Paper-8

STUDY MATERIAL BY MR. AVIKUMAR SHINDE MOB.
7218850888 / 9422562886
NOTES FOR
ADVANCE DIPLOMA IN INDUSTRIAL SAFETY
SUB:INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE AND OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH(23115)
STUDY MATERIAL BY MR. AVIKUMAR SHINDE

Mob. No.:- 7218850888 / 9422562886
E-mail: avikumar.shinde@gmail.com
1
STUDY MATERIAL BY MR. AVIKUMAR SHINDE MOB. 7218850888 / 9422562886
Index
Chapter Content Page
No.
Ventilation and Heat Stress :
Purpose of ventilation. Physiology of heat regulation. Thermal
environment and its measurement. Thermal comfort. Indices of heat
stress. Thermal limits for comfort, efficiency and freedom from health
risk. Natural ventilation. Mechanical ventilation. Air conditioning.
Control of heat exposures at source, dilution and local ventilation.
Recommended values for air changes required for various areas as per
Factories Act, 1948 and National standards.
Industrial Lighting & Illumination :
Purpose of lighting. Benefits of good illumination. Phenomenon of
1 4
lighting and safety. Lighting and the work. Sources and types of
artificial lighting. Principles of good illumination. Recommended
optimum standards of illumination. Design of lighting installation.
Maintenance. Standards relating to lighting and Color.
Noise and Vibration :
Noise and ill effect of noise on human. Auditory and non-auditory.
measurement and evolution of noise , control of noise hazards , noise
absorption techniques, silencers, permissible level of exposure to
noise in industry ,ill effect of vibration, where fingers(Reynolds
phenomenon ) and control measures of vibration.
Industrial Hygiene:
Definition of Industrial Hygiene, Industrial Hygiene: Control Methods,
Substitution, Changing the process, isolation, wet method, local exhaust
ventilation, personal hygiene, housekeeping and maintenance, waste
disposal, special control measures. Introduction to chemical hazards,
dangerous properties ofchemical, dust, gases, fumes, mist, vapours,
smoke and aerosols.Route of entry to human system, recognition,
evaluation andcontrol of basic hazards, concepts of dose response
relationship, bio-chemical action of toxic substances. Personal sampler
high volume sampler, midget impinge tubes, Rota meter, calibration of
2 Rota meter, Concept of threshold, limit values, air sampling 60
strategies,personal exposure monitoring.
Need for personal protective equipment, selection, applicable standard,
supply , use ,care and maintenance, respiratory and Non respiratory,
personal protective equipment,Non respiratorypersonal protective
devices, Head protection, foot protection, body protection,respiratory
personal protective devices.Classification of hazards, classification of
respiratory personal protective devices, selection of Respiratory personal
protective, instruction and training in the use, maintenance and care of
Self containing breathing apparatus, training in use of breathing
apparatus (Open circuit and close unit) testing procedure and standards.
Occupational Health:
Definition as per WHO common occupational diseases , occupational
involving risk of contracting base diseases ,mode of causing of diseases
3 116
and its effects , diagnostic methods, biological monitoring, method of
prevention, compensation for occupational diseases , evolution of
injuries, occupational health management, service at work place, list of
2
notifiable diseases , third schedule of factory acts 1948, occupational

health surveillance Pre employment, media examination ,Role of factory
medical officer/ certifying Surgeon occupational exposure and risk base
health surveillance
Occupational Health hazards and Occupationaldiseases:
Adverse health effects of noise , vibration, cold, heat ,stress , improper
illumination ,thermal radiation ,ionizing and ionizingradiation ,
permissible threshold exposure limits , short term and long terms effects
of exposure , preventive and effective control measures , common
occupational diseases as per the third schedule of the factories acts 1948,
preventive and control measures
First aid :
Define first aid ,purpose, principles of first aid , first aider role and
responsibilities, qualities , fundamental of first aid for thermal burns and
4 electrical burns , fracture , farming shock ,insect and animal bites, 165
suffocation, toxic ingestion , bleeding wounds and bandaging , artificial
respiratory, cardiopulmonary resuscitation ( CPR),techniques, victim
transportation rescue techniques , first aid box and its contents
Introduction to ergonomics :
Definition, aims and scope, man machine (job), environment system,
construction of ergonomics ,application of ergonomics in industry for
safety, health and environment ,ergonomics automation assembly ,
visual fatigue and ergonomics of rehabilitation while assigning
alternate jobs , working posture and its effects of cardiovascular and
musculoskeletal system and implication of health , anthropometry and
fundamental bio mechanics , basic and applied aspects,
anthropometric measurements and usefulness in industry, permissible
5 196
load of manual lifting and carrying, concept of workstation and its
design, improving safety and productivity through work station design
Physiology of work:
Assessment of work load of human physiological ,assessment of work
capacity fatigue and rest, physiological test for assessment of
occupational health work , physical fitness ,aerobic work capacity (
physical work capacity), methods of its determination( use of bicycles,
ergo meter, treadmill ), factors affecting aerobic capacity and work
performances.
3
CHAPTER -1
Ventilation and Heat Stress

Purpose of Ventilation and Heat Control:
The need or purpose of ventilation and heat control are summarized here as follows:
1. Air is life and fresh air is the first need for survival of living creatures. Absence of air
bringsdeath within a few minutes. Life without breathing is not possible and the clean air is
needed for the whole life- for breathing and functioning of human body. Therefore good
ventilation giving sufficient fresh air is the permanent requirement.
2. Human body cannot tolerate excessive temperature. Heat stresses produced by very hot or
cold exposures cause adverse effects on health and safety of work people. Therefore
environmental temperature control is also permanently needed for well functioning of human
body. Ventilation helps in removing excessive temperature.
3. Heavy physical work or heavy work load causes heat stress and strain and increase metabolic
heat, body temperature, sweating, heart rate etc. To maintain (control) body temperature,
ventilation is necessary. See Part 5.1.
