Exploring Gymnosperms: Ancient Seed-

Bearing Plants
Introduction:
The botanical realm encompasses a diverse array of plant life, among which
gymnosperms stand as a testament to resilience, adaptability, and evolutionary
significance.
Gymnosperms, derived from the Greek words 'gymnos' (naked) and 'sperma'
(seed), represent a distinctive group of seed-producing plants. Unlike
angiosperms (flowering plants), gymnosperms bear seeds in exposed structures
such as cones or modified leaves, marking a crucial evolutionary step in the
development of terrestrial plants.
This investigatory project aims to unravel the intricate features, ecological
significance, and historical prominence of gymnosperms. It seeks to explore the
four main groups within this division—cycads, ginkgoes, conifers, and
gnetophytes—each exhibiting unique characteristics and playing a crucial role in
the ecosystem.

The project will delve into the reproductive mechanisms of gymnosperms,

shedding light on their fascinating seed production and dispersal strategies.
Understanding their reproductive processes is pivotal in comprehending their
evolutionary success and adaptation to diverse environmental niches.

Furthermore, the economic and ecological importance of gymnosperms cannot

be overstated. From serving as timber sources and ornamental plants to
contributing to ecosystem stability and biodiversity, these ancient plants continue
to hold profound significance in various facets of human life and the natural
world.

Through this investigatory project, we aim to cultivate a deeper understanding

and appreciation for gymnosperms—plants that have not only withstood the test
of time but have also played a pivotal role in shaping the rich tapestry of our
planet's flora.
Features of Gymnosperms
Gymnosperms have an evolutionary significance and show some unique features.
Their characteristic feature is the absence of flowers and the presence of naked,
open seeds. As they do not have flowers, consequently, fruits are also absent in
these group of plants.

The main source of pollination and dispersal is wind. These are generally medium
to large trees, with a few shrub species also present. Sequoia is a gymnosperm
which is one of the tallest tree species.

The plant body shows differentiation and is divided into leaves, stem, and roots.
The leaves are needle-like with a thick cuticle and sunken stomata, as seen in
conifers. This feature helps in the reduction of water loss due to transpiration.

The root system present in the gymnosperms is the taproot system. In some plants,
these roots have an association with fungi and form mycorrhiza, e.g. Pinus. While
in a few other species like the Cycas plant, the roots are in the form of specialized
roots called coralloid roots and are associated with nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria.
These plants are also vascular, with both xylem and phloem being present.

Reproduction and Fertilization

Strobilus or cone is the reproductive structure of gymnosperms. Both male
and female strobili can be present on the same (seen in Pinus) or on different trees
(seen in Cycas). Gymnosperm plants are heterosporous. They produce different
spores, which are the haploid microspores and megaspores.

Male Cones – the male strobili or male cones have microsporophylls, which have
the microsporangia that produce the haploid microspores. Some of these
microspores develop into male gametes called the pollen grains, while the rest
degenerate.

Female Cones – the megasporophylls form a cluster and are called as the female
strobili or cones. They bear the ovules having the megasporangium. Thus produces
the haploid megaspores and a megaspore mother cell.

The megaspore mother cell undergoes meiotic division produces four megaspores.
One of these megaspores develops into the multicellular female gametophyte. The
female gametophyte also has two or more archegonia, which are the female
sex organs.

Fertilization – When the pollen grains are released from the microsporangium, they
get dispersed through wind and reach the female cones. The pollen grain develops
a pollen tube, which grows towards the archegonium.

The discharge of male gametes happens near the mouth of the archegonium. The
fusion of the male and female gametes occurs. After fertilization, a zygote develops
to form the embryo and the ovule forms the seed. The following figure shows the
life cycle of a gymnosperm.

CLASSIFIACTION OF GYMNOSPERMS
The four divisions of Gymnosperms include

 Pinophyta
 Cycadophyta
 Ginkgophyta
 Gnetophyta

PINOPHYTA
Pinophyta also know as conifera or coniferae, or commonly known as conifers,
are a division of vascular land plants containing a single extant class, Pinopsida.
They are gymnosperms, cone-bearing seed plants. All extant corniferes are
perennial woody plant

Characteristics: -
Additionally, conifers are also the tallest and most-massive living organisms: coast
redwoods (Sequoia sempervirens) can exceed 100 metres (328 feet) in height, and
the giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum) can have a girth of 31 metres (101.5
feet) in circumference. Conifers are often featured in formal gardens, and most of
the commercial lumber in the Northern Hemisphere is derived from the trunks of
conifers such as pine, Douglas fir, spruce, fir, and hemlock.
CYCADOPHYTA
Cycadophyte, any member of a diverse collection of mostly extinct
primitive gymnospermous plants. Although some botanists prefer to restrict the
term cycadophyte to the members of the division Cycadophyta, three groups of
primitive seed plants are discussed here, of which the seed ferns and cycadeoids
are represented only by extinct forms. A third group, the
order Cycadales (cycads), is today represented by 11 living genera and about
310 species.

