Planning: Importance, Elements and Principles | Function of Management

Definition and Meaning of Planning:

 Planning is a major and primary function of management. No organisation can

operate properly without planning.

 Planning is a preparatory step for action. It means systematized pre-thinking for

determining a course of action to achieve some desired result.

 Planning is essentially a process of deciding in advance what is to be done,

when and where it is to be done, and how it is to be done, and by whom. To plan

is to look ahead and chalk out the future course of operations of an enterprise.
 Through planning, the manager fixes the objectives of the organisation as a

whole and, in the light of this, the goals of its various departments. Then he

proceeds to prepare a kind of ‘blueprint’ mapping out the ways of attaining these

objectives.

Therefore, planning may be defined as follows:

 Planning is the process by which the managers of an organisation set objectives,

make an overall assessment of the future, and chart the courses of action with a

view to achieving the organisational goals.

From this definition it follows that the planning process involves:

(i) The determination of appropriate goals and objectives,

(ii) The specification of the actions needed to reach the established objectives; and

(iii) The optimum period of time for achieving them.

Since planning is concerned with the identification of alternatives and selection of the

most favourable alternative, it may rightly be described as “the most basic tool of

management functions.” Thus planning is a process of deciding the business targets

and charting out a rational path of attaining those targets.

Some important definitions of planning, given by the eminent authors are stated

below:

According to Koontz and O’Donnell, planning is “an intellectual process, the conscious

determination of courses of action, the basing of decisions on purpose, facts and

considered estimates.”

George Terry writes:

“By means of planning management members try to look ahead, anticipate

eventualities, prepare for contingencies, map out activities and provide an orderly

sequence for achieving the objective.”

Henry Fayol views:

“The plan of action is, at one and the same time, the result envisaged, the line of action

to be followed, the stages to go through, and methods to use.”

Planning and Decision Making:

Planning decides the future course of action and involves choosing it from alternatives.

From this point of view, decision-making and planning move together and one depends

on the other. Truly speaking, planning as a whole with its component parts is the

outcome of decision-making.

So decision-making has a pervasive influence upon planning and it is a part of the

planning process. Thus, decision-making and planning have intimate relation with each
other. But, decision-making has a wider connotation than planning. By this we mean to

say that the application of decision-making is extended beyond the horizon of planning

and, in any business, almost every position is a decisional centre. Decision-making is

required not only in planning, it is also necessary in other areas of management

functions such as organising, direction, co-ordination, and control.

Mention may be made here of varied operating orders and instructions which are

outside of planning, but are subject to decision making. Again, there are many

managerial functions like motivating the employees, disapproving their work or

discharging them form service which call for decision-making, but these functions

cannot be included within planning from the point of view of analytical study of different

management processes.

Nature and Characteristics of Planning:

Planning is concerned with the establishment of objectives of an enterprise and finding

out the way of realisation of those objectives. However, without setting the objectives

there is nothing to organise, direct or control. Therefore, every organisation is required

to specify what it wants to achieve. Planning is basically related with this aspect.
The nature and characteristics of planning may be stated as follows:

1. Intellectual Process:

Planning is an intellectual and rational process. Planning is a mental exercise involving

imagination, foresight and sound judgement. It requires a mental disposition of thinking

before’ acting in the light of facts rather than guess. The quality of planning depends

upon the abilities of the managers who are required to collect all relevant facts, analyse

and interpret them in a correct way.

How far into the future a manager can see and with how much clarity he will depend on

his intellectual calibre, are chalked out through planning process. In thinking of

objectives, alternative courses of action and, above all, in making decision for choosing

certain alternatives, the planner goes through an intellectual process.

2. Goal-orientation:

All planning is linked up with certain goals and objectives. It follows, therefore, that

every plan must contribute in some positive way to the accomplishment of group

objectives. Planning has no meaning without being related to goals and objectives. It

must bridge the gap between where we are and where we want to go at the minimum

cost.