4. Carbon dioxide is continuously exhausted by all human beings. Much more contaminants are
added by manufacturing processes to pollute air. Therefore cleaning of air and supply of fresh
air with sufficient oxygen are also necessary. This is possible by good ventilation and pollution
control techniques only.
5. Where due to weather or atmospheric conditions or process parameters, excessive temperature
is unbearable or uncomfortable, air conditioning or HVAC systems are also necessary.
Conversely where air heating is necessary as in case of excessive cold climate, it must be
provided.
6. Basic functions of ventilation are to (a) maintain the oxygen content of the air and to prevent
CO, concentrations from rising (b) prevent or removal of body odours (c) prevent harmful
concentration of aerosols and air-borne contaminants and (d) maintain reasonable conditions of
thermal limits for comfort and efficiency which result in decreased heat stress, increased
productivity, reduced accident rates (hot conditions induce unsafe acts) and adverse health
effects (interaction with other hazards), higher level of job satisfaction, reduced absenteeism,
improved attitudes, reduced downtime for hot vessels and compliance of required standards.
7. While designing industrial buildings care must be taken to provide good ventilation for dilution
of inside air to prevent vitiation by causes, such as body odours, to remove process released
contaminants and heat exposures to maintain satisfactory thermal environments, to maintain
heat balance of body and to prevent acute discomfort and injury to the health of the workers. If
natural ventilation is not sufficient for these purposes, mechanical ventilation, cooling system
or other techniques must be employed to achieve satisfactory results.
8. As explained in subsequent part 5.1 & 5.2 of this Chapter, the basic need for ventilation is to
maintain the body heat balance equation by controlling air and surrounding temperature,
humidity and air velocity. Therefore supply, well distribution and maintenance of fresh air
throughout the factory are utmost necessary to maintain comfortable working conditions as
expected by sections 13 to 15 of our Factories Act.
4
Thus main purpose of ventilation is to remove heat 'and contaminants from air in residential or
industrial building and to supply or regulate fresh and cool (or hot) air for the comfort of the
occupants or workers.
The term industrial ventilation refers to ventilation systems for the industrial use. Main four
functions of ventilation are (1) to supply sufficient fresh air (2) to distribute it throughout the work
room (3) to remove polluted and hot air and (4) to maintain comfortable working conditions.
Mainly ventilation is employed for human comfort and therefore called comfort ventilation or air-
conditioning. It is also employed for process control by mechanical ventilation (process
ventilation) as explained in Part 7.3.2.
The quantity and quality of air required for ventilation depend upon -
 Rates of heat generation in the room.
 Rates of contaminants (gas, vapour, dust) generation in the room.
 Rates of dispersion of heat & contaminant.
 Rates of dilution and/or removal that may be achieved by ventilation.
 Electric fittings for ventilation system in flammable/explosive area should be flameproof
and of the approved type.
THERMAL ENVIRONMENTAND ITS MEASUREMENTS:
Before controlling temperature, humidity and air movement it is necessary to measure their
adequacy. Subsequent measurement is also necessary for the, satisfaction that whether they are
properly controlled or not. Some methods and equipment are explained below for this purpose.
Temperature Measurement:The mean radiant temperature of the surroundings is calculated (not
measured) from the values of dry bulb air temperature, the glob temperature and the air velocity.
Thermometers placed at the height 1.5 m above floor level and not within I m from any heating
device are used to measure the air temperature. For precise measurement and recording of
temperature, thermographs are used. Recording period may be as per requirement.
The Glob thermometer is a black-painted (mat), hollow copper sphere, 15 cm in diameter, into
which a thermometer is inserted. It therefore measures temperatures which include radiant heat
effects. It is preferable to a dry-bulb thermometer. Rule 18A(1) of the • Gujarat Factories Rules
1963 provides for a glob thermometer of 15 cm dia to be kept in the environment for not less than
20 minutes and consideration of the temperature recorded by it, if it exceeds the dry-bulb
temperature of the air.
The glob is suspended at the point of measurement, about 1.2 m above the ground, not contacting
any solid. Thus the globe gains heat by radiation and loses by convection (not conduction). When
thermal equilibrium is reached (by @25 minutes)/ the reading in the thermometer gives the globe
temperature to.
Humidity Measurement:
Psychrometers or wet and dry bulb hygrometers are used to measure relative humidity of the air.
Hydrographs are used for continuous recording of the air humidity where the humidity
requirements are most stringent. The two temperatures of dry and wet bulbs are used with a
psychometric table or chart to determine relative and absolute humidity, dew point and other
conditions of an air-water mixture. The direct dial hygrometers are also available.
A whirling hygrometer (sling psychro-meter) is used to assess the ambient air temperature and
humidity. The dry and wet bulb assembly is rotated at 60 rpm till the readings become steady. The
5
reading of the dry bulb gives the ambient temperature while drop between dry and wet bulb
temperature is an indication of relative humidity by using a psychometric chart.
Air Movement and Content Measurement:
For recommended values for air movement and air changes See Part 2 and 6.4. Values
recommended by IS:3103 are as under -
Anemometers (Velometers) are used to measure the velocity of the air. The revolving - vane and
the revolving - cup types are in common use. The Vane anemometer consists of eight vanes fixed
on a hub at 45Q to the air stream and pivoted so as to rotate in a vertical plane. The speed of
rotation is indicated on a dial calibrated to read air velocity from 0.3 to 5 m/s. 77ie Cup
anemometer consists of four hemispherical cups carried on the ends of four radial arms pivoted so
as to rotate in a horizontal plane. The speed of rotation is indicated on a dial graduated to read air
velocity from I to 20 m/s. Velocities under 0.3 m/s are measured by means of a micro anemometer
or electrical thermal anemometer.
