonly held beliefs about what forms a myth, the majority of

scholars agree that there is no globally agreed interpretation of the word thus there is no

shared understanding of its essence or how it must be investigated (Masse et al. 9).

Almost all emblematic religions seem to put no efforts to defend or even make mythic

accounts believable. Each myth is a powerful, truthful story, regardless to the difference of

the incidents described are from natural legislation or everyday experience. Through

outgrowth, the term myth can also be more freely employed to point out to an ideological

conviction. Therein religions that created myths somehow kept them mythic and never tried to

make them come out of reality. Myths are strong the way they are characterized even if they

are different from the truthful reality stories (Buxton et al.)

Terence Turner contends that a myth can be understood as the basis for historical

awareness and action; furthermore, the myths are realities. To put it in another way myths‘

roots belong to a sense of history which avoids certain interpretative illusions of historical

events, that is why myths are considered as factual (235). Peter Burke however has an

opposing definition of myth in which he described it in his work "Social Memory," as a

deceptive term which means: it can seem simple like popular culture, but in fact, it challenges

reductions and analysis. To put it in more simpler words, a myth is not truthful, it may appear

simply clear, however it goes beyond the analysis, in which this latter is not accessible when

it comes to myths (97).

Howells counteracts arguing that a myth is not a misconception. Rather, a myth is a

complicated link between history, truth, culture, imagination, and identity. Today, it is the

popular culture that is both a storehouse and the source of myth, a function originally

occupied by "primitive" civilizations' narrators and storytellers. On that account a myth is not

based on faulty, preferably it plays a more important role which is connecting crucial

components such as: civilization, reality fantasy and existence (37). Inquiring further into
 42

myth's ontology, Howells confirms that there is not just one myth theory. Instead, a series of

anthropological myth hypotheses have differed widely. They started with nineteenth-century

folklore studies and have been involved in the complete range of functionalism, structuralism,

and semiotics. Thereupon myth grew many theories and later it started being involved with

many other academic disciplines (38).

In recent issues, as Howells argues, the focus on the myth has been on the performances of

an oral compilation, the explanation of myth "from the native point of view." These theories

vary between empirical and cross-cultural approaches within this intellectual history.

Empirical research devotes a great deal of time to the gathering, description, and explanation

of specific myths of individual peoples (39). Comparative studies, however, deal more with

mythology and try to uncover and explain common qualities between myths and their use.

Consequently, comparative theories claim that myths have remarkably common

characteristics. Both traditions are thus significant in the current survey which aims at both

investigating the particular myth of certain individuals (the Titanic myth of the late

Edwardian British) and also clarifying this myth in a wider theory and use of myth. At this

point myths were being analyzed and explained through many theories such as the

comparative theories, which make deep researches about myths and their origins and reasons

for being created in the first place (Howells 40).

In his lecture at the London School of Economics, Percy Cohen gave the Malinowski

Memorial a review, in which he mentioned the seven myth theories starting in the 19th

century and concluding with the structuralism of the 1960s. Even though this lecture was so

important, it was given in 1969; hence certain more current tendencies in mythological studies

could not be described (338). According to Malinowski, myth was not an idle, abstract

hypothesis, but it used to be strong, convenient, and hard-working. And so this is the social

function of myth's truth. He, thus, claimed that a myth is mainly served for the creation of a
 43

social charter. On this light it is apparent that Malinowski praised the power of a myth even if

the myth is not necessarily that perfect type of story‘s creation (93).

As believed by Malinowski, a myth's purpose is to enhance tradition and imbue it with

greater worth and prestige by attributing it back to a higher, richer, more superior natural truth

of initial incidents. And so myths give emphasis and value on the ancient tradition because of

their uniqueness (144). He explains how myths can be used to reinforce dubious claims and

rights among Melanesian clans. For example, whatever the underlying reality of their

undocumented past could be, myths seek to conceal contradictions caused by historical events

rather than to accurately represent those events. He goes on to say that the incidents by which

this inconsistency is obliterated, if not hidden, are most likely fictitious implying that myth, as

a whole, cannot be honest, unbiased history because it is always made ad hoc to satisfy a

certain sociological function, glorify a certain group, or justify an abnormal status (125).

Howells underlines that Malinowski was talking about myth as it leaned on remote and

undocumented history, and definitely as it affected what he called "primitive" peoples.

History, however, does not have to be limited to the distant and unwritten past. It is not just

concerned with 'primitive' peoples. Howells then wonders; could we, then, make

'functionalist' claims about the Titanic myth? If this is the case, people will be able to argue,

as Malinowski did with the Melanesians, that the Titanic story was used to translate the recent

and contentious past into a modern myth that contributed sociologically to glorify a certain

people and legitimize the present (41).

Howells obviously opposes Malinowski, because he believes that the history and traditions

that Malinowski was talking about were not even documented officially, he therefore

considered them as primitive (non-civilized), he adds if we did the same thing to the Titanic

as Malinowski did with the Melanesians, we will then be glorifying and appreciating certain
 44

people (the ones who were aboard the Titanic), and thus transforming the Titanic‘s story into

a modern myth (42).

Myths are not beyond challenge, with the recognition that they can be used to legitimize

existing social relationships and support the imaginative or dystopian positing of new ones.

Samuel asserts that the collective memory ―is historically conditioned in changing color and

shape according to the emergencies of the moment‖. He thus confirms that a myth‘s purpose

is to validate the existence of the human relationships, and to value other‘s imaginations (85).

Based on this idea Novick claims that the contemporary matters are related to the type of past

we choose to involve in our common memory (3). However, critics of myth have centered a

lot of attention on myth and its ideological component. On the one hand, human beings must

develop their life-enhancing falsehoods; on the other hand, falsehoods that become idols must

be attacked by the iconoclasm1 hammer (von Hendy 279-289).

Opponents of myths such as post-modernist scholars may argue that this attributes too

much independence to individual subjectivity with myths that are ideologically rejected

fiction. In a more indifferent and independent relationship, identity will be perceived to be

established and its implied power relationship to the death of the subject. Due to the latter

notion presented by post-modernists scholars, myths were objected because of their

subjectivity that cannot have a place in whatever ideology, since it consists of imagination

and fabrications (Heartfield 96). This might be disappointing for a humanist mentality that

clings to the belief that certain qualities of being are shared by everybody because of their

common humanity (Eagleton 130); and which regards myth as a special cultural entity that is

closely related to the adjustment to humankind's existential Angst (qtd. in von Hendy 322).

In the same way that Richard Rorty defined knowledge as forming habits of action for

dealing with reality rather than getting reality properly (1). Myths can also be described as

strategies for living. According to Richard S. Slotkin, Professor of English and American
 45

Studies, ―myth is invoked as a means of deriving usable values from history, and of putting

those values beyond the reach of critical demystification‖ (qtd. in Biel, Down with the Old

Canoe… 24). Myth is, thus, employed to extract meaningful principles from history as well as

to overcome the necessary mystery and ambiguity of these values.

2.2. The Importance of Myth

There has been much progress on the initial question of French anthropologist Lévi,

"What's the myth?" Nevertheless, as Holt questioned: "Why specific myths resonate" far less

evident? How are certain myths stronger or more convincing than others? Why is it that

people embrace and integrate certain myths and legendary brands into their life gladly while

others fail to connect or sound right? (425).

Archetypes are the answer, according to Barbara Stern. Following Northrop Frye, the

leading father of archetypal literary criticism, she says that the many attempts performed by

people to make sense of the world are being made clear by four primary myths: tragedy,

comedy, irony, and romance. These are usually expressed on ceremonial occasions like

Thanksgiving (85).

Russell W. Belk and Janeen Arnold Costa argue that as consumer culture changes and

breaks under the pressures of late capitalism that is creatively destructive, people demand

myths of assuasive identities and acquire brands, or gain the most explicit experiences. In

times of stress, worry and existential distress, these offer support (218). The most meaningful

myths provide a lot of sense to a lot of individuals. Allowing people to see what they want to

see empowers them to be who they want to be. And so, it is because of myths that make sense

that people get different meanings and these latter serve them the way they want (Diamond et

al. 126).
 46

2.3. The Mythical Titanic

The Titanic story's enduring popularity is owed in part to its symbolic relevance. Even to

this day, various explanatory references to the sinking, including allusions to its class, gender,

racial, technological, political, religious, and romantic implications, have impacted public

impressions of the catastrophe. Scholars interested in this topic have recently generated

compelling literature about the social and political myths and messages wrapped around the

physical sinking of this now legendary ship.

In the words of Tim Bergfelder and Sarah Street:

While the Titanic is frequently perceived to relate to a closing door on nineteenth

century values, it is also very much a symbol of twentieth-century experience,

whose continuing fascination thrives on heritage tourism and consumerism, but, not

least, also on a plethora of cultural meditations and representations which articulate

differently, and continuing, meanings of the tragedy. (2)

Authors, such as Paul Heyer, claim from a variety of philosophical views that deeper

consideration of these myths and messages may enhance our comprehension of the

civilizations in which they were made and spread. Although no attempt is made in any of

these works to diminish the horror of the Titanic death, this literature proposes strategies to

give more consideration to the longevity of the vessel and why it has now become what Heyer

describes as the moral tale of mythical proportions.

The Titanic tragedy signifies many various things for different people; it has a similar

disregard for its status as a failed company speculation and a horrific industrial tragedy. Apart

from images of brave, wealthy heroes and devoted bandsmen, a more critical interpretation of

events suggests that Titanic myths have contributed in favor of more benevolent clarifications

to dislodge guilt from ship owners, designers, navigators, and regulators. It also suggests that

the sinking was an unpredictable brush with nature, that the claimed reputation of
 47

indestructibility excused the ship, and that the dead were dutiful heroes instead of being

fearful hostages. As a result, the term "myth" does not completely capture the origins and

consequences of the ideological front organized by the Titanic's sinking, which formed what

J. B. Thompson would call "meaning in the service of power" (2).

Steven Biel's depiction of the Titanic mythmaking is more pluralistic, with disagreeing

voices giving many perspectives of the tragedy. He recognizes the existence of a "traditional

Titanic narrative" and demonstrates how it was countered by "critical opinions" such as

socialists, feminists, African Americans, trade unionists, and others (3). Nonetheless, there is

a sense in which one tale is given no more importance than another.

As Biel views it, ―The conventional narrative tried to present itself as common sense . . . to

allow for only one way of comprehending the event and its meanings. Yet, dissenting voices

responded to the conventional narrative, revised it, and in some cases overturned it

completely‖ (Down with the Old Canoe: A Cultural History of the Titanic Disaster, with a

New Afterword 132).

Many stories invoked centuries-old talk about class cooperation patriarchal duty, and white

superiority as eternal beliefs beyond doubt to handle the political crisis caused by the Titanic

catastrophe. Thus, the motifs constructed around this event by newspaper editors, clergy, and

others were a mixture of both myth and ideology, a new event through which conservative

ideals were depicted and disseminated, both for current needs and future societal stability.

This is not to say that the Titanic narratives have always been accurate; rather, the most

effective tales had elite support, and contradictions frequently signified opposing goals within

those elite.

As a result, while people who study mythology are right to bring emphasis to how myths

represent aspects of the communities from which they are generated, this should not be the

end of it. The idea that myths are made and have a political foundation severely undermines
 48

claims of societal acceptance. Jeremy Hawthorn admits that the elevation of certain concepts

into legendary status gives them the illusion of being unimportant to contemporary

ideological disputes yet backing them no less, if not more efficiently, than bare ideology due

to their deceptively disinterested and global character (19).