3. Primary Function:

Planning is said to be the most basic and primary function of management. It occupies

first place and precedes all other functions of management which are designed to attain

the goals set under planning. This is so because the manager decides upon the

policies, procedures, programmes, projects, etc. before proceeding with the work. The

other functions of management—organising, direction, co-ordination and control—can

be performed only after the manager has formulated the necessary planning.
4. Pervasiveness:

Planning pervades all managerial activities. It is the job of all managers in all types of

organisation. It is undertaken at all segments and levels of the organisation—from the

general manager to the foreman. Whatever be the nature of activity, management starts

with planning. The character and breadth of planning will, of course, vary from one job

to another—depending on the level of management.

5. Uniformity:

There may be separate plans prepared in different levels in the organisation, but all the
sub-plans must be united with the general plan so as to make up a comprehensive plan

for operation at a time. So, uniformity must be there in all levels of planning to match the

general plan.

6. Continuity:

To keep the enterprise as a going concern without any break, it is essential that

planning must be a continuous process. So, the first plan must follow the second plan

and the second plan the third and so on in never-ending series in quick succession.

7. Flexibility:

Plans should not be made rigid. It should be as flexible as possible to accommodate all

possible changes in the enterprise with a view to coping with the changing conditions in

the market. In fact, planning is a dynamic activity.

8. Simplicity:

The language of the work schedule or programme in the planning should be simple so

that each and every part of it may easily be understood by the employees at different

levels, specially at the lower level.

9. Precision:

Precision is the soul of planning. This gives the planning exact, definite, and accurate

meaning in its scope and content. Any mistake or error in planning is sure to upset other

functions of management and, thus, precision is of utmost importance in every kind of

planning.

10. Feasibility:

Planning is neither poetry nor philosophy. It is based on facts and experience, and

thereby realistic in nature. It represents a programme which is possible to execute with

more or less existing resources.

11. Choice among Alternative Courses:

Planning involves selection of suitable course of action from several alternatives. If

there is only one way of doing something there is no need of planning. Planning has to

find out several alternatives, estimate the feasibility and profitability of the different

alternatives, and to choose the best one out of them.

12. Efficiency:

Planning is directed towards efficiency. A plan is a course of action that shows promise

of optimizing return at the minimum expense of inputs. In planning, the manager

evaluates the alternatives on the basis of efficiency. A good plan should not only attain

optimum relationship between output and input but should also bring the greatest

satisfaction to those who are responsible for its implementation.

13. Inter-dependence:

The different departments may formulate different plans and programmes for their

integration in the overall planning. But sectional plans cannot but be inter-dependent.

For example, production planning depends upon sales planning—and vice versa.
Again, planning for purchase of raw materials, employment of labour, etc. cannot be an

isolated act apart from sales planning and production planning. Planning is a structured

process and different plans constitute a hierarchy. Different plans are inter-dependent

and inter-related. Every lower-level plan serves as a means towards the end of higher

plans.

14. Forecasting:

Above all, no planning can proceed without forecasting—which means assessing the

future and making provision for it. Planning is the synthesis of various forecasts—short-
term or long-term, special or otherwise. They all merge into a single programme and act

as a guide for the whole concern.

Importance of Planning:

Planning is the key to success of an organisation. In fact, most of the company’s

achievements can be attributed to careful planning. Planning is a function of every

manager at every level in an enterprise. Every manager is required to plan first for

systematic and orderly performance of his assigned duties.

It is within the planning function that goals are determined, decision-making takes place,

forecasts are made and strategies are initiated. Thus, planning has assumed great

importance in all types of organisation—business or non-business, private or public

sector, small or large.

As a managerial function, planning is important for the following reasons:
1. Providing Basis of Decision:

The first and most important reason for planning lies in the fact that it provides a basis

on which decisions are made. It is an immense need for the managers of an enterprise

to fix up their minds as to what they want to accomplish and then plan the use of time,

resources, and efforts towards the achievement of their objectives.

2. Focusing Attention on Objectives:

Planning concentrates attention on the objectives of an enterprise. The first function of

planning is to spell out its objectives. The objectives are defined in more concrete,

precise and meaningful terms. As a result of such attention, it becomes possible for the

planners to determine the policies, procedures, programmes and the rules for an orderly

advance towards the ultimate goals desired to be achieved.