Kata thermometer designed by Leonard Hill in 1914 measures the cooling power of the air to cool
skin surface, a power that is measured in terms of dry-bulb temperature, the radiation and the rate
of air movement. The kata thermometer is an alcohol, liquid - in glass thermometer with a large
bulb and an upper reservoir. There are two marks on the stem. It is cheap but fragile and useful for
low air velocities below 0.25 "V s (50 fpm). The bulb is warmed by a warm water so that the
alcohol fills up the whole thermometer (up to 40 "C). The thermometer is then carefully dried
and placed at the sampling point. The cooling time is measured .by a stopwatch. Then air velocity
is calculated by using the values of cooling time, air temperature and instrument factor.
Swinging van anemometer. Hot wire anemometer (anemotherm air. meter), Alnor thermo-
anemometer, Mechanical anemometer. Thermistor Bead anemometer, Heated thermocouple
anemometer and Rotating vane anemometer of clock type or electronic direct-reading type are also
used in industrial hygiene to measure the air velocity.
Pressure tubes are used to measure both pressure (total and static) and velocity of the air in air
ducts. The dynamic (velocity) pressure is determined as the difference between the total and the
static pressures. The air velocity in air ducts can be measured with a Pressure head device (static
and pilot tube connected with differential pressure U-gauge).
Indication tube or Gas detection tube is used to measure contents of air contaminants such as toxic
vapours and gases viz. Cl2, CO, SO2, NO2, PH2 ethanol etc. A common type is hermetically
sealed glass tube about 4 to 7 mm wide and 100 mm long containing a filler (crushed silica gel,
glass or porcelain crumbs) treated with solutions of various reagents. The tube is kept into intimate
contact of the air to be analyzed. By pump-strokes air sample is drawn in. The concentration of the
6
impurity can be read on a scale by a length or rate of change in colour of the filler material that has
completed reaction.
Air purity can be measured by air or gas analysers of various designs. Direct techniques of gas
analysis-spectrometry, electrical-chemical and optical methods permit automatic and continuous
air analysis. In air sampling method the samples collected by air sampler pumps, are analysed in a
laboratory to get accurate measurement.
Indoor air quality monitors are direct reading instruments for gaseous sampling.
Dust contents in the workroom are determined by passing a measured\quantity of air through
filters during a particular time and calculating the dust mass collected. Methods to measure
character and size of dust particles are also available.
Following three parameters should be measured to assess the performance of ventilating
systems :
1. Capture velocity.
2. Air volume flow rates in various places in the system.
3. The pressure losses across filters and other fittings and pressures developed by fans.
The design value of these items is specified by the manufacturer of the equipment. Therefore
instruments and devices are required to
1. Measure air velocities in various places.
2. Measure air pressure differences.
3. Trace and visualize airflow patterns.
As stated earlier, air velocity can be measure( by vane anemometers or heated head (hot wire or
thermostat) air meters. Anemometers are most suitable for open area (e.g. large hood and tunnel).
While heated head air meters are more suitable for inserting into duct or slot but it is not suitable
where flammable gas/vapour may be present. Average velocity (measured) multiplied by the area
of the opening gives the volume flow rate.
Pilot-static tube is used to measure air velocity above 3 m/s. If <air flow pressure P (N/m2 or Pa)
is known, considering air density d=1.2 kg/m3 for most ventilation situations, the air velocity V
(m/s) is give by-
V =  2P or P = 1 dV2
d 2
Pilot static tubes are thin and can be easily inserted into ducting. All velocity meters should be
placed parallel to the air stream and calibrated from time to time.
Pressure difference in air can be measured by a manometer or U-tube gauges filled with water or
paraffin. Diaphragm pressure gauges are also available.
Air flow patterns can be detected by smoke tubes which produce a plume of smoke when air is
puffed through them. For airborne particles, dust lamp is used to see moving particles in a light
beam.
See also Form No. 26A, GFR, for 'Test Report of Dust Extraction System'.
Thermal Limits for Comfort and Efficiency:
The effect of atmospheric condition i.e. temperature, ventilation, humidity, radiant heat,
greenhouse effect etc., upon worker's efficiency or susceptibility to accident is difficult to predict,
because, it varies with person to person and one comfortable condition may be uncomfortable for
others. Much variation from the body temperature 37°C (98.6° F) causes discomfort for the
majority of factory workers doing light work. A dry-bulb temperature of 18°C (64° F) represents
the most satisfactory condition and variations of 2 to 3 degrees from that seem to have little
discomforting effect. In Indian atmosphere 20 to 30°C is the comfortable temperature for a variety
of workers.
7
American Ventilating Engineering Association recommends the following ranges as the

most acceptable:
Place 0C 0F
1 Lecture Hall 16-18 61-64
2 Sleeping Rooms 12-15 54-59
3 Workshop (moderate activity) 16-18 61-64
4 Workshop (vigorous activity) 10-15 50-59
5 Bathrooms 20-22 68-72
6 Gymnasium 15.5 60
Some recommended upper limit values of comfortable temperature are as follows :
Consideration Critical Effective Temp.
0C 0F
1. Safe tolerable limit for -
(a) Light work 32 89.6
(b) Moderate work 29.5 85.1
(c) Heavy work 29 84.2
2. Prevention of steep fall in production 28.9 84
3. For efficient production 26.7 80
4. For thermal comfort in light / sedentary work 20-24.7 68-76.5
Effects on skin in contact with surfaces at different temperatures are also noted. Temperatures
160°F, 180°F and 212°F cause second degree burn on 60, 30 and 15 second contact respectively.
140°F gives pain due to tissue 'damage (burns) and temperature below 32°F also gives pain due to
tissue damage (freezing). 120°F gives pain due to burning heat. 9U4°F gives warm or neutral
feeling (physiological zero). 37 to 54°F gives cool effect and from 32°F and below gives pain due
to freezing.
But the temperature alone is not a good indicator of comfortable conditions. In spite of above
desirable level, discomfort may be caused because of frequent drafts (wind speeds), excessive
moisture, undue dryness and high radiant heat. The recording and regulating of these factors and
equating them with experiences of comfort, .and discomfort has been an old problem of safety
engineers.