The most widely asserted Titanic myth of all the belief that the vessel was ―unsinkable‖

results in a concealment process, according to Howells, because it was a claim that only post-

dated the catastrophe. As stated by his study, when news of the crash first came to shore,

Philip A. S. Franklin, a White Star Line official stationed in New York, made the first widely

distributed allusion to its invulnerability. One of the oddities, as claimed by Howells, is that

RMS Olympic, which was remarkably similar to Titanic in every interesting sense, never

collapsed and yet was not classified ‗unsinkable,' which implies that, while some White Star

Line advertisements made competent claims that the vessel was ‗practically unsinkable.

Howells asserts that the limited flow of these sources could not contribute to successive

pervasive public belief in the vessel (52).

While Howells claims that social approval of this news allowed people to ―establish

meaning from an inexplicable incident‖, in fact ‗unsinkability‖ was a myth that obscured the

factors behind the massive number of deaths. Certainly more people would understand the

sinking as a natural accident if the Titanic had been considered to be a vessel like any other.

But such a basic idea would have turned emphasis to the lack of lifeboats, in this situation

only those who were straightforwardly guilty for the Titanic's failures profited from

concealment (144). Geoffrey Marcus refers disgustingly in his extensive Titanic study The

Maiden Voyage, to the luxurious development of the myth that jeopardizes to drown the

genuine facts (7).

The Titanic's survivors were the earliest to shape the mythical Titanic. Archibald Gracie

wrote that they informed journalists whatever they wanted for their molding, from carefully
 49

precise to wildly unbelievable Hundreds of pages of survivor testimonial, political, legal, and

technical reform were soon added to the U.S. and British transcripts of the inquiries. There

were also some books written by survivors (65).

The Titanic was not forgotten afterward, yet it was not a prominent aspect of the

imagination of the world. It was not commemorated, but it was remembered. Then in 1955, in

a book entitled A Night to Remember, Walter Lord had the creative ability to turn hundreds of

compelling personal stories into something like an iconic saga, a saga that gave the whole

interest through every segment. The Titanic was impressive from the beginning, not because

of the separated episodes but because of the impact of the entire ensemble (Cox 422).

2.4. The Symbolic Relevance of the Titanic’s Tragedy

From the commonplace to the unusual, the Titanic has established something of a dramatic

currency and has been the center of several coffee tables, documentaries, artifact books, and

conspiracy theories (Gardiner, Titanic: The Ship That Never Sank? 101). The Titanic has

become a monumental symbol of the 20th century, and probably more generally the hopes

and fears of modernism since its disastrous journey and sinking in April 1912. The name of

the ship itself has become a reference for human pride, arrogance, and bravery and mistrust in

current technology security, the sinking of the Titanic was viewed as the sign of the end of the

imperial world order in the 19th century and a prophecy of the First World War. Evidently,

besides the major dates of the first half of the century correlated with the two World Wars and

the downfall of the Eastern Bloc at the close of it, few other historic events in the 20th century

implemented such a distinguishable difference between "before" and "after" in Western

collective historical imagination ( Bergfelder and Street 1).

On the other side, it is exactly the passage of time, the decrease in personal engagement,

remembrance, and sadness, and therefore the detachment of the event from the private and

local history that has enhanced the reputation of the Titanic as a legendary artifact and as a
 50

more internationally significant event. The Titanic has fascinated a variety of performances in

various forms of art and media, and numerous national and cultural settings. The accident was

designed to interpret and explain a large range of ideological stances on problems including

class, gender, national identity, capitalism, distortion of facts by media, political propaganda,

and collective grieving and recollection. The Titanic's history is hence a prism that makes it

possible to narrate a nearly endless number of tales (Bergfelder and Street 2).

Although stories may be situational and contextual, some of them last longer than others.

In the survival of the story of the Titan, two crucial occurrences took place: the sinking and

the revival in 1955 of the myth with the publishing of Walter Lord's book A Night to

Remember (Biel, American Disasters 149). The Titanic legend itself also remains reproduced

representation not only in marketing meanings but in different cultural styles. The selling of

the Titanic is overwhelming, whether it is titanic artifacts, centers of experience and legacy,

event locations, Hollywood blockbusters, or the urge to identify with a legendary past (Neill

72).

Although the memorial of the people of Belfast which died in the Titanic in 1920 was

exposed, the ship's memory was to lie in the buried plain of the psyche of Belfast (Foster 15).

It appeared until the triumph of the 1997 film Titanic by James Cameron. There are different

reasons for this: The ship's devastating blow to Harland's and Wolff's2 status, and the tragedy

also brought local pride to a head and symbolized the waning trust of the community, as

shipbuilding was especially a part of the "workshop of the world" in Britain. The reason was

that the owners and managers of the shipyard were very hostile to Irish independence and

because the small minority of employed Catholics were sectarian among workers (Honeyman

119).
 51

2.5. The Memorialization of the Titanic

Talking about the memorialization of the Titanic loss, Ticehurst noted that the 32 years of

worldwide Titanic searching has revealed one thousand and twenty eight memorials, tombs,

and burial plaques that commemorate the sinking (2). Not only were these tributes, as Eugene

L. Rasor put it, a major aspect of the worldwide grief and commemorating process," but they

also offered individuals who funded and organized these initiatives with a channel via which

their beliefs could be given permanent existence (137).

According to Hamilton and Ashton, memorials are commonly cited as a reflection of

community and ethnicity, though still an ‗imagined' one. Based on their findings, many

memorializing projects, despite being promoted as being sponsored by donations from all

parts of the community are frequently ‗heavily backed by very small numbers of well-to-do

persons.' They demonstrate, using Bodnar's work, that popular memory is the result of "elite

deceit, symbolic interaction, and disputed discourse," in which there is a conflict between

approved and vernacular history (24-28).

Moreover, such memorials are frequently presented for a maximum impact, and Australia's

Titanic memorials are everywhere. David Harvey, an urban geographer, described municipal

public areas as places in which civic art crusaders might give ‗an alternative to class war by

promoting themes of social order and harmony through the use of cultural artifacts (117).

Several Australian employers might well have noticed the class components of the Titanic's

survival records, as well as the extent to which the sinking was an industrial tragedy with

similarities to local workplace possible dangers. Finally, Darian-Smith and Hamilton

demonstrate that myth and nationalism are continuously deployed to suit diverse ideological

and political agendas (2).

 52

2.5.1. The Australian Titanic’s Memorializing Process

The Australian Titanic memorialization process was similar, embodying national and

international themes motivated by local concerns. The appearance of the Titanic memorials in

Australia is often attributed to the bandsmen's narrative having a specific relevance within the

brass band movement, and that proletarian mining traditions necessitated memorialization of

entertainment employees executed on the job, as so many mine workers were (Gregson 10).

Although such interpretations are not entirely false, they do not adequately explain the social

and political dynamics that led to the development of the Australian monuments.

The severity of the disaster was undoubtedly a role, but so were the conservative-

dominated local memorial groups' political agendas. For instance, even though many brass

bands in this era were composed of working-class people, band membership did not indicate

outraged proletariat awareness; instead, it was a symbol of conservative laborism. Between

the 1870s and the 1930s, the band movement was at its peak, with ensembles forming in

workplaces, schools, communities, churches, humanitarian institutions, and military

organizations (Bythell 144-150).

Furthermore, Bythell points out that the infrequent donations from the general public

meant that bands frequently relied on gifts from affluent individuals or groups for survival.

Workplace bands were frequently sponsored by employers and, as such, were symbolic of the

welfare management systems that prospered in Australia beginning in the second part of the

nineteenth century. Union bands were seldom radical; rather, they belonged to what Bythell

refers to as a "deeply rooted tradition of pragmatic laborism." Undoubtedly, the Newcastle

Morning Herald explicitly referred to them as a "social control" force (152).

2.5.1.1. The Titanic’s Bandsmen

In Kadina, South Australia, the first antipodean monument to the Titanic bands was built.

A sign on the bandstand contained the phrase, ‗This stand was erected to the memory of the
 53

bandsmen of the ill-fated ―Titanic‖ by the members of the Kadina Town, and Federal Bands,

1913 (Bailey 19). The origins of the second Australian memorial are not really known. In late

1913, at Broken Hill, a desert city on the far west of New South Wales, a Titanic Memorial

was constructed. In 1889, 1890, 1892, and 1908-09 significant strikes were held there, famed

as a 'labor stronghold' and a location of considerable social and political discord. In this

setting, as Kidd and Murdoch indicated, the Broken Hill Titanic Memorial demonstrated well

local attempts to spin the contradiction as 'unifying and homogeneity (7).

2.6. Legends and Myths Told about the Titanic

The RMS Titanic has been surrounded by various myths and stories over the years. These

varied from the myth that the vessel is unsinkable to the story about the eventual song played

by the orchestra (Waites). There is no mystery that the Titanic's story, because of its

complexities and global fame, is interlaced with legends, myths, and misunderstandings. But

even this omnipresent mythology has penetrated a relatively new field of Titanic, notably the

history of her wreck research which just began in 1985 (Nesmeyanov).

The Titanic Tragedy has turned into a typical story and a modern folk myth. But like all

myths and legends, the way it has been retold through the years since that horrific night in

April 1912 has indeed confused our knowledge of what truly happened. As the North Atlantic

waves came to a close, myths arose (Louden-Brown et al.).

2.6.1. The Unsinkable

Newspaper and magazine stories, as well as shipping business advertisements, promoted

the notion that the ship was unsinkable. The widely published articles described the liner's

construction and technology as superior safety features. Although it is an overstatement to say

that no one believed the ship was unsinkable, it is possible that before the Titanic's sinking;

people were not very concerned about whether the vessel was unsinkable. The Titanic's

selling argument was not its safety, but rather it was its magnificence and luxury. The
 54

Titanic's size and accommodations were highlighted in most publications and advertising,

rather than the details of its design, and the wealthy passengers who checked the ship chose it

for its grandeur and comfort. It was only after the ship's collapse that the term unsinkable

finally did catch on, perhaps for dramatic effects. So, while the ship was advertised as

unsinkable prior to its sinking, it was the irony of its terrible sinking that brought that claim to

light (Wallenfeldt, ―Did Anyone Really Think the Titanic Was Unsinkable?‖).

The Titanic was described as nearly unsinkable by three trade journals (one of which was

almost certainly never published). Many survivors stated, in video interviews and testimonies

that they thought the ship was unsinkable. Although shipbuilders Harland and Wolff did not

declare the Titanic was unsinkable, promotional material from the White Star Line

emphasized the safety of the Olympic and the Titanic, asserting that "as far as it is feasible,

these two great ships are constructed to be unsinkable" (Root).

Trade publications claimed that the Olympic class liners or other White Star ships were

unsinkable or practically unsinkable were not exclusive to the Olympic class liners or other

White Star ships. Similar allegations were raised against the Cunard vessels Lusitania and

Mauretania, as well as the German ships Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse and Kaiser Wilhelm II.

The advanced safety features on these liners were highly highlighted, de-emphasizing the

possibility of these ships crashing in a serious collision (Titanic Inquiry Project).