Characteristic: -
 Cycad trunks are erect and unbranched.Unlike other vascular plants with branches on
the trunk at different heights,cycads have all their branches grouped at the top.
 Leaves are pinnate.
 They are dioecious plants.
 They disperse seeds through biological vectors

GINKGOPHYTA
Ginkgophyte, any member of the division Ginkgophyta, a group of
gymnospermous plants of particular interest to paleobotanists. Two of the
three genera of ginkgophytes, Ginkgoites and Baiera, are extinct. The
third genus, Ginkgo, has only one member, Ginkgo biloba, commonly called
the ginkgo tree. It is also known as the maidenhair tree because of the
resemblance of its bilobed leaves to those of the maidenhair fern. G. biloba may
be the oldest living seed plant, and it is regarded by some as one of the wonders
of the world.

Characteristic: -
Characteristics of ginkgophyta can be extracted from the one living
species Ginkgo biloba, which are as follows:

 Fan-shaped leaves which are doubly lobed

 Vascular system consists of both xylem and phloem
 Leaves tend to grow in clusters, looking very much like maidenhair fern
 The trees are dioecious
 Taproot system
 Leaves bear stomata only on the lower surface
GNETOPHYTA
Gnetophyta is a division of plants (alternatively considered the
subclass Gnetidae or order Gnetales), grouped within the gymnosperms (which
also includes conifers, cycads, and ginkgos), that consists of some 70 species
across the
three relict genera: Gnetum (family Gnetaceae), Welwitschia (family Welwitschi
aceae), and Ephedra (family Ephedraceae).

Characteristic: -
The two common characteristics most commonly used are the presence of
enveloping bracts around both the ovules and microsporangia as well as a
micropylar projection of the outer membrane of the ovule that produces
a pollination droplet, though these are highly specific compared to the similarities
between most other plant divisions.

Benefits of Gymnosperms
Gymnosperms, as a group of seed-producing plants, offer a wide array of benefits:
1. Timber Production: Gymnosperms, particularly conifers like pine, spruce, fir,
and cedar, provide high-quality wood used in construction, furniture making, and
various woodworking industries. Their timber is valued for its strength and
durability.
2. Paper and Pulp Industry: Softwood trees among gymnosperms, such as pines,
are extensively used in the paper and pulp industry due to their long fibers, which
contribute to making strong paper and cardboard products.
3. Medicinal Properties: Certain gymnosperms have medicinal value. Ginkgo
biloba, for instance, is known for its leaves' medicinal properties, often used in
supplements to potentially improve cognitive function and circulation. Other
species may also have medicinal uses in traditional or alternative medicine.
4. Ornamental and Landscaping Purposes: Many gymnosperms, including
various conifers, are planted for their aesthetic appeal in gardens and landscapes.
They come in diverse shapes, colours, and sizes, enhancing the visual appeal of
outdoor spaces.
5. Resin and Essential Oils: Gymnosperms produce resins and essential oils.
Resins extracted from conifers have applications in varnishes, adhesives, and as
sources for essential oils used in perfumes, aromatherapy, and flavourings.
6. Wildlife Habitat and Ecosystem Services: Gymnosperms contribute to
biodiversity by providing habitats for various species of animals and insects.
They also play a role in soil stabilization, preventing erosion, and contributing to
the overall health of ecosystems.
7. Food and Culinary Uses: Some gymnosperms produce edible seeds. For
example, pine nuts from pine cones are used in cooking and culinary preparations.
Additionally, in certain cultures, certain parts of cycads are used as food, although
they require careful preparation due to toxins.
8. Carbon Sequestration and Environmental Benefits: Gymnosperms play a vital
role in carbon sequestration, absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and
helping mitigate the effects of climate change. They contribute to oxygen
production and help maintain ecological balance.
The diverse economic benefits provided by gymnosperms underscore their
significance in various industries, ecosystems, and human activities, making them
essential components of our natural environment and economy.