3. Minimising Uncertainty and Risk:

The future is uncertain. Planning helps the managers in taking care of future

uncertainties and thus minimizes business risk. It anticipates future events and sets the

course of action to control these events to one’s advantage. With the help of planning,

an enterprise can predict future events and make due provision for them. This, no

doubt, eliminates or reduces the possibility or jumping into uncertainties.

4. Adapting with Changes:

Business planning has become imperative due to the fact that an enterprise operates in

a changing and dynamic environment. The aspects of this changing environment

include changes in technology, government policies, the nature of competition, social

norms and attitudes etc. As the planning proceeds step by step, it foresees the changes

likely to come and accordingly prepares its programme by necessary adjustments and

adaptation.
5. Securing Economy:

Planning focuses on efficiency and economy in operation. A plan is a course of action

that can take the organisation to its objectives at the minimum cost. Planning prevents

wastage of resources by choosing the best course of action from many alternatives. It

aims at smooth flow of work. All these steps in planning lead automatically to economy.

6. Helping in Co-ordination:

Planning leads to achieve a coordinated structure of operations. It provides a unifying

framework. Sound planning inter-relates all the activities and resources of an

organisation. Well-considered overall plans harmonies inter-departmental activities.

Thus, various departments work in accordance with the overall plan, and coordination is

achieved.

7. Making Control Effective:

The managerial function of controlling is concerned with a comparison between the

planned performance and the actual performance of the subordinates and departments

of the organisation. Thus, control is exercised in the context of planning action as the

standards against which actual results are to be compared are set up through planning.

So planning provides the basis for control. Thus, planning and control are inseparable.

8. Increasing Organisational Effectiveness:

Planning ensures organisational effectiveness in several ways. It states the objectives

of the organization in the context of given resources; provides for proper utilisation of

resources to the best advantage, gives necessary competitive strength for continuous

growth and steady progress by foreseeing what the competitors are likely to do and

evolving its strategies accordingly. The process of planning generates the purposeful

and orderly setting up of activities to be carried on. It defines the boundaries within

which the business should operate. This enables the businessman to concentrate upon

those matters which are actually relevant and vital to business success.
 Elements of Planning:

Planning as a managerial process consists of the following elements or

components:
1. Objectives:

The important task of planning is to determine the objectives of the enterprise.

Objectives are the goals towards which all managerial activities are aimed at. All

planning work must spell out in clear terms the objectives to be realised from the

proposed business activities. When planning action is taken, these objectives are made
more concrete and meaningful. For example, if the organisational objective is profit

earning, planning activity will specify how much profit is to be earned looking into all

facilitating and constraining factors.

2. Forecasting:

It is the analysis and interpretation of future in relation to the activities and working of an

enterprise. Business forecasting refers to analysing the statistical data and other

economic, political and market information for the purpose of reducing the risks involved

in making business decisions and long range plans. Forecasting provides a logical basis

for anticipating the shape of the future business transactions and their requirements as
to man and material.

3. Policies:

Planning also requires laying down of policies for the easy realisation of the -objectives

of business. Policies are statements or principles that guide and direct different

managers at various levels in making decisions. Policies provide the necessary basis

for executive operation. They set forth overall boundaries within which the decision-

makers are expected to operate while making decisions. Policies act as guidelines for

taking administrative decisions.

In a big enterprise, various policies are formulated for guiding and directing the

subordinates in different areas of management. They may be production policy, sales

policy, financial policy, personnel policy etc. But these different policies are co-ordinated

and integrated in such a way that they ensure easy realisation of the ultimate objectives

of business. Policies should be consistent and must not be changed frequently.

4. Procedures:

The manner in which each work has to be done is indicated by the procedures laid

down. Procedures outline a series of tasks for a specified course of action. There may
be some confusion between policies and procedures. Policies provide guidelines to

thinking and action, but procedures are definite and specific steps to thinking and

action. For example, the policy may be the recruitment of personnel from all parts of the

country; but procedures may be to advertise and invite applications, to take interviews

and offer appointment to the selected personnel.