The effect of atmospheric conditions on output and accident rate has been demonstrated in a
number of studies. The optimum temperature varies with the type of work that is performed and
depends upon the state of health, age, clothing, diet and the ability of the employee to adapt
himself to different climatic ' conditions.
Numerous studies have been reported showing a close relation between accident frequency and
atmospheric conditions. One study of collieries workers indicates that at an average temperature of
16.5°C (62°F), the accident frequency and severity rates were minimum. Another study pointed
out 21-23.5°C (70-74°F) temps. Range to keep the accident rate minimum. One study of hourly
accident rates inferred that the accidents were higher during the last hours of the day shift and the
first hours of the night shifts.
Mental Work experiments of the New York ventilation commission demonstrated that such work
maybe performed as effectively under humid (80%), hot 30°C (86"F) and stagnant air conditions
as under optimum conditions of circulating air at 30°C (68°F) and 50% humidity. The influence of
controlled ventilation on attitudes and labour turnover affects all types of workers and -a favorable
attitude of workers toward the management is an indirect benefit which should not be overlooked.
Barometric pressure has little effect, whereas temperature and humidity have considerable effect
on behavior. Production was at its highest level when the temperature was 30°C (68°F) and the air
was fresh and circulating. Using this as a base, it was noticed that stagnant air caused production
8
to fall off® 9%. Relative humidity of 40-50% is desirable for comfort and hygiene. Humidity
below 30% are undesirable as they may cause dehydration of mucous membranes of the nose and
respiratory tracts.
Toxic effects of chemicals may be magnified when temperature is raised, because, toxicity of
chemicals is known to increase due to temperature rise as follows:
SR. Toxicity at
Chemical
24 0C 35 0C
1 Carbon Tetrachloride 1 3.9
2 Carbon Monoxide 1 2.4
3 Amyl nitrate 1 3
4 Lead 1 >1
Heat Disorders are noticed at higher temperatures. A man may collapse at core (body) temperature of
39.5°C (normal oral temp. 37°C). At about 40.6°C (105°F) the sweating mechanism fails and the core
temperature rises sharply. When the temperature reaches 42 to 43.5°C (108 to 110°F) death occurs.
The commonly disorders experienced by Indian workers are (1) Heat exhaustion and collapse (2)
Water depletion, heat exhaustion and heat cramps (at times).
Accident rate in hot environment was double than that under comfortable climatic conditions. The
contributing factor according to Stephen Altman (1976) was lowered physical performance.
Thus temperature exceeds thermal limits cause discomfort, annoyance, agony and frequency of
errors and accidents ultimately resulting in poor productivity.
Other Factors affecting ability to withstand high temperatures are (1) Fatigue and lack of sleep (2)
Worry, frustration and nervousness (3) Smoke from cigarettes, dust, gas etc. and (4) Disagreeable
odor
Heat and Cold Stress and their Indices:Attempts have been made in past to evaluate the
total heat stress limits (Tolerance or Threshold limits) by integrating some climatic and non-
climatic factors which affect heat exchange between the man and surrounding environment. Heat
Stress Index (HSI) can be calculated or obtained from charts and takes into account clothing and
work load. From it can be recommended duration of work and rest period. Some such indices are
as follows :
(1) Effective Temperature (ET) : It is a sensory scale of warmth derived from the dry and
wet bulb temperature (i.e. air temperature and humidity) and air velocity from standard
nomogram. ET is not a temperature measurable with instruments. It is an index combining effects
on a body of temperature, humidity and air movement. It is equivalent to the comfort a person
generally feels (there may be exceptions) in a saturated atmosphere with the same dry bulb
temperature and with a specific movement of air. A person remains equally comfortable under
different conditions, provided the ET remains the same.
(2) Corrected Effective Temperature (CET): It is a modified ET considering the radiant
temperature measured by glob thermometer instead of dry bulb temperature. It does not include
metabolic heat.
Considering lower body weight of Indians, ET and CET proposed by the Central Labour Institute,
Bombay is as follows:
Energy Expenditure
Workload ET or CET 0C
Kcal/ hr.
Light 135 32
Medium 225 29.5
9
Heavy 315 29
(3) Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) : It embraces in a single value the effect of
radiation, ambient air temperature and humidity. It is the weighted value of the wet and dry bulb
temperature and globe thermometer readings, calculated using temperature measurements alone
thereby eliminating the need to measure air velocity.
For outdoors (exposure to sun light) :
WBGT = 0.2 tg + 0.1 tdb + 0.7 twb
For indoors (no direct exposure to sun light):
WBGT = 0.3 tdb + 0.7 twb
Where tg = Black Globe temperature,
tdb = Dry bulb (air) temperature and
twb = Wet bulb temperature
(°C) index is adopted by many countries to set up standards for work in hot environments. Its
determination is simple and requires less expensive equipment.
It is necessary to determine the average exposure of a person over a long period of time when
WBGT varied. A time-weighted average is given by : Average WBGT =
WBGT1 x t1 + WBGT2 x t2 + ... WBGTn x tn
t1+ t2 +.....tn
Exposures should not exceed the values given in the following chart :
50
120
45
110
40 WBGT (o F)
o
WBGT ( C) 100
35
90
30
80
25
0 60 120 180 240

Exposure time (min)
The graph shows the upper limits of exposure for feeling comfort.
Calculated time weighted or average WBGT can be compared with permissible (comfortable)
level of WBGT values (°C) given in Table .10.1
This table is changed in 'ACGIH booklet 2007'. There the words "TLV' and 'Action Limit' are
used for 'acclimatized' and 'unacclimatized' respectively. WBGT figures are slightly changed. For
detail, it should be referred.