GINKO BILOBA
Ginkgo biloba, commonly known as ginkgo or gingko , also known as
the maidenhair tree, is a species of gymnosperm tree native to East Asia. It is
the last living species in the order Ginkgoales, which first appeared over 290
million years ago, and fossils very similar to the living species, belonging to the
genus Ginkgo, extend back to the Middle Jurassic epoch approximately 170
million years ago. The tree was cultivated early in human history and remains
commonly planted, and is widely regarded as a living fossil.

Ginkgo leaf extract is commonly used as a dietary supplement, but there is

no scientific evidence that it supports human health or is effective against any
disease.

Ginkgos are large trees, normally reaching a height of 20–35 m (66–115 ft), with
some specimens in China being over 50 m (165 ft). The tree has an
angular crown and long, somewhat erratic branches, and is usually deep-rooted
and resistant to wind and snow damage. Young trees are often tall and slender,
and sparsely branched; the crown becomes broader as the tree ages. A
combination of resistance to disease, insect-resistant wood, and the ability to
form aerial roots and sprouts makes ginkgos durable, with some specimens
claimed to be more than 2,500 years old.

Leaves
The leaves are unique among seed plants, being fan-shaped with veins radiating
out into the leaf blade, sometimes bifurcating (splitting), but
never anastomosing to form a network. Two veins enter the leaf blade at the base
and fork repeatedly in two; this is known as dichotomous venation. The leaves
are usually 5–10 cm (2–4 in), but sometimes up to 15 cm (6 in) long. The old
common name, maidenhair tree, derives from the leaves resembling pinnae of
the maidenhair fern, Adiantum capillus-veneris. Ginkgos are prized for their
autumn foliage, which is a deep saffron yellow.

Leaves of long shoots are usually notched or lobed, but only from the outer
surface, between the veins. They are borne both on the more rapidly growing
branch tips, where they are alternate and spaced out, and also on the short, stubby
spur shoots, where they are clustered at the tips. Leaves are green both on the top
and bottom and have stomata on both sides. During autumn, the leaves turn a
bright yellow and then fall, sometimes within a short space of time (one to
fifteen days).

Branches
Ginkgo branches grow in length by growth of shoots with regularly spaced leaves,
as seen on most trees. From the axils of these leaves, "spur shoots" (also known
as short shoots) develop on second-year growth. Short shoots have
short internodes (they may grow only one to two centimeters in several years)
and their leaves are usually unlobed. They are short and knobby, and are arranged
regularly on the branches except on first-year growth. Because of the short
internodes, leaves appear to be clustered at the tips of short shoots, and
reproductive structures are formed only on them (see pictures below – seeds and
leaves are visible on short shoots). In ginkgos, as in other plants that possess them,
short shoots allow the formation of new leaves in the older parts of the crown.
After a number of years, a short shoot may change into a long (ordinary) shoot,
or vice versa.
 Ginkgo biloba cross section of tree trunk
Ginkgo prefers full sun and grows best in environments that are well-watered and
well-drained. The species shows a preference for disturbed sites; in the
"semiwild" stands at Tianmu Mountains, many specimens are found along stream
banks, rocky slopes, and cliff edges. Accordingly, ginkgo retains a prodigious
capacity for vegetative growth. It is capable of sprouting from embedded buds
near the base of the trunk (lignotubers, or basal chichi) in response to
disturbances, such as soil erosion. Old specimens are also capable of producing
aerial roots on the undersides of large branches in response to disturbances such
as crown damage; these roots can lead to successful clonal reproduction upon
contacting the soil. These strategies are evidently important in the persistence of
ginkgo; in a survey of the "semiwild" stands remaining in Tianmushan, 40% of
the specimens surveyed were multi-stemmed, and few saplings were present.

Reproduction
Ginkgo biloba is dioecious, with separate sexes, some trees being female and
others being male. Male plants produce small pollen cones with sporophylls,
each bearing two microsporangia spirally arranged around a central axis.

Female plants do not produce cones. Two ovules are formed at the end of a stalk,
and after wind pollination, one or both develop into fruit-like structures
containing seeds. The fruits are 1.5–2 cm long, with a soft, fleshy, yellow-brown
outer layer (the sarcotesta) that is attractive in appearance, but contains butyric
acid (also known as butanoic acid) and smells foul
like rancid butter or vomit when fallen. Beneath the sarcotesta is the
hard sclerotesta (the "shell" of the seed) and a papery endotesta, with
the nucellus surrounding the female gametophyte at the center.