Thus, procedures mean definite steps in a chronological sequence within the area

chalked out by the policies. In other words, procedures are the methods by means of

which policies are enforced. Different procedures are adopted in different areas of

business activities. There may be production procedure, sales procedure, purchase

procedure, personnel procedure etc.

Production procedure involves manufacturing and assembling of parts; sales procedure

relates to advertising, offering quotations, securing and execution of orders; purchase

procedure indicates inviting tenders, selecting quotations, placing orders, storing the

goods in go-down and supplying them against requisition to different departments and

personnel procedure is the recruitment, selection and placement of workers to different

jobs.
5. Rules:

A rule specifies necessary course of action in a particular situation. It acts as a guide

and is essentially in the nature of a decision made by the management authority. This

decision signifies that a definite action must be taken in respect of a specific situation.

The rules prescribe a definite and rigid course of action to be followed in different

business activities without any scope for deviation or discretion.

Any deviation of rule entails penalty. Rule is related to parts of a procedure. Thus, a rule

may be incorporated in respect of purchase procedure that all purchases must be made
after inviting tenders. Similarly, in respect of sales procedure, rule may be enforced that

all orders should be confirmed the very next day.

6. Programmes:

Programmes are precise plans of action followed in proper sequence in accordance

with the objectives, policies and procedures. Programmes, thus, lead to a concrete

course of inter-related actions for the accomplishment of a purpose. Thus, a company

may have a programme for the establishment of schools, colleges and hospitals near

about its premises along with its expanding business activities.

Programmes must be closely integrated with the objectives. Programming involves

dividing into steps the activities necessary to achieve the objectives, determining the

sequence between different steps, fixing up performance responsibility for each step,

determining the requirements of resources, time, finance etc. and assigning definite

duties to each part.

7. Budgets:

Budget means an estimate of men, money, materials and equipment in numerical terms

required for implementation of plans and programmes. Thus, planning and budgeting

are inter-linked. Budget indicates the size of the programme and involves income and
outgo, input and output. It also serves as a very important control device by measuring

the performance in relation to the set goals. There may be several departmental

budgets which are again integrated into the master budget.

8. Projects:

A project is a single-use plan which is a part of a general programme. It is part of the job

that needs to be done in connection with the general programme. So a single step in a

programme is set up as a project. Generally, in planning a project, a special task force

is also envisaged.

It is a scheme for investing resources which can be analysed and appraised reasonably

and independently. A project involves basically the investment of funds, the benefits

from which can be accrued in future. Examples of such investment may be outlays on

land, building, machinery, research and development, etc. depending upon the

situation.

9. Strategies:

Strategies are the devices formulated and adopted from the competitive standpoint as

well as from the point of view of the employees, customers, suppliers and government.

Strategies thus may be internal and external. Whether internal or external, the success

of the plans demands that it should be strategy-oriented.

The best strategy of planning from the competitive standpoint is to be fully informed

somehow about the planning ‘secrets’ of the competitors and to prepare its own plan

accordingly. Strategies act as reserve forces to overcome resistances and reactions

according to circumstances. They are applied as and when required.

 Steps in Planning:
A plan is essentially today’s design for tomorrow’s action and an outline of the steps to

be taken in future. A good plan must be simple, balanced and flexible, and make utmost

use of the existing resources. It must be based on clearly defined objectives.

For preparation of such a plan, a definite process involving the following steps

has to be followed:
1. Perception of the Opportunities:

The manager must first identify the opportunity that calls for planning and action. This is

very important for the planning process because it leads to formulation of plans by

providing clue as to whether opportunities exist for taking up particular plans.

Perception of opportunities includes a preliminary look at possible opportunities and the

ability to see them clearly and completely, an understanding of why the organisation

wants to solve the uncertainties and a vision what it expects to gain. This provides an

opportunity to set the objectives in real sense.

2. Establishment of the Objectives:

The next step in the planning process lies in the setting up of objectives to be achieved

by the enterprise in the clearest possible terms keeping in view its strength and

limitation. Objectives specify the results expected in measurable terms and indicate the

end points of what is to be done; where the primary emphasis is to be placed, and what
is to be accomplished by various types of plans. Enterprises start with a general

objective.