The Titanic was built to meet the Grade 1 subdivision specified by the 1891 Bulkhead

Committee, which meant that it could float with any two adjoining of its 16 main

compartments open to the water. In a case of flooding, the height of the bulkhead deck above

the water line was considerably over the standards, and the vessel could have floated with

three contiguous compartments flooded in 11 of 14 feasible combinations (Bedford and

Hackett 167–171). Cast iron waterproof doors could be used to isolate the subdivisions from

one another. To reduce the possibility of a sailor becoming entangled in them, a geared
 55

mechanism gently dropped the doors over 25 to 30 seconds by dragging them vertically on

hydraulic cataract cylinders (Beveridge et al. 112).

2.6.2. David Sarnoff, Wireless Reports and the Use of SOS

The Titanic's narrative is laced with myths and legends. It has become an icon for the most

dramatic and spectacular failure in popular culture. It is a tragedy featuring tea dances.

However, there is just one first-hand, real-time account of what transpired that night; a series

of wireless signals received between the Titanic and the other vessels urgently attempting to

organize a rescue mission on that frigid April night in 1912.

Regarding the Marconi telegraph's inadequacies and the fact that it was not designed to be

used as an emergency instrument, the Titanic was built with a radio room and a Marconi-

leased telegraph machine (Coughlan). During the Titanic's inaugural voyage in April 1912,

two young Marconi-employed operators, chief telegrapher Jack Phillips and his assistant

Harold Bride transmitted Morse code "Marconigrams" on behalf of the ship's excellently

customers 24 hours a day. When the Titanic collided with the iceberg, Phillip used the

Marconi distress signal: "CQD." CQ ("seek you") plus D for "distress or threat", was at the

time the general call sign used by Marconi operators, which was also used by British

telegraphers (Blakemore).

According to an often-repeated myth that blurs the line between fact and fiction, the first

person to get news of the sinking was David Sarnoff, who eventually run the media giant

RCA (Williams 26). Sarnoff was not the first to hear the news. This was mentioned in altered

versions of legends (although Sarnoff was willing to encourage this belief), but he and others

did staff at the Wanamaker Department in New York City on a Marconi wireless radio station

(telegraph) and for three days, sent the tragedy updates and the survivor names to people

desperately looking outside (Evans et al. 337).

 56

Nevertheless, even in today's accounts, this version has no support. For example, Sarnoff

was not mentioned in newspapers of that time. Given the lack of primary information,

Sarnoff's story should be considered a legend (Abramson 41). There were rumors in 1936 that

claimed that there was a ham radio operator called Gordon Cosgrav who received long-term

echo SOS messages from the Carpathia and the Titanic after 24 years of their sending

(Spencer 150).

2.6.3. The Titanic's Band

One of the Titanic's most well-known myths is the band of the ship. In an attempt to keep

everyone quiet and upbeat, the eight-man band headed by Wallace Hartley gathered in the

top-class lounge on April 15. They relocated afterward to the front half of the deck. The band

kept playing, although it was so obvious that the vessel was already sinking, and all the

members were killed afterward (J. Butler).

The myth of the band performing emerges at the end of the Titanic's enormous tale and is

highly glorified in late Edwardian publications. The Titanic was fairly calm before it hit ice

on the night of Sunday April 14, with the majority of travelers and staff members getting

ready for rest. Gibbs expresses it this way: ―Down in the street of this city at sea, mothers

were bending over sleeping babies, women were putting off their finery, youth was already in

the land of dreams, and old age was praying for a good night's sleep‖

While the lifeboats were being lowered, the band gathered ‗on one of the decks' and

‗played pieces from operas and the newest contemporary melodies'. Gibbs described the

‗merry music floating out above the quiet waters under the star-strewn sky, in which he said:

"set the keynote to this great melody of spiritual devotion to honor and duty‖ in another

passage he adds: ―That music, divine as an honor melody when played by men face to face

with eternity, was silenced only when the ship reared up in her death agony, and then plunged
 57

into the depths‖ (2-8). In the same vein, Young depicted them as playing "jolly rag-time

melodies" to accompany the "bustle and labor of getting off of the boats" (151).

The final tune played of the song "Nearer, My God, to You," according to one of the

Canadian passengers of the first class, Vera Dick, and many other passengers (Frederick et

al.) Harold Bride is just one of two of the band's closest witnesses, who drifted off the deck

before the ship fell. Some think his statement is trustworthy. An hour and twenty minutes ago,

Dick had gone by a lifeboat and was unable to hear the band's last minutes. The idea that the

Band playing 'Nearer, My God, to Thee' is likely a myth adopted from the wrecking of SS

Valencia liner, which was widely covered by the media in Canada in 1906 and so may have

influenced Dick's recollection (Howells 128).

The lyrics of "Nearer, My God, To Thee" use the three, very distinct versions of the hymn.

Horbury by Rev John Dykes was widely known in England in 1861, whereas Bethany by Dr.

Lowell Mason, which was composed in 1856, was famous in the United States. Sir Arthur

Sullivan wrote the third music related to the anthem, Propior Deo, which was equally

renowned in the UK (Richards 395-98).

In his report, shortly after the sinking, Colonel Archibald Gracie claimed that the band's

tunes were "happy," but it was unrecognized by him. He said: "I assuredly should have

noticed it and regarded it as a tactless warning of immediate death to us all and one likely to

create panic." Thus, if they played "Nearer, My God, to Thee" as supposed by the newspaper,

he would have surely recognized the lyrics (70).

2.6.4. The Titanic’s Sinking was Prophesied

With regards to the Titanic catastrophe, some prophecies and projections that were

anticipated decades before the tragedy proved to be very correct. In a lot of ways, the doom of

the Titanic can be debated. Legends report that William Thomas Stead, the reportedly

psychic, had foretold his death aboard the Titanic decades previously. Thereafter, he wasted
 58

his last two hours on earth reading silently a book in his first-class smoking room when the

damaged vessel began to fall, rather than attempting to preserve itself (Mulpetre).

The famous British research journalist William T. Stead attempted to alert people about

such a security system and the lack of lifeboats that the newly built vessels at the time had

plagued. His warning was under the form of a short narrative entitled, "How the Mail Steamer

Went Down an In Mid Atlantic? By a Survivor ". The story concerns a British sailor named

Thomas, who sails on his first trip to the USA on a newly-built passenger liner. Upon leaving,

Thomas recognizes that the few boats that will save all the passengers and crews will not be

sufficient for the vessel. No one takes his observation seriously, nevertheless. A few days into

the trip, the liner stroke at a stray sailing ship because of clouded fog.

At the time when it was published, Stead's cautionary story attracted little recognition.

However, since the resemblance between the plot and the events in the Titanic were rather

strong, many people, following the Titanic incident, began to consider it as a vague prophecy.

In addition, Stead produced another short story in 1892 about another marine tragedy. A

further story, called "From the Old to the New," was about a crew of a ship that attempted to

provide help to the RMS Majestic's survivors, which is a fictional passenger‘s liner, which has

collided in the North Atlantic, after crashing into an iceberg. This story was also considered

after the Titanic's loss as a frightening case of foreseeing (qtd. in Valjak).

2.6.5. The Mystery Ship

Some claim that when the Titanic crashed, another vessel, the Norwegian sealer Samson,

was nearby. Supporters of this hypothesis contend that, in addition to the Titanic and the

Californian, the Samson was present in the place of the incident on the night of the sinking, or

that the Californian was not present at all and that it was the Samson liner that was glimpsed

by the Titanic passengers when the ship was descending. The latter theory has been

enthusiastically endorsed by supporters of Captain Lord's innocence, starting with Leslie

 59

Harrison, the general secretary of the Mercantile Marine Association in the 1960s. It is based

on the testimony of one of the Samson's officers, Hendrik Bergethon Naess, who informed a

Norwegian newspaper in 1912 that his vessel had been close to a huge ship with "many

lights" sending rockets (Ringle).

In the four stories written by Naess, the Titanic historians have noted several

contradictions. He reported the Samson as coming back from seal-hunting south of Cape

Hatteras (North Caroline) over a thousand miles away from the Arctic Circle's icy waters with

seals. In the micro-film Lloyd List, the Titanic historian Leslie Reade reported that the

Samson had twice anchored in Isafjordur that April: on 6 and 20 and on 15 May. Therefore

the date of April would not allow Samson to be in the area of the Titanic on April 14 (Lee

237).

2.6.6. The Titanic’s Curse

When the Titanic collided, it was strongly believed that the ship had a malediction.

Different newspapers immediately connected the "Titanic Curse" with the prevailing tradition

of the White Star Line of not christening their vessels (Howells 245). The latter is one of the

most common legends closely connected to the sectarianism of Belfast City, where the Titanic

was constructed. John P. Eaton et al. attest that it was suggested that the ship carry the number

390904, which implies "NO POPE," the sectarian motto used by radical Protestants in

Northern Ireland, in order to oppose the Roman Catholics (56).

In the region's radical sectarianism at that time, the Titanic's sinking was attributed to anti-

Catholicism by her makers, the Harland and Wolff company, that had a nearly entirely

Protestant workforce and a presumed record of resentment towards Catholics (Harland and

Wolff did have a history of recruiting just a few Catholics; whether it was due to policy or

because the company did not want to hire Catholics was unclear). The yard numbers 400 and
 60

401 were assigned to the RMS Olympic and Titanic, accordingly (Chirnside, ―The Mystery of

Titanic‘s Central Propeller‖).

Walter Lord, the late Titanic historian, claimed that he began receiving letters from people

in Ireland retelling the ―NO POPE‖ allegation in the mid-1950s. However, as Burns noted in

his 1986 book, The Night Lives On, no such number was assigned to the Titanic (Little).

Therefore for such a legend to be accurate, both of its aspects must be true: that the Titanic's

hull number was truly 3909 04 and that this number created alarm among her shipbuilding

workers. The first part fails the accuracy test since the number 3909 04 was not issued to the

Titanic as a hull number or any other form of number: her official Board of Trade

identification was 131,428, and the yard number issued to her by Harland and Wolff was 401.

The second part also contradicts because nearly all of Harland and Wolff's staff was

Protestant, not Catholic, and so would not be "frightened" to the extent of rejecting to serve

aboard the ship due to a 'NO POPE' statement (M. Mikkelson).

2.6.7. The Foreshadowing of the Disaster

The 1 May 1912 edition of the Popular Magazine, an American pulp magazine, was on the

newsstands when the Titanic perished. It included the short story: "The White Ghost of

Disaster," which detailed an ocean liner colliding with an iceberg in the Atlantic Ocean, the

drowning, and the fate of the passengers. Mayn Clew Garnet's story caused a mild sensation

(Gardner 195).

Morgan Robertson published The Wreck of the Titan, Or Futility, in 1898 fourteen years

before the Titanic disaster. This story revolves around the Titan, a massive British passenger

liner that, despite being thought to be unsinkable, carried an inadequate number of lifeboats.

On an April trip, the Titan collided with an iceberg and sinks in the North Atlantic, killing

practically everybody on the ship (Kaizer Donev et al. 13).

 61

In 1912, the German Berliner Tageblatt newspaper printed a serial book that ran from

January 9 to April 24, 1912. Gerhard Hauptmann was the writer of this work of fiction. The

story was released as the novel Atlantis by S. Fischer Verlag one month before the disastrous

April maiden voyage of the RMS Titanic. Atlantis is a romance story set onboard the mythical

ocean ship Roland, which is fated to a tragedy similar to the RMS Titanic. This alleged

foreshadowing of the Titanic disaster drew a lot of concern at the time (Maurer 10-76).