For non-cotton, non-woven clothing, overalls (double cloth) which disallow free air movements
through fabric or does not absorb sweating '3 to 5' should be added to measured and calculated
WBGT values which should be less than the values given in Table 10.1. These values (Table 10.1)
are near the upper limit of the metabolic rate category. They are also called Screening Criteria for
heat stress exposure. See Part 10 for worked examples.
(4) Oxford Index:This index of heat stress has been devised to assess the severity of hot
humid conditions 'of the working places, particularly where the ventilation is poor. It is expressed
by a simple weighting as follows:
WD = 0.15 tdb + 0.85 twb
Where WD = weighted value, tdb and twb are dry and wet bulb temperature respectively. All units
are in °C.
Table: WBGT -(heat stress) values in "C (ACGIH Booklet 2006.
10
Acclimatized Un-acclimatized
Work
Very Very
demand Light Moderate Heavy Light Moderate Heavy
heavy heavy
100% work 29.5 27.5 26 27.5 25 22.5
75% work
30.5 28.5 27.5 29 26.5 24.5
25% rest
50% work
31.5 29.5 28.5 27.5 30 28 26.5 25
50% rest
25% work
32.5 31 30 29.5 31 29 28 26.5
75% rest
(5) Predicted Four Hourly Sweat Rate (P4SR): This index is based on the assumption of the
amount of sweat that would be prescribed by a physically fit and acclimatized young man in the
condition under review over a period of four hours. It takes into account the metabolic level and
type of clothing in addition to the climatic factors, unlike other indices mentioned earlier. But this
has the drawback that cumbersome nomograms are .required which is not always practical.
(6) Cold Stress and Wind Chill Index (WCI):It refers to the cold environment and uses only dry
bulb temperature and air velocity but takes into account the cooling effect of the wind.
In cold countries where environmental temperature goes below °C, cold stress (hypothermia or
frostbite) is also possible. Body (core) temperature (rectal 37.6°C, Oral 37°C) should not fall
below 35°C (95"F). Hands, feet and head are most likely to be affected by cold injury. Wind speed
increases cold stress. As TLV body (core) temperature should not fall below 36°C (96.8"F).
Wind chill cooling rate is defined as heat loss from a body expressed in watts/m', which is a
function of air temperature and velocity upon the exposed (area of) body. Higher wind speed and
lower air temperature require higher insulation. Value of the protective clothing. Exposure or
working time of workers should also be reduced. Old and weak workers need such extra
precaution.
Since the physical activity level on the shop floor will remain almost constant, we may
make use of the simple indices like CET/ET or WBGT in our control programmes.
Heat Exposure Threshold Limit Values (USA) and Bolding Hatch Heat Stress Index (HSI) are
other indices.
Toxic effects of chemicals may be magnified when temperature is raised, because, toxicity of
chemicals is known to increase due to temperature rise as follows :
Toxicity at
Chemical
24 0C 35 0C
1 Carbon Tetrachloride 1 3.9
2 Carbon Monoxide 1 2.4
3 Amylnitrate 1 3
4 Lead 1 >1
Heat Disorders are noticed at higher temperatures. A man may collapse at core (body) temperature
of 39.5°C (normal oral temp. 37°C). At about 40.6°C (105°F) the sweating mechanism fails and
the core temperature rises sharply. When the temperature reaches 42 to 43.5°C (108 to 110°F)
death occurs. The commonly disorders experienced by Indian workers are (1) Heat exhaustion and
collapse (2) Water depletion, heat exhaustion and heat cramps (at times).
Accident rate in hot environment was double than that under comfortable climatic conditions. The
contributing factor according to Stephen Altman (1976) was lowered physical performance.
Thus temperature exceeds thermal limits cause discomfort, annoyance, agony and frequency of
errors and accidents ultimately resulting in poor productivity.
11
Other Factors affecting ability to withstand high temperatures are (1) Fatigue and lack of sleep (2)
Worry, frustration and nervousness (3) Smoke from cigarettes, dust, gas etc. and (4) Disagreeable
odour
TYPES OF VENTILATION: Classification of Ventilation Systems :
For better grasping, major ventilation systems are classified as below:
Ventilation systems are of two types (1) Supply air system and (2) Exhaust system. Supply air
system has two purposes (A) heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) for comfortable
environment and (B) to replace exhausted air from the plant. Exhaust system is of two types:
General and Local exhaust type. General exhaust system is for heat control and/or removal of
contaminant by dilution ventilation and Local exhaust system is for capturing contaminant at
source.
The details of these varieties of ventilation and calculation methods occupy much space. Their
design is a specialized job for ventilating engineers. Here they "are explained in brief as follows.
Natural Ventilation :
Natural ventilation is induced because of two reasons (1) outside wind pressure i.e., wind action
and (2) temperature difference of the air inside and outside the room i.e. chimney effect. There is a
positive pressure on windward side and negative pressure on leeward side. By providing adequate
openings in these pressure areas, natural ventilation can be achieved.
The rate of ventilation by natural means through windows or other openings depends on direction
and velocity .of wind outside, solar radiation, size and disposition of opening (wind action),
convection currents arising from temperature or vapor pressure difference (or both) between
12
Ventilation Systems
Natural Mechanical
Ventilation Ventilation
1 Dilution or Cross
ventilation (Wind
action)
2 Roofed
ventilation (Stack
action)
(A) For Building (B) For Contaminants

1 Exhaust or Control
Negative 1 Dilution or forced
(Induced draft)
2 Plenum or 2 Local Exhaust or
Positive Extract
(Forced Draft)
3 Emergency
3 Combined or Ventilation
Compound
Ventilation
4 Roof Ventilation
5 Comfort
Ventilation
(Air
Conditioning)
(a) Refrigeration
(b) Heating
(c) Humidity Control or
Evaporative Cooling
inside and outside the room and the difference of height between the outlet and inlet openings
(stack effect). They are of two types as under
(1) Dilution or Cross Ventilation: Inlet openings should be located on the windward side at a low
level and outlet openings should be located on the leeward side near to the top so that incoming air
stream is passed over the occupants. Greatest flow per unit area opening is obtained by using inlet
and outlet openings of nearly equal areas. Under the Factories Rules ventilation opening area in a
work room shall be at least 15% of the floor area. At least 10% of the floor area shall be located at
not more than one meter sill level height from the floor level. Wind velocity in hot weaver should
be 40 to 60 mt/min. Ventilation due to wind outside is given by the formula Q = kAV given in
Part-9.