From this are developed subordinate goals that contribute to the attainment of the

general objective. These, in turn, are supported by the specific objectives for the

departments. In this process a hierarchy of objectives is created. The plans at each

level of the organisation are made for the attainment of the appropriate objectives in the

hierarchy. This hierarchy can be built up by coordinating the plans of different

departments.

3. Building the Planning Premises:

After determination of the organisational goals, it is necessary to establish planning

premises, that is, the conditions under which planning activities will be undertaken. This

involves collection of facts and figures necessary for planning the future course of the

enterprise. ‘Planning Premises’ are planning assumptions relating to the expected

environmental and internal conditions.

So, planning premises are of two types—external and internal. External premises

include total factors in the environment like social, political, technological, competitors’

plans and actions, government policies, etc. Internal factors include the organisation’s

policies, resources of various types, and the ability of the organisation to withstand the

environmental pressure. The plans are formulated in the light of both external and

internal factors.

4. Identifying the Alternatives:

The next step in planning process is to search for various alternative courses of action

based on the organisational objectives and planning premises. A particular objective

can be achieved through various actions. For example, if an organisation has set its

objective to grow further, it can be achieved in several ways like expanding the field of
business or product line, joining with other organisations, or taking over another

organisation, and so on. Within each category, there may be several alternatives.

Since all alternatives cannot be considered for further analysis, it is necessary for the

planner to reduce in preliminary examination the number of alternatives that do not

meet the minimum preliminary criteria. Preliminary criteria can be defined in several

ways— minimum investment required, matching with the present business of the

organisation, control by the government, etc.

5. Evaluation of the Alternatives:

Various alternative courses that are considered feasible in terms of preliminary criteria

have to be taken for detailed evaluation. Alternative courses of action can be evaluated

against the criteria of cost, risks, benefit and organisational facilities. The strong and

weak points of every alternative should be analysed carefully.

Since there are so many complex variables connected with each goal and each

possible plan, the process of comparative evaluation is extremely difficult. For example,

one alternative may be the most profitable but requires heavy investment; another may

be less profitable but also involves less risk.

Moreover, there is no certainty about the outcome of any alternative course because it

is related with future which is not certain. Ultimately, the choice will depend upon what is

determined as the most critical factor from the point of view of the objectives of the

enterprise.

6. Choice of the Course of Action:

After the evaluation of various alternatives, the most appropriate one is selected as the

plan. Sometimes evaluation shows that more than one alternative are equally good. In

such a case, the manager may choose more than one alternative at the same time.
There is another reason for choosing more than one alternative. Alternative course of

action may be required to be undertaken in future in changed situations. So, the planner

must also be ready with alternative—normally known as contingency plan— that can

help coping up with the changed situation.

7. Formulation of Supporting or Derivative Plans:

After the best alternative is decided upon, the next step is to derive various plans for

different departments or sections of the organisation to support the main plan. In an

organisation, there can be various derivative plans like planning for buying raw
materials and equipment, developing new product, recruiting and training the personnel,

etc.

These derivative plans are formulated out of the main plan and so they support it. The

break-down of the master plan into departmental and sectional plans provides a realistic

picture of the actions to be taken in future.

8. Establishing the Sequence of Activities:

After formulating the basic and derivative plans, the sequence of activities is determined

so that the plans are put into action. Based on the plans at various levels, it can be

decided who will do what and at what time. Budgets for various periods can be prepared

to make plans more concrete for implementation.

9. Securing Participation:

Plans must be communicated in greater details to the subordinates to increase their

understanding of the proposed action and for enlisting their co-operations in the

execution of plans. It will, thus, add to the quality of planning through the knowledge of

additional facts, new visions and revealing situations.

10. Providing for Future Evaluation:

For ensuring that the selected plans are proceeding with the right lines, it is of

paramount importance to devise a system of continuous evaluation and appraisal of the

plan. It will help in detecting the shortcomings and pitfalls of the plans and taking

remedial actions well in time. All the steps in the process of planning must be linked and

co-ordinated with each other. For successful implementation of a plan, it must be

communicated to all levels of the organisation.