2.6.8. No Binoculars aboard the Ship

The myth about the Titanic being devoid of binoculars for the lookouts and crew is nearly

accurate. David Blair was the Titanic's Second Officer, however when Henry Wilde was

appointed to the Titanic's inaugural voyage due to his expertise as Chief Officer onboard the

Olympic, the remaining officers' positions were modified, and Blair was the one who was

dismissed to make place for Wilde. The binoculars were indeed aboard the ship, locked a

closet in the room that Blair had initially inhabited between Belfast and Southampton,

however it appears that no one was aware of their presence. However, many historians believe

that, given the circumstances, binoculars would have made little difference in sighting the

iceberg on the night of the catastrophe (Milos).

The binoculars were quite simply part of the investigations that preceded the sinking of the

ship but some judgments said that Blair's "forgetfulness was not a significant cause of the

disaster" because of some other important reasons why the ship perished. An interesting

narrative is that of Frederick Fleet and Reginald Lee, the watchmen who knew that there were

no binoculars during the journey, when they were asked by a committee of inquiry if they saw

the iceberg from a far distance or not, Fleet said, "I might have seen it sooner. When asked

again: "How sooner?" he answered back: "Well, enough to get out of the way'' (Andrews).

Other scholars argued that the binoculars would not have provided aid since the ship

reached the iceberg, because it was too gloomy. For instance, in his article ―Were there
 62

Binoculars aboard the Titanic?‖ Laurie L. Dove asserted that although the sky was clear at

night, a moon did not illuminate the road, and the wind did not make a crystal sea, which was

not able to give off warning ice-bergs.

2.6.9. The Cursed Mummy of Amen-Ra

As claimed by some accounts, when an Egyptian princess named Amen-Ra died 3,500

years ago, she was deposited in an elegant wooden coffin and buried underground in a vault at

Luxor, on the Nile River. In the late 1890s, four wealthy Englishmen exploring the Luxor

excavations were encouraged to purchase a superbly crafted mummy case containing the

bones of Princess Amen-Ra. They selected many men. The winner paid many thousand

pounds and had the coffin sent to his hotel. He was last seen heading out into the desert a few

hours later. He has not ever reappeared (Deem).

The following day, one of the remaining three men was murdered inadvertently. His arm

was severely injured and had to be removed. On his way home, the third man discovered that

the bank that held his life salary had broken. The fourth man became ill, lost his work, and

was forced to beg on the streets. Regrettably, the mummy and its coffin arrived in England

(triggering other miseries all along the way), where it was purchased by a London

businessman after three of his family members were badly hurt in a car accident and his house

was demolished by fire, eventually, the businessman decided to donate it to the British

Museum (Deem).

When the Princess was put in the Egyptian Cabin, the real danger began. The night

watchmen at the Museum heard repeatedly furious pounding and wailing from the coffin.

During the night, other displays in the cabin were frequently thrown around. One of the

watchmen died while on work, prompting the other watchmen to resign (Blundell and Boar

20).
 63

Blundell and Boar indicated that cleaners also rejected to come to close to the princess

coffin. After a visitor mockingly tossed a dust cloth at the face painted on the coffin, his child

died of measles shortly after this incident. Due to threatening occurrences, the mummy was

sold to a private collector by the museum. Following a series of misfortunes and deaths, the

owner exiled it to the attic (21).

The mummy was eventually unraveled in London, and Egyptologists set about deciphering

the markings on the wrappings. They were spirit wrappings. There was written a diversified

sequence of curses upon the guy who would dare to disturb the long rest of the mummified

dead in characters about which the specialists had no doubts. It said: 'May he, ran the

invocations, be abandoned by the gods. May wild beasts destroy his life on earth and after his

death, may the floods of the avenging rivers root up his bones and scatter his dust to the winds

of heaven (Dessem).

The decision was taken to sell the mummy, and an American collector offered to buy

Amen-Ra. The mummy‘s new owner boxed her up and arranged a passage for himself and his

new valuable possession on a vessel bound for the United States, which happened to be the

famous Titanic. Legend says that the Amen-Ra was the direct cause behind the sinking of the

Titanic and that she will curse anybody who disturbs her watery tomb. The crew of the

unsuccessful 1980's mission to find the Titanic's wreck allegedly heard dark murmurings of

this curse (Castleton).

Many crew members on a failed 1980 mission to find the sunken Titanic talked of the

obvious threats associated with of the legendary mummy that was reportedly on board. They

convincingly claimed that the mummy transmitted the curse of all those individuals who

disturbed its burial to the ship's inaugural voyage. The mummy‘s curse inflicted all further

search efforts (B. Mikkelson).

 64

Figure 7: The Unlucky Mummy Displayed in the British Museum

Castleton, David. ―The Unlucky Mummy - Curse of the British Museum and Sinker of the

Titanic?‖ David Castleton Blog - The Serpent‘s Pen, 31 March 2021,

www.davidcastleton.net/unlucky-mummy-curse-british-museum-titanic-amen-ra-egyptian/.

Accessed 10 June 2021.

2.6.10. The Champagne Curse

A further long-held myth about the Titanic's fate was that the bottle of champagne that was

shattered against its hull during its inaugural voyage did not break and so it triggered the

ship's misfortune. Even if religious fate had something to do with the Titanic's sinking, it

could not have happened since the Titanic was never christened with champagne. According

to an old sea superstition, if a vessel's christening bottle stays unbroken misfortune would

strike the vessel (Gallagher). However, there was no champagne bottle. The White Star Line

did not, without a doubt, christen its naval vessels with bottles of champagne or other

alcoholic beverages. Even if it is widely believed in champagne curses, it was never asserted

that the Titanic sank because of a champagne curse (Spignesi, ―Another Titanic Myth

Debunked‖).
 65

Interestingly, one of the criticisms leveled about the film adaptation of A 'Night to

Remember' (Walter Lord's book about the Titanic) was that the opening sequence was

inaccurate. It depicts a woman christening the Titanic while wearing a large hat and a fur

stole. She declares, "I name this ship Titanic," and takes a powerful swing at the ship with a

champagne bottle, breaking it neatly. ―That isn't true!‖ the myth's supporters exclaimed about

the film. In reality, the bottle did not break, which is why the Titanic sank. However, there

was no champagne bottle in the first place (Spignesi, ―Using the History of the Titanic to

Debunk Myths‖).

When the Titanic‘s sinking breaking news hit the world, it was attributed to one and only

cause and that was the huge iceberg, even after the inquiries were made it was officially

declared that because of the berg crash, the ship was drowned. However, throughout time

many unrealistic, almost incredible anecdotes about the ship and the causes that led to its

collapse grew tremendously. Mythologists along with some journalists and writers were

providing a range of stories classified as myths, because of the nature of the knowledge they

hold, since the word ‗myth‘ is used to refer to the unreliability of its stories that go beyond the

reality, being non-humanized and consisting of supernatural figures and objects.

Accounts such as the Titanic never sank but rather was changed by its twin ‗the Olympic‘,

the liner that was constructed in parallel with the Titanic, in addition to the curses brought

aboard the ship and many other stories told did take place and started getting spread.

Nevertheless, many people seemed to not believe these stories, simply because they made no

sense to them. Certain myths, on the other hand, do include an ingredient of fact at their core,

albeit facts that are virtually constantly pulled out of time, location, or context, and frequently

have allegedly supernatural aspects added to explain incidents which are beyond the authors‘

grasp. Myths are, thus, the interpretations that provide clarification whenever science does not

have the appropriate proofs for certain incidents.

 66

Eventually, the Titanic‘s supposedly real story was never enough to turn off all the

suspicious thoughts, because there was indeed something mysterious about the accident,

something that could never be understood, even with years passing and the world flourishing

with more technologies and sciences, mystery was never faded. Finally, despite the fact that

none of the myths that had surrounded the Titanic were proven right, still they were used as

substitute elucidation that offered at least some possibilities to take into consideration.
 67

Endnotes

1
It is the social belief in the importance of the destruction of icons and other images or
monuments, most frequently for religious or political reasons. Wikipedia Contributors.
―Iconoclasm.‖ Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, Nov. 28, 2019.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconoclasm. Accessed June 26, 2021.
2
Famous for building the Titanic, the Belfast shipyard was founded in 1861 by
Yorkshireman Edward Harland and his German business partner, Gustav Wolff. History on
the Net. ―The Titanic – the White Star Line.‖ History, History, June 2, 2014.
www.historyonthenet.com/the-titanic-the-white-star-line. Accessed February 12, 2021.
 68

Chapter Three

The Titanic’s Conspiracy Theories

This last chapter reveals several conspiracy theories adopted by many scholars and

researchers, providing the substitute genuine reality about the Titanic‘s accident. It is

important to understand what a conspiracy theory means to be able to understand and analyze

the Titanic's conspiracy theories. And so the first section presents an overview of what is a

conspiracy theory. Then, the chapter includes the reasons behind adopting such conspiracy

theories, along with providing, at last, the consequences resulting from implementing these

theories. Next, it provides the different theories that were demonstrated through different

written books, researches, and investigations; in which one discovers a whole world of new

perspectives and substitute facts opposing what is commonly known about the world‘s biggest

ship‘s collapse.

3.1. What is a Conspiracy Theory?

Despite the prevalence of conspiracy theories in social and political discourse, a unified

research program to address their sources and repercussions has only emerged in the last

decade, for a variety of reasons. In this light, there was a huge need to make more researches

about conspiracy theories, which was the common aim among different types of scholars, in

order to determine their outset and further upshots.

Scholars constantly worked to improve their understanding of conspiracy theories.

Eventually, some of them related conspiracy theories to prejudice, witch hunts, uprisings, and

massacres throughout history. Conspiracy theories, thus, were the mirror of too many

jeopardizing denouements in the first place, and this was marked across time. Accordingly,

many terrorist attackers were reputed to be keen advocates of conspiracy theories (Douglas 3).

First, several crucial concepts need to be clarified because many discussions over

conspiracy theories stem from disagreements of what is and what is not a conspiracy theory.
 69

A conspiracy hypothesis is a secret plot hatched by two or more prominent actors (Keeley

124). Conspiracies often seek to gain political or economic power, abuse rights, and breach

established agreements, hide crucial knowledge, or undermine fundamental institutions. The

conspiracy term extends beyond basic criminal conspiracies, such as plotting a robbery at a

corner store. Conspiracies, such as the Watergate incident, sometimes occur, but they usually

fail due to the difficulties involved in carrying out plans and keeping individuals silent.

Consequently, it is difficult to set a conspiracy and then put it into an effective plan without

failing it, since it is a sensitive issue especially when it comes to keeping secrets (Grimes 15).

Jovan Byford sees that ―conspiracy theories‖ are reasons to understand the fundamental

causes of key social and political issues and circumstances by alleging secret schemes secretly

devised by two or more prominent actors. In this regard, Byford adds that it is important to

note that conspiracies are born from the need to solve whether political or social matters, they

can be set up by two or more persons who have ultimately the same favors (62). Whilst still

conspiracy theories are frequently associated with governments, they can be applied to any

entity seen to be strong and nasty.