Inlet openings should not be obstructed by surrounding buildings, walls, partitions, trees and other
obstructions in air path. Great advantage is available by providing windows in west and east
13
direction. However if wind direction is not effectively available, openings in all four sides can
help the natural ventilation.
Fig. With flat roof, cross ventilation is effective when span is less than 20 meters.
When the room temperature is higher than that of outside because of hot processes, season etc.,
cool outside air tends to enter through openings at low level and warm air tends to leave through
openings at high level. Therefore it would be advantageous to provide ventilators near to the
ceilings.
(2) Roofed Ventilation: Cross ventilation suitable for narrow building is not much suitable for
large buildings and where roofed ventilation is suitable. Here ventilators are provided in roofs viz.
cowl, vent pipe, covered roof and ridge vent to give stack effect.
For a 60 cm (24 in) diameter cowl type ventilator the formula's -
Q= A (8 H(ti-t0)+5.82V)
Where Q = capacity of the ventilator in m3/min, A = cross sectional area of the ventilator in 2 H =
height of the ventilator above the inlets in m, t. and t are the inside and outside temperatures in °C
and V = wind velocity in kmph.
See fig. for different types of roof and fig. for modified roof ventilation.
Fig.: Types of roof for natural ventilation
14
Fig: Modified pitched roof and monitor roof.

In roofed ventilation, natural ventilation is used by chinmey (stack) effect due to temperature
difference. This effect is counteracted by wind blows straight against roof openings. By suitable
design of itched roof, saw-tooth roof or monitor roof this interference can be reduced.
Cowl type Roof Ventilation : Fixed or rotating owl (hood on roof vent) is provided to accelerate
natural roofed ventilation. The performance of roof cowls depends on temperature difference
between inside and outside air, velocity of incoming wind, cross sectional area of the ventilator
and its height above air inlet. For a 60 cm (2 ft) diameter cowl, air flow capacity is given by the
formula stated above.
Rotating cowl requires a lubricant reservoir for its long service to run without jamming.
Mechanical Ventilation :Mechanical ventilation is employed for building i.e. workroom and
also for process for removal of contaminants. Both the types are explained below.
Building Ventilation:These are of many types as classified earlier. When natural ventilation is
not sufficient to keep thermal environment within the limits specified by dry and wet-bulb
schedule under the Factories Rules, or where the span of work room exceeds 18 meters or where
any work place is more than 9 meters away from a ventilation opening, mechanical ventilation
15
(exhaust, positive or their combination) shall be provided and in case of positive ventilation, air
shall be cleaned and cooled before sending into the work room.
(1) Exhaust or Negative Ventilation: Exhauster induced draft fans are provided in walls on one
side of the building or in the attic and roofs to draw large volumes of air through building. These
fans are generally propeller type. The windows and other openings near the fans should be kept
closed to avoid 'short circulating of air'. Adequate inlet openings shall be provided on opposite
side of the building to limit inlet velocities. When fans are centrally located on an attic or arranged
to draw from exhaust appliances with ducting, they should be centrifugal or axial types to
overcome duct resistance. The total inlet area should be at least 3 times the total disc area of the
fan.
The exhaust fans should have wind shields on outside of the wall so that wind pressure may not
decrease their efficiency. The fans discharge should be diverted into large ducts carried vertically
upwards with rain water cap at the top. Fans should have proper guarding or fencing.
(2) Plenum or Positive Ventilation : It is provided by centrally located supply fans (generally
centrifugal type) having a wide range of capacity and quiet operation. Air-tight ducts increase the
advantage. Unit ventilators should be provided for individual rooms and may be placed against
outside wall near the central line of the room. Evaporative cooling coils can be incorporated for
cooling purpose.
Plenum ventilation is useful for large workrooms where exhaust ventilation is normally not
effective. Its air movement and regulation are more than that by exhaust ventilation. Better
dilution of contamination is also possible. The air velocities should not be excessive to disturb
manufacturing processes. Good distribution can be achieved by using diffusers or swivel type
ejector nozzles at high velocity at the inlets. For positive ventilation, the volume of air is given by
16
Q = AV, where Q = air volume in m"/ in, A = free area of intake openings of ducts in m' and V=
average velocity of air in m/min.
The positive air pressure inside the room disallows outside hot or cold air leakage inside.' Better
dilution is achieved. Ducts should be smooth, straight, with minimum bends and without sudden
enlargements or contractions. The air velocity should not be too excessive to interfere with the
manufacturing process or be unpleasant. Discharge nozzles should discharge air horizontally at a
height little above the heads of the workers. Air velocity in a duct should be @10 m/s for gases
and @20 m/s for particulates.
(3) Combined (Compound) Ventilation : It is the combination of positive and negative (exhaust)
ventilation with the advantage of better air distribution over the entire area of a large building. By
supplying proper volumes of air at suitable velocities at the required areas through duct and by
extracting the air in the return duct and re-circulating this air after proper cleaning and mixing it
with cool fresh air, good results can be obtained. It is preferable to provide slight excess of
exhaust if there are adjoining occupied spaces and a slight excess of supply if there are no such
spaces. Unit exhausters can be used to match with unit ventilators exteriors and located along the
outside wall.