Basic Principles of Planning

Planning requires scientific thinking and it should spell out in clear terms the definition of

the purpose, analyse the problem and make a careful and diligent search for all the

facts bearing upon it. The task of planning will be well-accomplished if some

fundamental principles are followed in the process.

The important principles may be stated as follows:

1. Principle of Commitment:

This means that certain resources must be committed or pledged for the purpose of

planning. Planning is not an easy task. So, necessary help is to be taken from experts.
The enterprise must be ready to exhaust the available resources for the achievement of

a plan.

2. Principle of the Limiting Factor:

A plan involves varied factors of different importance. This principle implies that more

emphasis has to be put on that factor which is scarce or limited in supply or extremely

costly. This will help in selecting the most favourable alternative.

3. Principle of Reflective Thinking:

Planning, being an intellectual activity is based on rational considerations. These

involve reflective thinking which signifies problem-solving thought process—a process

by which past experiences are superimposed on the facts of the present situation and

possible future trends. None can be a planner whose mind is not active, who does not

possess any deliberate power and whose sense of judgement is not strong.

4. Principle of Flexibility:

Though a plan is prepared after reflective thinking, this does not mean that no departure

can be made in the course of its operation. The plan should be so prepared that there is

sufficient scope for changing it from time to time. Changes must necessarily be effected

in the plan for taking into account new developments that may take place in the course

of the operation of the plan.

5. Principle of Contribution to Enterprise Objectives:

A major plan is prepared and it is supported by many derivative plans. But all plans

must contribute in a positive way towards the achievement of the enterprise objectives.

6. Principle of Efficiency:

A plan should be made efficient to attain the objectives of the enterprise at the minimum

cost and least effort. It must also achieve better results with the minimum of unexpected

happenings. Therefore, it is to be seen that what is expected is likely to be achieved.

7. Principle of Selection of Alternatives:

Planning is basically a problem of choosing. The essence of planning is the choice

among alternative courses of action. There is no need for planning if there is only one

way for doing something. In choosing from alternatives, the best alternative will be that

which contributes most efficiently and effectively to the accomplishment of a desired

goal.

8. Principle of Planning Premises:

A plan is prepared against some foundations or backgrounds known as ‘Planning

Premises’. There must be complete agreement among the managers in respect of

planning premises over which the structure of plan is to be framed.

9. Principle of Timing and Sequence of Operations:

Timing and sequence of operations determine the starting and finishing time for each

piece of work according to some definite schedule and give practical and concrete

shape and form to work performance.

10. Principle of Securing Participation:

To secure participation of the employees with whole-hearted co-operation in execution

of the plan, it is necessary that the plan must be communicated and explained to them

for their full understanding. This understanding provides the basis for additional

knowledge about new facts and matters to the employees. This is needed for

improvement in the quality of planning. It also ensures an obligation of the personnel of

the enterprise to execute the plan by individual and joint participation.

11. Principle of Pervasiveness:

Though major planning function is entrusted to the top management, it is not restricted

to the top level only. It is a function of every manager at every level in the organisation.
12. Principle of Strategic Planning:

Strategic planning is essential where there is competition. It is prepared in the light of

what the competitors are intending to do. Planners must take into account the strategies

of the rival organisations, otherwise the planning projection may land them in trouble.

13. Principle of Innovation:

A good system of planning should be responsive to the opportunities for innovation.

Innovation consists in creating something new for increasing satisfaction of the

consumers. This may also be stated as an important strategy of business. Innovation is

a necessity for its sustaining growth in this dynamic world. Innovation is achieved

through research and development and planning is required to provide such scope.

14. Principle of Follow-up:

In the course of execution of a plan, certain obstacles may crop up in midway and

planning may require revision, alteration or correction. This is why there must be a

follow-up system in the planning process itself. This allows timely changes in the

planning and makes it more effective.

However, to plan any kind of work, the following facts demand utmost attention:

(i) The nature, quality and quantity of work to be done, the best way of doing it, the time

available for its accomplishment, how to do it, when it is to be done and who are to do it.

(ii) Adequate knowledge about the capacity of the force available through observations

and experiments and from established standards.

(iii) The priority to be given in succession for the accomplishment of different tasks

through careful analysis.