Conspiracy theories concerning the 9/11 terrorist attacks blame the George W. Bush

administration, the Saudi government, the financial industry, and the Jews. Conspiracy

theories about environmental issues blame scientists, communists, the UN, Democrats, the

government, and the oil business, among others. Moreover a conspiracy is a factual causal

series of events, whereas a conspiracy theory is an accusation of conspiracy that can or cannot

be genuine. Which insinuates that Conspiracy is a real arranged plot, however a conspiracy

theory is not always real, sometimes it is inferred out of certain events, thus it could be only a

supposed of theory, and on the other hand this supposed theory may be real (McKenzie-

McHarg and Fredheim 158). Another key term concerning conspiracy is the belief in

conspiracy; it alludes to believe in a certain theory of compliance or many theories of

 70

conspiracy. For example, over 60% of Americans still assume that John F. Kennedy was

assassinated by the CIA. From this perspective, someone can involve in a conspiracy simply

by believing in it (Uscinski 77).

Moreover, researchers since recent times have suggested that there might be a

psychological thinking, or a conspiracy-mindedness generally (Brotherton and Eser 3). This

notion stems largely from the conclusion that those who believe in conspiracy theories

particularly are inclined to believe in others. And so if someone decides to take a part in a

conspiracy by believing in it, this person is therefore advocating particular persons, and as a

result opposing others (Goertzel 495). Certain individuals may be prone to conspiracy

explanations owing to partiality towards powerful despised groups and official reports. This

designates that if a conspiracy theory was put forward by persons of higher and powerful

status, this would ultimately attract a lot of advocators to believe in their conspiracies (Wood

et al. 765).

Researchers must specify what they mean by 'theorist of conspiracy' and 'conspiracy' since

these labels can nullify real concerns and discredit people by indicating irrationality

(Harambam and Aupers 120). These concepts can therefore be armored and people often

reject that their beliefs are conspiracy theories even if they are qualified. Sometimes

politicians use this to disregard criticism because it turns the discussion on the accused instead

of on the defendant (Coady 118). The actual effects and permutations of the phrase

"conspiracy theory" are open to discussion. Certain individuals are dismissed, while others are

drawn to them (Wood 698).

3.2. Reasons behind Adopting Conspiracy Theories

Conspiracy theories have always been a style of thinking that people resort to in times of

crisis. As a result, the creation of conspiracy theories makes sense, according to social

psychologist and researcher Daniel Jolley, who claims that ambiguity combined with fear,
 71

creates the ideal conditions for them to propagate. Anyone is vulnerable to them because they

sometimes offer logical and convincing narratives that are sometimes likely to be easier than

complex, challenging, and not yet-fully-understood reality (qtd. in Goop).

According to Karen Douglas, it is difficult to understand what motivates people to

believe in conspiracies. She says:

Back in the early days, when people like me started studying conspiracy theories, and

why people believe them, we did think there‘s got to be certain personality types or

demographic variables that attract people towards these things. But now, it‘s more

about psychological needs or motives. People are looking for answers and certainty

surrounding an issue, or for safety and a sense of control over their lives and they are

often looking for a sense of belonging and community within a like-minded group.

At any given time, if people are experiencing these psychological needs, then they

might be more likely to turn to conspiracy. (4-5)

Subsequently, denoting that the urge need to find answers for what seems mysterious and

unsafe push people to take side in conspiracies, therefore it is more about satisfying and

relieving their psychological needs, in order to validate their belonging to a community that

has the same thinking as theirs.

3.2.1. Epistemological Justifications

Conspiracy theories seem to offer broad, internally coherent reasons for preserving

convictions in the face of ambiguity and conflict. Research has shown that believing in a

conspiracy theory is higher during times of uncertainty according to this analysis. Moreover,

the assumption that people are randomly aware of conspiracy theories is strong (van der Wal

et al. 982). Conspiracy is powerful also among persons who constantly search their

environment for patterns and meanings, as advocators of paranormal or supernatural events

(Bruder et al. 30).

 72

Some epistemic motivations may appear to be served by conspiracy theories at the expense

of others. Conspiracies, for instance, have been connected to the connection error (Brotherton

and French 37). Additional researchers have discovered that projecting one's own opinions

onto others is connected with conspiracy belief; that is, the belief that ―they conspire‖ is in

part the result of the belief that ―I would conspire‖ (Douglas and Sutton, ―Does It Take One to

Know One? Endorsement of Conspiracy Theories … 542).

John W. McHoskey discovered that conspiracy ideas may be a result of biased

assimilation, which involves embracing the knowledge that validates one's views and

examining knowledge that contradicts one's views (396). Further cognitive processes

associated with conspiracy ideas include a disposition to embrace epistemically unjustified

views, a quasi-religious mindset, and decreased rates of intelligence (Stieger et al. 57).

Therefore, Stieger et al assert that there is evidence that conspiracy theories seem to attract

those who desire truth and/or meaning but may lack the cognitive tools or have difficulties

that prohibit them from finding exactness and meaning through more reasonable means (68 ).

3.2.2. Social Motives

People need to keep a good picture of them, and conspiracy theories may help them do so.

For instance, Cichocka, Marchlewska, and Golec de Zavala, in their work entitled: ―They will

not Control Us': Ingroup Positivity and Belief in Intergroup Conspiracies‖, found that the

support for conspiracy theories is connected with an elevated ego and a desire for constant

reassurance (qtd. in Imhoff and Lamberty 731).

In the same vein, Uscinski and Parent confirm that people have great demands to feel

positive about the communities to which they adhere, including their nationalities, political

parties, and religious affiliations. When a group perceives itself to be devalued,

disadvantaged, or under threat, it is more prone to develop a belief that others conspire against

it (65).
 73

Moreover, conspiracy theories are much more probably to be prominent among individuals

of low-status groups who are striving to justify their position. Indeed, research suggests that

individuals of low-status social groups are more inclined than members of high-status

organizations to support conspiracy theories (Abalakina‐Paap et al. 642). Jennifer Crocker et

al., for instance, found that black Americans were more susceptible than white Americans to

presume conspiracy theories regarding the American government plotting against blacks

(945).

Experiences indicating that one's social group has been mistreated can feed the belief in

out-group conspiracies. As a result, it is critical to understand the political, social, and

historical factors that lend credence to conspiracy theories. Charles L. Briggs argues that

contextual challenges and crises can also raise the chance of strong group bonding, which

might develop conspiracy ideas (170).

Combined all together, results from research on the role of social identification underline

the fact that in the context of international relations, sentiments of being undercut and

endangered can foster the creation of conspiracy theories that help to rationalize groups'

disadvantageous position. Finally, believing that other groups plot against one's own can help

to justify the in-group‘s unfavorable position (Uscinski and Parent 70).

To round up, studies on conspiracy theory psychology reveals that epistemic, existential,

and social motivations motivate conspiracy beliefs. Whether or not conspiracy ideas satisfy

these psychological objectives is another story, and evidence suggests that they do not, and

that conspiracy theory may even cause more damage than benefit (Douglas 6).

3.2.3. Political Motives

Politics is comparable to other social disputes in that there are winners and losers in

extremely competitive conditions. One group (typically a party) is more dominant than others,

and the consequences of the struggle are real. Given the importance of competition,
 74

conspiracy theories emerge regularly from political situations particularly when those

situations elicit psychological states associated with conspiracy views, such as poor political

trust, impotence, insecurity, and unpredictability (Douglas).

Conspiracy can also be reinforced by exposing individuals to editorial papers or media

contexts, in which the conspiracy is prevalent in the news (Nyhan et al. 115). Furthermore, in

times of uncertainty, Jack Edelson et al. wrote that conspiracy theories may be particularly

strong that leads to American dread of electoral fraud, and the poles relate conspiracy theories

that portray Jews as collective foes to anti-Semitic behavior (940). In this connection, as

Uscinski affirmed, politicians are just starting to analyze how conspiracy ideas are included in

political competitions, which political variables promote conspiracy, and when conspiracy

theories are being utilized as convincing political instruments (46).

3.2.4. Ideology

Claassen and Ensley attest that in general individuals are more vulnerable than their

party officials to believe the political opposition is participating in bad activities (320). For

instance, Democrats are more inclined to believe Republicans commit electoral fraud in terms

of winning, and Republicans are more inclined to believe that Democrats are doing it too. In

total, these data imply that political rivals are more likely to charge each other of conspiracy.

This can mirror the attitude of the group and are particularly powerful if people feel that their

political group is threatened or that it is weakened in one way or another (Smallpage et al.

32).

While it is not known if conspiracy theorization may stem from political ideology or vice

versa or both, an important number of studies indicate that extremist sentiments may emerge

from conspiracy. Moreover, Uscinski and Parent argue in their findings that levels of

conspiracy among people who are identified as independents or with third parties are

powerful (80).
 75

In and out of academia, there is a strong presumption that Conservatives are more likely

than Liberals to engage in conspiracy theories. Galliford and Furnham‘s researches confirm

this idea (424). Moreover, some studies have identified a connection between right-wing

authoritarianism and conspiracy as a political component characterized by an inclination for

conventionalism, authoritarian violence, and authoritarian‘s subordination to authorities.

However, other studies, such as that of Uscinski and Parent, found no connection between the

party of political ideology and conspiracy (90). In the same vein, Altemeyer did not discover

a relationship between authoritarianism and conspiracy (112).

3.3. Results of Adopting Conspiracy Theories

Theories of conspiracy are based on the idea that a powerful group acts in secret to create

skepticism of the dominant such as the government. Consequently, a general conspiracy

mindset that is mentally prepared to believe in conspiracy theories is not surprisingly linked to

the trust in experts and authorities (Imhoff and Bruder 27). Moreover, confronting conspiracy

beliefs limits motivation to work together in society. For example, the theory of conspiracy

against vaccines decreases vaccination intentions (Jolley and Douglas 40). And so a

conspiracy may result into a lot of suspicion and mistrust. It may, however, produce in some

benefits.

3.3.1. Potential Benefits of Conspiracy Theories

Conspiracy theories, as Steve Clarke argues, can essentially empower people to interrogate

or resist the hierarchies of authority and to examine the behavior of powerful groups. A

beneficial effect of these problems might be to urge governments to be more open (137).

Conversely, Shane Miller views that conspiracy theories may also show contradictions in

government or official interpretations of events that could open up discussions that would

otherwise be shut down and even expose genuine conspiracies (52).

 76

Several researchers, such as Radnitz and Underwood, consider conspiracy theories as

products of attempts to explain social and political reality by individuals and organizations

(18). For example, Peter Knight sees conspiracy beliefs as symptoms instead of causes of

societal breakdown, and suggests that conspiracy ideas could be regarded as part of modern

neo-liberal class alienation (185). Lee Basham also contends that conspiracy theories are

cognitive mappings of social and political reality that individuals understand (97).

In addition, Singh contends that globalization led to the growing dominance of unofficially

rather than officially networked elites. This means that the conspiracy's world order

understandings might more and more represent political reality (qtd. in Moore 16). However,

beliefs of conspiracy are mainly associated with damaging social health, and policy outcomes.

It is also controversial if conspiracy theories satisfy or not the psychological demands of the

people (Douglas 33).

3.3.2. Attitude Effects

One of the early researches on the consequences of conspiracy theories has shown that

they influence the views of people. The movie John F. Kennedy of Oliver Stone was

examined by Butler et al., which showed a conspiracy hypothesis regarding President John F.

Kennedy‘s murder. Before viewing the film, half of the respondents were interviewed without

watching the film. However, the other half was surveyed while they were watching the film. It

was observed that the film affected the conspiracy notion greatly. The movie was regarded

more fiercely than those who had not yet experienced the idea of conspiracy (73).