(4) Mechanical Roof Ventilation : It is used for augmenting natural ventilation in buildings
with large width (>30 m) or where the heat load is very heavy. Exhaust fans exercise very little
influence beyond a velocity contour at about 15 m/min which is a short distance from the fan. The
volume of air required in removal of sensible heat gained (in Kcal/hr) can be calculated from the
formula -
Q= Kcal/hr x 3.462
Temperature rise in °C
Where Q is the volume of air in m3/hr, and allowable temperature rise = Inlet openingtemp.
Outside temp., is given by following approximate figures.
Roof elevation in mt Rise in oC

6 3 to 4.5
9 4.5 to 6.5
12 6.5 to 11
These values are at roof exit and not the floor temperatures. The maximum allowable temperature
rise for an air stream as it leaves the grills and reaches the working level is 1.7 to 2.8 °C (5 °F).
(5) Comfort Ventilation: It is the method by which the interior of a room is heated or cooled or
the humidity altered for process control or comfort conditions.
As refrigeration is very expensive, evaporative cooling may be adopted with advantage where
summers are dry with low wet bulb temperatures. The quantity of air required for ventilation could
be reduced if the outside air is cooled before the air is discharged into the building. Although the
relative humidity of supply air will be increased but due to the large sensible heat loads, the
resultant relative humidity in the workroom will be lowered after mixing with the inside air to
produce body cooling.
Water spray chamber and a fan to supply outside air into the workroom through a distribution duct
is preferable to spray which only humidifies the air where the cooling capacity of the air is not
much improved and no hot air is removed from the building.
Evaporative cooling is generally used in cotton textile mills where humidification is necessary to
meet the process conditions. It can also be used in chemical plants (where water is not reactive),
17
non-ferrous casting shops, tobacco factories etc. It is useful in rubber factory to prevent static
electricity due to solvent and in printing or lithographic works to maintain paper size. It is suitable
where dry bulb temperature is 35 °C (95 °C) or more, wet bulb temperature 25 °C (67 "F) or less
and relative humidity 5% or more during 15th March to 15th July as required under Rule 18A(3)
of the Gujarat Factories Rules.
The spray chamber (air washers) and single or multi bank up or down spray system can be
designed after careful considerations. Make-up water in circulation (about 1.5 to 2%) can be
calculated from evaporation losses, bleed off losses and driftage. For safety in air-conditioning
and mechanical refrigeration, IS:659 and 660 shall be referred respectively.
Process Ventilation (Contaminants Control):
Mechanical ventilation is also employed for contaminants control as follows :
(1) Dilution or Forced Ventilation : It is helpful in reducing contaminant concentration in work
area to control health and fire hazards. This is useful to control less toxic vapours such as from
organic solvents. It is not useful to control fumes, dusts and contaminants of high toxicity (TLV
less than 100 ppm) and high quantity or concentration. It is also not useful where pollutants are
released intermittently. The amount of air required for dilution can be calculated from the
following formula:
Air required for dilution in m3/kg of evaporation or generation of gas
24 x 106 x F
= Molecular weight of toxic gas xTLV in ppm of liquid or gas
Where F is a factor of safety for health hazard varying from 3 to 10 and depending on the -
toxicity, evolution rate of contaminant and effectiveness of the ventilation.
The formula for control of fire hazard is as follows:
Air required for dilution in m3/kg of flammable gas.
24 x 100 x FMolecular weight of the gas x
LEL x C
Where F is a factor of safety for fire hazard varying from 4 to
12 depending upon the percentage of LEL (Lower Explosive
Limit) and C is a constant which is 1 for temperatures up to
121 °C and 0.7 for temperatures above 121 °C.
Normally this method is adopted where it is impossible to fit an
extractor to the work point. Hourly air changes in a work room
are for dilution purpose. It should be 6 times the room volume
per hour.
The air flow volume to be provided should take into

account (1) the volume of the pollutants released (2) the
concentration permitted in the workplace and (3) a factor of safety which allows for the layout of
the room, the airflow patterns created by the ventilation system, the toxicity of the pollutant and
the steadiness of its release.
18
(2) Local Exhaust or Extract Ventilation : It is applied

at the release points of contaminants (dust, gas, fumes,
particles etc.) to reduce their concentration in the
workroom below TLVs. Su(;h points shall be enclosed
except where access is necessary for the process, but in
that case, the exhaust appliance shall confine the
contaminants as much as possible.
The volume of air required is calculated from the area of
openings and the capture velocity sufficient to prevent
outward escapement. The sizes of the ducts shall be
calculated from the volume of air required and duct
velocities necessary to convey the contaminants with
minimum static resistance.
Fig. Elements of a local exhaust System
Capture velocities may vary from 0.25 to 10 m/ s
proportionately increasing with the contaminants velocity
as given in Table-10.3. The test report for dust/ fume
extraction system shall be in form No. 26A under the Gujarat Factories Rules.
Where the emissions of heat or contaminants are high, dilution ventilation is not fully effective
and the well designed exhaust ventilation becomes necessary.''
Exhausted air may be re-circulated after cleaning and filtering to increase the rate of mechanical
ventilation.
Hood, duct, air cleaning device, filter or collector (to separate contaminant from the air before
discharging it into atmosphere) and fan and motor (for air flow) shall be designed or selected
properly.
Hoods are of many types - booth, canopy, side draft, cabinet, single or double lip and push and
pull type
Duct may be square or rectangular, with material to resist abrasive or corrosive action. Sharp
corners shall be avoided. Cleaning and trapping gates shall be provided. Generally the conveying
velocity may be from 10 to 25 m/s depending upon the type of contaminant and balancing of equal
flow rate of air.
Types of air-cleaners, dust separators or collectors are settling chambers, cyclones, dry dynamic
precipitators, scrubbers, wet collectors, electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters and air cleaners for
gases and vapours. The fan selection depends upon air volume and static pressure required. A
guide for selection of collectors is given as Table-18 in Chapter-32.
Points to be considered while designing a hood are:
1. Enclose the operation as much as possible. Hood should be as near as possible to the source of
generation. Doubling the distance require approximately four times the air volume.