Ovules

The fertilization of ginkgo seeds occurs via motile sperm, as in cycads, ferns,
mosses, and algae. The sperm are large (about 70–90 micrometres) and are
Odiscovered by the Japanese botanist Sakugoro Hirase in 1896. The sperm have
a complex multi-layered structure, which is a continuous belt of basal bodies that
form the base of several thousand flagella which have a cilia-like motion. The
flagella/cilia apparatus pulls the body of the sperm forwards. The sperm have
only a tiny distance to travel to the archegonia, of which there are usually two or
three. Two sperm are produced, one of which successfully fertilizes the ovule.
Fertilization of ginkgo seeds occurs just before or after they fall in early
autumn. Embryos may develop in the seeds before or after they drop from the
tree.

Genome
Chinese scientists published a draft genome of Ginkgo biloba in 2016. The tree
has a large genome of 10.6 billion DNA nucleobase "letters" (the human genome
has three billion) and about 41,840 predicted genes which enable a considerable
number of antibacterial and chemical defense mechanisms. 76.58% of the
assembled sequence turned out to be repetitive sequences.

In 2020, a study in China of ginkgo trees up to 667 years old showed little effects
of aging, finding that the trees continued to grow with age and displayed no
genetic evidence of senescence, and continued to
make phytochemicals indefinitely.

TAXONOMY
Carl Linnaeus described the species in 1771, the specific epithet biloba derived
from the Latin bis, "twice" and loba, "lobed", referring to the shape of the leaves.
Two names for the species recognise the botanist Richard Salisbury, a placement
by Nelson as Pterophyllus salisburiensis and the earlier Salisburia
adiantifolia proposed by James Edward Smith. The epithet of the latter may have
been intended to denote a characteristic resembling Adiantum, the genus of
maidenhair ferns.

Classification
The relationship of ginkgo to other plant groups remains uncertain. It has been
placed loosely in the divisions Spermatophyta and Pinophyta, but no consensus
has been reached. Since its seeds are not protected by an ovary wall, it can
morphologically be considered a gymnosperm. The apricot-like structures
produced by female ginkgo trees are technically not fruits, but are seeds that have
a shell consisting of a soft and fleshy section (the sarcotesta), and a hard section
(the sclerotesta). The sarcotesta has a strong smell that most people find
unpleasant.
The ginkgo is classified in its own division, the Ginkgophyta, comprising the
single class Ginkgoopsida, order Ginkgoales, family Ginkgoaceae,
genus Ginkgo and is the only extant species.

Uses
The wood of Ginkgo biloba is used to make furniture, chessboards, carving, and
casks for making saké; the wood is fire-resistant and slow to decay.

Ginkgo biloba has been used traditionally for various purposes, and its extract is
commonly used as a supplement for potential health benefits. Some of its uses
include:

1. Cognitive Function: Ginkgo is often taken to potentially improve memory,

focus, and overall cognitive function. It's believed to increase blood flow to the
brain, which may enhance mental performance.

2. Age-Related Cognitive Decline: Some studies suggest that ginkgo may help
in reducing symptoms of age-related cognitive decline, such as memory
problems and difficulty concentrating.

3. Antioxidant Properties: Ginkgo contains antioxidants that help fight free

radicals in the body, potentially reducing cell damage and supporting overall
health.

4. Peripheral Artery Disease: Some people use ginkgo to improve symptoms of

peripheral artery disease (PAD) by enhancing blood flow to the legs and
reducing pain caused by poor circulation.

5. Anxiety and Depression: While more research is needed, some individuals

use ginkgo biloba to alleviate symptoms of anxiety and depression. It may have
some impact on mood regulation.
6. Vision and Eye Health: Ginkgo is believed to improve vision and eye health
by increasing blood flow to the eyes and protecting against age-related macular
degeneration.

7. Tinnitus (Ringing in the Ears):There is some anecdotal evidence suggesting

that ginkgo may help reduce the severity of tinnitus, although scientific studies
have shown mixed results.

It's important to note that while ginkgo biloba has been used for these purposes,
scientific evidence supporting its effectiveness varies. The supplement might
interact with certain medications or have adverse effects for some individuals.
Consulting a healthcare professional before starting any new supplement
regimen is highly recommended.

BIBLOGRAPHY
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnosperm

https://www.britannica.com/plant/cycadophyte

biology NCERT

https://www.britannica.com/plant/Pinophyta

https://www.britannica.com/plant/ginkgophyte

https://www.britannica.com/plant/gnetophyta