A closely related study by Mulligan and Habel showed that respondents who saw the

strange conspiracy movie Wag the Dog, about how a government is conducting a counterfeit

war in a studio in Hollywood, were prone more to respond favorably to declarations such as:

―How likely is a US president going to make a false war in the future‖ (124-25). Douglas and

Sutton validated these findings concerning conspiracy theories surrounding Diana, Princess of
 77

Wales's death. They also explored whether respondents were conscious that their perspectives

had altered as a consequence of engagement to conspiracy theories, and discovered that they

were not.

Conspiracy theories, according to Douglas and Sutton research, can also impact political

beliefs. However, this may be dependent on people's inclinations (―The Hidden Impact of

Conspiracy Theories: Perceived and Actual Influence… 223-225). Uscinski et al. included the

word conspiracy in a study about news coverage of the 2012 US presidential election for half

of the respondents, whereas the other half did not. Only those with a high level of

conspiratorial thinking were persuaded by the presence of the conspiracy. Conspiracy theories

may, thus, impact people's attitudes, but the degree of impact seems to be dependent on

previous opinions and, perhaps, other aspects that need to be researched further (69). At this

point, it is imperative to pose the following question: What impact could conspiracy theories

have on social and political behavioral intention?

3.3.3. Prejudice

Negative perceptions about groups have been connected to conspiracy theories. Swami, for

instance, requested a sample of Malaysian attendees to answer a conspiracy belief scale, an

anti-Jewish conspiracy theory measure (for example, ―Jews are striving to build a hidden

world government‖), and different ideological attitudes. It was discovered that confidence in

Jewish conspiracy theories was linked to anti-Israeli attitudes as well as prejudice toward

Chinese people (23). Imhoff and Bruder discovered that a predisposition for conspiracy

theories was connected with prejudice against several high-power groups in a US sample like

for example; Jews, Americans, and capitalists.

Therefore, according to the findings of this study, conspiracy theorizing may be connected

with prejudice toward specific populations in some circumstances (Imhoff and Bruder 38). To

validate this idea Jamil and Rousseau performed an ethnographic study on the circumstances
 78

surrounding the 9/11 attacks involving Pakistani immigrants in Canada and Pakistani

inhabitants of Karachi. Respondents in both nations largely accepted the conspiracy theory

that the attacks were coordinated by the US and, hence, Muslims were not to blame. As a

result, Jamil and Rousseau conclude that conspiracy theories may seem to reinforce the ―us‖

versus ―them‖ divide. Minority groups, not simply dominant groups, may potentially

reinforce distinctions between groups by challenging the accepted narrative (255-58).

3.3.4. Political Engagement

Political attitudes and behaviors were also related to conspiracy theories. Jolley and

Douglas discovered that participants who were subjected to anti-government conspiracy

theories had a lower desire to vote in the next election than those who were presented with

disputing facts. Another unfavorable result is a decline in political trust (38-40). Conspiracy

theories may be related to plans to participate in political engagements opposing the elites in

diverse settings.

Following the Fukushima nuclear power plant accident in 2011, Imhoff and Bruder

investigated conspiracy thinking and inclinations to act in favor of a nuclear phase-out by

demonstrating an intention to participate in protests. Conspiracy thinking was substantially

and positively correlated with the willingness to participate in political actions in support of

nuclear phase-out among a sample of German participants. Even though these studies are

correlational, they show that conspiracy theories may occasionally drive activities targeted at

confronting the status quo and those in charge (41-42).

3.3.5. Violence, Radicalization, and Extremism

Conspiracy theories may be linked to greater radicalization and extremism. Bartlett and

Miller examined the content of a wide range of extremist groups and discovered that

conspiracy theories are not only widespread, however, but there is also considerable

commonality between the conspiracy theories noted across all extremist groups on opposite
 79

ends of the political spectrum (102). This evidence supports van Prooijen et al. analysis, who

observed, for example, that anti-Jewish capitalist conspiracy ideas were prevalent in both

right and left-wing extremist groups (5-6). According to Bartlett and Miller, conspiracy

theories serve essential social and operational functions for extremist groups (104). They may

be a "radicalizing multiplier" who adds to and strengthens the group's ideology and

psychological processes (Douglas 13).

Conspiracy believing has been connected to violent intents in general. Uscinski and Parent

performed a nationally representative study in the United States, dividing participants into

two groups based on their level of conspiratorial thinking. The findings revealed that

individuals who were more open to conspiracy theories were more willing to align that

―violence is sometimes an acceptable means to express displeasure with the government‖ than

those who were less open (112-17). In the same path of thinking Douglas and Sutton

demonstrated a stronger proclivity to engage in ordinary crime (549).

3.4. The Conspiracy Theories Surrounding the Titanic's Sinking

The way the disaster of the "unsinkable" vessel of the White Star Line came after it

smashed into a massive iceberg has been extensively chronicled. However, like any awful or

important occurrence that has a lasting effect on the human psyche, the murder of JFK, and

the 9/11 attacks or even Diana Spencer's death has built mythology of conspiracy theories

surrounding the catastrophe (Judd). It is not astonishing that a few conspiracy theories have

emerged regarding the fate of the vessel, given the intensity of the public interest and

examination. Some of the conspiracy theories are virtually completely fictitious. One of these

claims was that insurance fraud caused that maritime catastrophe (Cain).

British author Robin Gardiner is the most productive theoretician with three publications

so yet. His writings raised several mysteries concerning the Titanic accident from bizarre
 80

carelessness (the unregulated fire in one of the Titanic's coal bunkers before the vessel sailed)

to the weird bait and switch story of the Titanic with its Olympic sister ship (Newton).

3.4.1. Fire in the Coal Bunker

Before the Titanic sailed, there was a record of fire outbreak in Bunker 10. It might have

been extinct in Southampton harbor before it started sailing. There is no conceivable

argument why it was not with all the firefighting facilities at the large port that would not stop

her time. Another twelve firemen were subsequently placed in place to put off the flames.

Furthermore, Phelps observed that endeavors were made to hide the fire from the Trade

Inspector of Captain Maurice Harvey Clarke. He went on asking the following questions:

Why did not Smith put the fire before he departed? Why should a captain, the biggest sea-

going ship in history and his name and the view of history, have risky passengers and crew?

Why was the fire hidden and so carelessly behaved? Could the fire, or some inner major

damage, take account of the small list of the ship to shore in calm seas, as multiple witnesses

have noted? Was there any unreported harm, such as a leak, responsible for this? Did the

vessel take water before it impacted the iceberg? (105).

The ship went down because of an iceberg. But if it had not already been on fire, the big

ship would not have fallen. Under the public rooms of the Titanic and the cabin of passengers,

things were far from quiet in the gray bowels of the Titanic. After the iceberg crash, the

firemen and fire crews rushed to the scene and finally tried to kill flames that had burnt since

the Titanic took off from Southampton (Hinke 241).

This was only one of the many exciting stories of the Titanic's first and last journey, as told

for the first time by the members of the crew who were shipped back to England on board the

liner Lapland. "The Titanic sailed from Southampton at noon on Wednesday, April 10," said

J. Dilley, a Titanic fireman. "I was assigned to the Titanic from the Oceanic where I had

served as a fireman. From the day we sailed, the Titanic was on fire and my sole duty,
 81

together with eleven other men, had been to fight that fire. We had made no headway against

it" (qtd. in Rossignol 40). Therefore, and according to Veronica Hinke, even if the iceberg

crushed the Titanic, the fire was a major cause in drowning the vessel down too fast (241).

In the same path, in November 2004, engineer Robert Essenhigh of the Ohio State

University issued a hypothesis that coal-fire led to an iceberg crash unintentionally. To

control the issue, he says that a mountain of stored coal has begun smoldering, additional coal

is placed in the furnaces and iceberg water is dangerous. Essenhigh reports that the fire

control staffs at Cherbourg and Southampton docks have stored up due to a fire and that such

fires thrive after they are purportedly extinct. He thinks that, after the ship left port,

uncontrolled burning of fuel took place from Southampton with one of the bunkers set fire.

Such fires were a typical phenomenon onboard of vessels heated with charcoal and were one

of the causes why sea transport changed to oil at the beginning of the 1900s. It is also

believed that the explosion of the USS Maine in 1898 caused the bunker fire by setting up its

powder stores (qtd. in Geological Society of America).

Robin Gardiner and Dan Van affirm in their book, The Riddle of the Titanic, that the fire

began three weeks before the Titanic set sail on its first voyage yet went unnoticed and

unmanaged. According to them, even if everybody knew about the fire, yet nobody gave it

much significance, although it was noticeable that it would end up causing a disaster in any

case. It was disregarded, and so they both suspect that there was a reason behind it, that the

fire was not put out on purpose, which leads to a conspiracy initiated (89).

3.4.2. The Titanic was Switched for its Sister Ship the Olympic

Robin Gardiner argues that there are many compelling reasons to assume that the vessel

that sank on the night of April 14/15 was the Titanic's similarly aged and, nearly identical

sister ship the Olympic. The Olympic and the Titanic, the first two White Starships of the

class, were built beside each other at Harland and Wolff's Belfast yard from a unified
 82

framework of plans. The two sisters were indistinguishable when they were first introduced.

As it is well known, these vessels were the biggest and most sumptuous ships ever

constructed. Yet, due to the poor-quality workmanship, they were everything but the toughest

and safest (The Great Titanic Conspiracy 1).

A Harland and Wolff picture of the Olympic, taken when the ship was at the Thompson

Graving Dock in 1911, obviously demonstrates a vertical joint in her hull plating directly

forward of the port side anchor hawse pipe, which confirms Robin Gardiner's theory.

Photographs of the Titanic, taken while she was still on the stocks and being fitted out in

1911, show no comparable joint in her hull plate immediately ahead of her port side anchor.

Nevertheless, a photograph of the Olympic, taken during her refit succeeding the fatal

accident in 1912/1913, demonstrates that the ship does not have the telltale plating joint,

attempting to prove convincingly that the hull photographed is that of the Titanic, although

the name Olympic is fully evident on both sides of the bow. Photographs obtained of the

Titanic at Southampton immediately before her first voyage show a huge patch of discolored

plating as if it had been freshly painted with paint that did not exactly resemble the original, in

the same position where the HMS Hawke destroyed the Olympic's hull (The Ship that never

Sank? 1-2).

Robin Gardiner goes on to explain that the Titanic conspiracy was as follows: On

September 20, 1911; the Olympic crashed with the Royal Navy cruiser the HMS Hawke,

causing serious damages to both ships. Before the Olympic could sail to its shipyard in

Belfast for additional restorations, two weeks of hard effort were needed. The Titanic was still

incomplete at the time, with her first trip slated to commence on April 10, 1912; and the

White Star Line had already lost £250,000 in lost fares ($18.6 million at current currency

rates) (The Ship that never Sank?11).

 83

Robert Gardiner argues that no lives were lost since the rescuing ship the Californian was

deployed ahead of time to a North Atlantic rendezvous location to receive the Titanic's

prepared distress signal and safely discharge those aboard (The Great Titanic Conspiracy

172). He claims that on the night of April 14, the Titanic's lookouts were so preoccupied with

looking for icebergs that they missed a second (unnamed) rescue ship in their path, and the

impact plunged the Titanic to the bottom. In the meantime, the original Titanic purportedly

returned to service as the "repaired" Olympic and lasted an additional quarter-century at sea

without incidents (The Great Titanic Conspiracy 223).

Apart from a reference to the Titanic's name on the bow and a baggage tag, neither Robert

Ballard nor anybody else who investigated the ship's watery burial have provided a single

piece of evidence that the ruin was that of the original Titanic. The name is demonstrated on

nothing else; both built into the ship and recovered or recorded, bears the name. From this, it

is deduced that the White Star‘s badly damaged Olympic was only minimally rebuilt and

dispatched to sea as the Titanic, while the genuine Titanic was rebranded the Olympic (Phelps

95).

In his dissertation, author Mark Chirnside expressed severe concerns regarding the

switching hypothesis. He then examined the Robert Gardiner switch theory, saying that none

of the Olympic/Titanic allegations can stand up to the tremendous effort required for the

switch: the two vessels were not completely similar. According to Chirnside, the Titanic had a

unique café and larger á la carte restaurant, that was modified based on the company's

previous experience with the Olympic (―Olympic and Titanic: An Analysis of the Robin

Gardiner Conspiracy Theory‖ 35).

This is not everything. It is, in fact, impossible to pass a one-year-old ship for one new

one, Chirnside explains; pointing out a variety of small differences between them, including

"another steel plate fitted on the bedding panels of the Olympic engines that were inserted in
 84

1911 and still in the twenties and thirties for further checks. Yet, no similar plates were

detected when the Titanic was analyzed by the UK Trade Board. At last, Chirnside finished

saying:

No theory should be dismissed simply because it involves a sensational 'conspiracy'.

It is necessary to analyze it using a wide range of researches. Yet in my view,

Gardiner's theory simply does not stand to any serious, informed scrutiny or debate,

and I do not believe that it has earned the right to be considered a serious work that

contributes to our understanding of the Titanic disaster. (―Olympic and Titanic: An

Analysis of …‖ 36)

Likewise, Gardiner‘s theory was not in agreement with other Titanic Researchers' books.

Steve Hall and Bruce Beveridge released a book about the prominent issue questioning which

vessel did sink: was it the Titanic or Olympic? The book‘s title was: Titanic or Olympic:

Which Ship Sank? They stated that the Olympic, the same as the Titanic, was initially

outfitted with the identical 14-porthole layout on the port side of her forecastle, however, that

two extra portholes were later installed; they were there in March 1912. Both scholars issue

claims to oppose Gardiner's theory in their book (qtd. in Grossman).

3.4.3. The Jesuits Conspiracy to Sink the Titanic

The Jesuits, or the Society of Jesus, are a multinational conspiracy of priests and brothers

who have been discreetly guiding the streams of history since Ignatius of Loyola1 formed

them in 1534. They have created hundreds of schools, allegedly to give a strong Catholic

education, frequently as a missionary presence, but mostly to teach and brainwash politicians,

popes, and polymaths who surreptitiously manage wars, elections, and coups to fit their

malicious aims. At least, as the conspiracy theorists have said, the Jesuits were responsible for

most of the calamities over the years, including the First World War, Abraham Lincoln's

murder2, and the sinking of the Titanic (P. Martin).

 85

America had no central bank since the beginning of the 1830s. The Jesuits sought another

central bank in America severely to create a limitless reservoir. In 1910, a central bank, which

was referred to as a Federal Reserve Bank, was established in Jekyll Island, just off the coast

of Georgia by seven men. Those men were; Nelson Aldrich3 and Frank Vanderlip4, both of

them represented the Rockefeller5 financial empire; Henry Davison6, Charles Norton7, and

Benjamin Strong8 represented J. P. Morgan9; and Paul Warburg10, representing the

Rothschild11 banking dynasty of Europe. The Rothschilds were the bankers for the papacy‘s

Jesuits (Hughes 39).

The Morgans were amicably competitors and socially connected to the Rothschilds. In

1857, the Bank of England saved Morgan's London Company from financial collapse, over

which the Rothschilds had a strong influence. Afterward, Morgan seemed to have been a

financial agent of the Rothschild and he had long been fully American. However, Morgan did

not welcome Rockefeller's entry on the field, and they became heavy antagonists. Ultimately,

by joining joint enterprises, they chose to decrease their rivalry. They finally worked together

to construct the Federal Reserve System, known as the national banking cartel (Griffin 209).

These three wealthy families, the Rothschilds, the Morgans, and the Rockefellers, all

obeyed the Jesuit Order due to the Jesuit takeover. They did all they could to subvert

constitutional freedom and bring the Pope into world dominion in America. Looking back

over the 20th century, one can observe the accomplishments of the Jesuits. The riches of

America have repeatedly been dumped and its wonderful constitution and fundamental

liberties continually attacked. In the Vatican City, the Pope's might grew every day, with the

aim to regain complete power.

Numerous affluent and powerful men made it quite apparent that they were not in favor of

the Federal Reserve System. The Jesuits ordered the building of the Titanic by J. P. Morgan.

This "unsinkable" ship was to be used as a dead ship to individuals opposing a Federal
 86

Reserve System plan by the Jesuits. These powerful and wealthy men could have been able to

block the creation of the Federal Reserve that is why it was important to take their power and

fortunes away. They had to be annihilated so absurdly that no one would ever suspect their

assassination, and no one would think it was the Jesuits who did it. The Titanic was the means

to destroy them. Many Irish, French, and Italian Roman Catholics immigrating to the new

world were aboard to further protect the Papacy and Jesuits from suspicion. They were

wealthy people. Belfast Protestants were also invited since they wanted to immigrate to the

United States (Griffin 40).

Morgan had a tie to the Titanic. The White Star Line which owned and operated the ship

controlled Morgan‘s international merchant marine company. Morgan had attended the

Titanic launching in Belfast on 31 May 1911 (Trickey). J. P. Morgan, a billionaire banker,

eventually planned to kill Jacob Astor12, Isidor Straus13, and Benjamine Guggenheim14, who

died on board in the Titanic catastrophe. The theory is that Morgan originally meant to

navigate on the Titanic, but soon before it started, he changed his mind. Yet, this fact does not

explain how it hit an iceberg and killed more than 1,500 passengers (Little).

These three rich men did perish when the Titanic sank. Astor was last seen hanging to a

raft's side. Straus died with his wife Ida, who declined to abandon her husband's side as the

ship sank, and Guggenheim‘s body was never found. Morgan, on the other hand, averted

death and calamity by canceling his journey at the eleventh hour. The International Mercantile

Marine Company, which in turn owned the White Star Line, was financed by Morgan the

strong banker. Therefore, he had his private suite, promenade deck, and specially constructed

bath on the vessel, but he never was on it (Cain).

The theory adds that Captain Edward Smith was also a "temporary coadjutor for Jesuits."

The unexpected sinking was organized by Father Francis Browne, the Smith's Jesuit master.

He was on board of the Titanic and ordered the Smith vessel to run its ship in full speed over
 87

a moonless night ice field and ignored any ice alert, even from the watch-outs, to strike an

iceberg seriously enough to make the ship's creator and three businessmen perish. Every

opposition to the Federal Reserve vanished following the sinking. It was established in

December 1913, and the Jesuits had enough money to begin a European war eight months

later (Hall and Beveridge 145-49).

The sinking of the Titanic, one of the twentieth century's biggest disasters, is blamed on

the Jesuit Order. The unsinkable vessel, the drifting palace, was built to serve as the final

resting place for the wealthy, which resisted the Federal Reserve System. By April 1912, all

resistance to the Federal Reserve had been neutralized. The Federal Reserve System was

established in the United States in December 1913. Eight months later, the Jesuits received

enough money from the Federal Reserve Bank to start World War One (Hughes 43).

Whereas there is no proof to imply that Isidor Straus, the owner of the Macy's department

store, John Jacob Astor, a tycoon of property, and Benjamin Guggenheim, an asset leader, all

died in 1912 as a result of the disaster. There is also no proof that these three guys opposed

the central banking principles of Morgan. The first thing that drew the Titanic's maiden

voyage was numerous important names, which led her to be known as the "Millionaire's

Special." Thus it was not strange that many rich people were interested in boarding such

vessel (Reuters Fact Check).

Furthermore, George Behe indicated that during his 45 years studying the Titanic, he was

unsuccessful to locate any records demonstrating that the three men opposed the Federal

Reserve System. Indeed, an inquiry by the Washington Post discovered that although Astor

and Guggenheim had no public position on the topic, Straus spoke favorably. Behe added,

that the officers of the ship "believed wrongly" that wide-open sea visibility would be a

benefit to detecting danger in good time. He also said: "The ensuing collision with the iceberg

was just an unfortunate result of a 'perfect storm of unfavorable circumstances (dead-calm

 88

water, no moon, etc…) and had nothing to do with any silly conspiracy theory connected with

the federal reserve‖ (qtd. in Reuters Fact Check).

3.4.4. The Titanic was Attacked by a German U-Boat

The Titanic was supposed to be a miracle in terms of engineering that is why historians

and scholars, like Claire Warner, interested in the ship‘s sinking argued that it was not an

iceberg, but rather a torpedo from a German submarine by an outside source. Warner affirmed

that many eyewitnesses reported explosions as the ship started sinking and some had seen a

searchlight from a distance before the rescue ship arrived.

When the sinking Titanic was found in 1985, it was embedded into the sand with a

starboard (right) side. This was the side that hit Newfoundland's iceberg on April 14, 1912;

one hundred years ago. Computer digital photos of the so-called "sub profiler" showed that

there were six rivets that suggest bad workmanship caused the ship to sink. This, however,

only covered a very tiny area of 12 square feet, barely sufficient to sink with such speed a big

lavish liner. Moreover, when interrogated by a team of investigators by the US Senate,

multiple survivors, both passengers, and the crew said that the accident never made any

difference or heard any sound, indicating that the accident was minor. They said that, though,

they heard four "reports" or explosions, which were deep beneath the bowels. This might

have been potentially a German submarine firing torpedo (Warner).

Furthermore, a number of the survivors in lifeboats noticed in the distance a searchlight,

encouraging them to approach a rescue vessel. This light supposedly belonged to the

Californian. But Stanley Lord, Capitan of that ship, stressed that it was not his ship and that

between him and the Titanic was another vessel. Indeed its craft was stranded and had to stay

there until the morning in a vast ice field. Several mariners on the watch claimed that an

unidentifiable vessel had been spotted around 5 to 6 kilometers to around 2 a.m., probably a

submarine surfaced to evaluate its damage (Ruehl).

 89

This was not for the record the Carpathia, who later rushed at the spot to help save

people. Most certainly, the mysterious vessel could have been a German submarine, because

by that time its submarine technology was highly polished and its subs were then searching

the North Atlantic. The subs may have intended or accidentally crashed with the luxurious

liner purposely. It is important to recall that, three years later; in 1915, a German U-boat did

sink the famous Lusitania. It was at this particular time that the theory of the German

submarine sinking the Titanic was taken into consideration (Ruehl).

To conclude, it is vitally important to note that it may make sense that the Titanic sank

since in the middle of the night she was moving too quickly in a zone suspected to have ice

fields. However, it was not probably for the causes that everyone would simply believe. It was

typical for the captains to accelerate their vessels via ice fields back in that era. Nevertheless,

there is only one thing to keep in mind: if and only when there are ideal meteorological

conditions, they can go full speed throughout an ice field even at night. This was not,

therefore, the case for the fateful night of the Titanic‘s loss. That same night had no moon or

any other light, which could have to enlighten the ship‘s path to discover icebergs in case

there were any.

Moreover, the assumption that the RMS Titanic's switching theory was a conspiracy is not

reasonable. It could not have happened as the switch conspiracy theorists believed, given the

fact that too much time and too many people had been involved in this so-called ship switch

between the RMS Titanic and the Olympic. Notably, when steam is included, these theorists

overlooked the complexity of the ships. It would have to steadily construct the steam pressure

at least four hours before the changeover. Tugs were necessary and there would be recordings.

Records showed that line operators were sought and that in the middle of the night the dock

crew was used. The pilots were needed, requested, and registered, but no records were
 90

available. It is not just unbelievable; it would have been difficult for a lot of individuals to

keep that type of secret.

The Jesuit had set a conspiracy against the Titanic, in which they had targeted the three

world‘s richest merchants who were aboard the ship. So that they can put their plan into

practice, the plan was initiating the Federal Reserve Bank, which was rejected by these three

men. Eventually the plan was turned into reality as soon as the three merchants perished

among the Titanic the night it sank. Putting the latter hypothesis into account would raise

many questions. One prominent question is: was it a pure hazard that these three rich men

died all at once, and still it would look as if it was their awaiting, non-manipulated fate?
 91

Endnotes
1
A Spanish theologian and mystic, and one of the most influential figures in the Roman
Catholic Counter-Reformation in the 16th century, and founder of the Society of Jesus
(Jesuits) in Paris in 1534. Ryan, Edward A. ―Saint Ignatius of Loyola | Biography & Facts.‖
Encyclopædia Britannica, June 6, 2019. www.britannica.com/biography/St-Ignatius-of-
Loyola. Accessed June 14, 2021.
2
A murderous attack on Abraham Lincoln, the 16th president of the United States, at
Ford‘s Theatre in Washington, D.C., on the evening of April 14, 1865. Shot in the head by
Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth, Lincoln died the next morning. Wallenfeldt,
Jeff. ―Assassination of Abraham Lincoln | Summary, Conspirators, & Trial.‖ Encyclopædia
Britannica, May18, 2018. www.britannica.com/event/assassination-of-Abraham-Lincoln.
Accessed June 4, 2021.
3
American Republican politician and financier who represented Rhode Island in the US
House of Representatives (1879–81) and later the Senate (1881–1911). Britannica. ―More on
This Day - April 16.‖ Encyclopedia Britannica, www.britannica.com/more-on-this-day/April-
16. Accessed July 7, 2021.
4
A banker. Vice-President and President of National City Bank for two decades ending in
1919. Frank Vanderlip (1864-1937). Snac. ―Vanderlip, Frank A. (Frank Arthur), 1864-1937 -
Social Networks and Archival Context.‖ Snaccooperative.org,
snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6jd5pqh. Accessed June 4, 2021.
5
One of the richest families, their fortune began with oil tycoon John D. Rockefeller,
America's first billionaire, who founded Standard Oil in 1870. Wikipedia Contributors. ―John
D. Rockefeller.‖ Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, Sept. 8, 2019,
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_D._Rockefeller. Accessed June 4, 2021.
6
A Titanic Victim, he was a third class passenger on board the RMS Titanic. He boarded
the ship with his wife Mary on April 10th in Southampton, England. His occupation was
listed as a blacksmith. He died in the sinking at the age of 32. His body was never recovered.
Geni. ―Thomas Henry Davison.‖ Geni_family_tree, Feb. 2, 2020,
www.geni.com/people/Thomas-Henry-Davison/6000000015762888497. Accessed 18 May,
2021.
7
American scholar and man of letters, an idealist and reformer by temperament, who
exhibited remarkable energy in a wide range of activity. Britannica. ―Charles Eliot Norton |
American Scholar.‖ Encyclopedia Britannica, Mar. 22, 2019,
www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-Eliot-Norton. Accessed June 28, 2021.
8
Assistant secretary of the Atlantic Trust Company, and following several mergers, he was
named secretary of Bankers Trust Company in 1904; vice president in 1909; and president in
1914. During his fourteen years in office as the first president of the New York Fed. Federal
Reserve History. ―Benjamin Strong Jr. | Federal Reserve History.‖
www.federalreservehistory.org, 2011. www.federalreservehistory.org/people/benjamin-
strong-jr. Accessed June 28, 2021.
9
One of the most powerful bankers of his era, J.P. (John Pierpont) Morgan (1837-1913)
financed railroads and helped organize US Steel, General Electric and other major
corporations. History. ―J. P. Morgan.‖ HISTORY, Oct. 11, 2018.
www.history.com/topics/19th-century/john-pierpont-morgan. Accessed May 22, 2021.
 92

10
An American investment banker born in Germany, and an early advocate of the US
Federal Reserve System. DBpedia. ―About: Paul Warburg.‖ Dbpedia.org, 2012,
dbpedia.org/page/Paul_Warburg. Accessed April 18, 2021.
11
The most famous family of all European banking dynasties, which for some 200 years
exerted great influence on the economic and, indirectly, the political history of Europe.
Bouvier, Jean. ―Rothschild Family | History & Facts | Britannica.‖ Encyclopædia Britannica,
2020, www.britannica.com/topic/Rothschild-family. Accessed April 21, 2021.
12
A financier, soldier and inventor, he built the Astoria section of the Waldorf-Astoria
Hotel in 1897. He built several other notable New York City hotels, including the St. Regis,
which some have said was his greatest achievement. Astor drowned in the sinking of the RMS
Titanic in 1912. The Astors - Full Biography. ―John Jacob Astor IV.‖ Biography, Apr. 28,
2017. www.biography.com/business-figure/john-jacob-astor-iv. Accessed April 12, 2021.
13
An American merchant, the owner of the department store R. H. Macy and Company
and a US Congressman. Your Dictionary. ―Isidor Straus.‖ Biography.yourdictionary.com,
biography.yourdictionary.com/isidor-straus. Accessed June 8, 2021.
14
One of the Titanic‘s prominent passenger, he is an American businessman, who died in
the Titanic‘s accident. Britannica. ―Benjamin Guggenheim | American Industrialist.‖
Encyclopedia Britannica, Oct. 15, 2020, www.britannica.com/biography/Benjamin-
Guggenheim. Accessed June 6, 2021.
 93

Conclusion

The 15th of April, 1912, was a watershed date in the history of the first half of the

twentieth century. On that particular date, the Titanic's sinking became a worldwide trauma,

mainly due to the outrage at the massive countless lives lost and the regulatory and

operational errors that precipitated it. Following the tragedy, there were public inquiries in the

United Kingdom, the United States, and all around the world about the source of the tragedy.

Despite the fact that the vast majority of those killed were crew members and third-class

passengers, many of the era's wealthiest and most influential families also suffered a loss. The

elegance connected with the ship, its first voyage, and its renowned passengers amplified the

tragedy of its sinking in the public mind. Almost quickly, legends grew about the night's

events, those who perished, and those who managed to survive, heroes and heroines.

Eventually, there was a considerable urge to clarify the tragedy, and investigations into the

sinking were held in both the United States and the United Kingdom. The two government‘s

examinations accomplished soon after the accident concluded that the Titanic was sunk due to

an iceberg crash, not a flaw in the ship itself, or any other additional reason. Both

investigations found that the vessel had sunk intact. The ship's deceased captain, E. J. Smith,

was convicted for racing at 22 knots across a documented ice field in the dark waters off the

coast of Newfoundland. The Titanic incident was deemed firmly shut by the authorities of the

two nations on both sides of the Atlantic.

Following the unexpected maritime disaster of the Titanic, many researchers attempted to

find more reasonable reasons to explain the tragic sinking other than that of the iceberg hit.

Thereafter, they looked for the wreck and made researches about it. Moreover, other

researchers analyzed in details the inner and external physical design of the ship, and came up

with many alternative conclusions. Some claimed that there was something wrong with the

production of the steel plates; others argued that the brittle rivets inserted in the vessel with
 94

wrought iron helped to damage the ship so soon. Many other experts criticized the structure of

the ship and condemned the shortage of some products such as the coal. Not to mention that

the availability of only few lifeboats aboard the ship was highly denounced.

However, unanswered mysteries, about what sank the allegedly indestructible ship, never

faded away. Legendary myths took the turn to explain what happened on the Titanic‘s fatal

night through imaginary; and sometimes supernatural anecdotes, such as that of the Egyptian

cursed mummy aboard the ship, and many other accounts that some tend to believe, while

others find it insane to even think of their credibility.

Conversely, many observers believed that conspiracy theories were behind the accident,

and that their defenders were accused to have planned for the Titanic‘s sinking to take place.

These scholars, who are deeply interested in conspiracy theories, analyzed and then provided

evidence about their perspectives. These theories, although different from each other, have the

same claim; that the Titanic‘s accident was never a natural incident; rather it was an arranged

conspiracy.

The reason why conspiracy theories arose around the Titanic‘s loss is there were many

unanswered questions about the accident. Indeed, mystery encircled the events. Therefore,

public opinion around the world needed proper answers for their endless questions. As a

matter of fact, there were not any convenient answers to be thought of. Taking into

consideration the timeline, back at when the accident occurred, the technology was not that

developed as today‘s, and so people at that time comparing with people today could not share

or access information, thus cover-ups about the incidents right then served as major factors

that led to an unsolved puzzle.

Nothing was proven at that time, but one sure thing is that Bruce Ismay, the chairman of

the White Star Line along with the ship‘s crew did lie during the inquiries, especially when

the wreck was discovered. It was proven that the Titanic was partitioned, and that there was
 95

an enormous gap between the bow and the stern, apposite to what he said, when he insisted

that the vessel was undamaged and that all her decks were in place when she drowned. As a

result, this can intensify the mystery, why would Ismay lie? And what was the truth he knew,

that he could not reveal to the world? Hence, the truth is probably shocking and costing, that

is why it was concealed from the world.

The main aim of this research was to find a tangible explanation to why there is not a

convincing real story behind the sinking of the Titanic, since researchers, experts,

mythologists and scholars, as evidenced above, did not yet reach common tangible findings

and notions while investigating the reality behind the sinking. These academics, ever since the

accident, fluctuated between what was declared as the reality (the Titanic crashed to an

iceberg), the myths told about the Titanic, and the conspiracy theories released by many

researchers.

Based on the many works and researches undertaken regarding the fatal accident, it is

important to note that there could be some truth to the conspiracies. Because it does not take a

huge effort to suspect the inexplicable sinking of the biggest world‘s ship of her time. It is

true that none of the conspiracy theories could be or even would be validated one hundred per

cent. However, it is vital to take into consideration the missing pieces of the puzzle. May be

the pieces will never be found, but at least they will be recognized as hidden.

Such tragedy should be remembered for its victims, the huge number of the people who

perished that night; it should not be remembered for the movie that was released in 1997. In

this context, it is crucial to highlight the fact that the movie ‗the Titanic‘ was a huge

propaganda that concealed the catastrophic facts of the real Titanic, since the Titanic is

recalled only for its fictional produced movie. Additionally, it was highly remarked that

although this very old incident is worldwide known, nevertheless limited researches were
 96

made to investigate the truth and to provide new theories. Therefore, this accident should have

been never taken for granted. More serious academic works are more than required.
 97

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