2. Hood should be so located as to keep the flow of contaminants away from the worker.
3. Hood should be so placed as to take advantage of initial velocity and direction of the throw of
the contaminant. For example, lighter vapour, hot substances, gas tending to rise, should be
collected by hood overhead, while heavier particles or gas/ vapour with vapour density > I and
tending to settle, should be collected by placing hood down or at the side.
4. Hood should not interfere the movement of the operator and the job.
19
5. Portable power drills, grinders, saws etc. should have machine attached extractor and dust
collection chamber to be carried on back or on wheels to suck the particles flying at the point of
operation. Fixed machine like carding machine also needs extract ventilation.
Minimum capture velocities are given in Table 10.3, for the capture of dusts, fumes, gases,
smokes, mists etc.
Table: Recommended Capture Velocities:
Minimum Capture Velocity in
Releasing Velocity Examples
fpm m/s
Low, into quiet air 50 to 100 0.25 – 0.5 Evaporation or fumes from
open vessels, degreasing,
pickling, plating.
Slight, into moderately 100 to 200 0.5 – 1.0 Spray booth, low speed
quiet air conveyor, cabinet, welding,
and dry dumping.
High, into rapid air 200 to 500 1.0 – 2.5 Spray painting in small booth
movement with high pressure, conveyor
loading, barrel filling, and
crushers.
Higher, into very rapid 500 to 2000 2.5 – 10 Grinding, blasting, rock,
air movement. surfacing, tumbling.
Note : Similar to Table 3, IS:3103
See part 10 for worked examples.
(3) Emergency Ventilation : It is a type of mechanical local exhaust ventilation where
specialised air ducts for delivering air may not be necessary. It is useful in gas-generating plants
and compressor-rooms where risk of sudden outburst of explosive or flammable gases or vapours
exists. At least 8 air changes per hour is necessary. Axial fans are selected for spark-free
operation. Automatic switches are required to operate the system at the time of emergency.
(4) Other Methods : Despite of above three types of ventilation system for contaminants control,
other methods of prevention are: Substitution, segregation, enclosures, natural and general
mechanical ventilation, wet methods, use of personal protective equipment and warning and
publicity.In substitution safe substitute should be found for a toxic material.
In segregation the hazardous process and persons are kept away by means of suitable partition or
increasing their distance.Enclosure prevents contaminant of surrounding by physical separation of
toxic material or process by enclosing them.Wet method uses water spray to prevent dust escape
into atmosphere. InDust suppression method jet or spray is applied to cutting tool, chisel, grinder,
saw etc. to wet the surface for dust suppression.Dust prevention includes both, wet method and
dust suppression method. Using paste instead of powder, dipping in water, oil or other suspension
are useful for gases, dusts and clothing. Proper personal protective equipment should be utilised as
the last control against contaminants.
20
Air conditioning processes are as under :

1. Cooling only (without humidification or dehumidification).
2. Cooling and dehumidification.
3. Cooling with humidification
4. Cooling and/or Heating,
5. Finned cooling coils with direct expansion.
6. Desert coolers.
The desert cooler or air cooler works on the principle of evaporative cooling. A fan sucks outside
air through a wetted pad which is kept continuously wetted by circulating water through it
(independent circuit). The air passes through the wetted pad, gets cooled and humidified and
discharged into the room where it picks up sensible heat and maintains fairly comfortable
condition. The heated air escapes from the room openings i.e. the same air is not taken back in
ducting. As a fresh air it may come back through the wetted pad.
Thus the purpose of air conditioning is to provide the most comfortable ventilation and better heat
control at home and also at some specified industries (e.g. electronic, computer/telephone, watch,
and pharmaceutical industry).
The hazards associated with industrial air conditioning plants (e.g. chilling plants, cold storage,
central AC for theatre, auditorium, dairy etc.) are:
1. Leakage of refrigerant. Ammonia leak has toxic effect and compounds of chloro-fluoro-
methane have ozone depletion effect (environmental hazard). Ammonia leak
is detected by smell or SO, torch (gives white smoke) and leakage of other
gases by Halide torch or electronic gas detector.
Common refrigerants are R-717 or Ammonia (NH3), R-11 (CCl3F), R-12
(CC12F2), R-22 (CHCIF2) and R-502 (CHCIF2, + CC1F2CF3)
(Commercial name & formulae)
2. Pressure of compressed gas in cylinder, condenser and pipelines.
Appropriate safety valve or pressure controller, pressure gauge, isolation
valve, drain, etc. are required. Periodical pressure testing (normal and
hydraulic) is also necessary.
Control of Heat Stress: Heat stress should be measured to find
appropriate control measure. Heat stress monitors with or without air probe are available and they
are useful for area heat stress monitoring. Personal heat stress monitor with
sensor is available for personal heat stress monitoring.
How to control atmospheric conditions so that varying effects on workers
can be reduced to a minimum is a good task for safety engineers. The
remedies varying from plant to plant should be determined from the
specific study of the plant (including workers) itself. Ventilating system
which moves and filters the air and which controls the temperature and
humidity is a good control. Various engineering, administrative, statutory
and personal protective controls can be applied to minimize heat stresses.
Methods of engineering control and personnel management are given
below:
Methods of Engineering Controls:Then to control the effects of
parameters M, C, R & E following control measures are necessary:
To reduce heat of metabolism i.e. gain by M - Reduce level of physical activity by sharing work
load with others or by using mechanical means. Schedule cooler periods for work. Increase rest
periods.
21
To reduce high air temperature i.e. gain by C -

Insulate hot equipment. Provide canopies with fans
over hot equipment to drive away hot air. Improve
general and localized ventilation over personnel.
Provide exhaust ventilation, local cooling,
evaporative cooling, refrigeration, isolation,
substitution, relocation and redesign as per need.
Use ventilated suits against excessive heat.
To reduce radiation temperature, i.e. gain by R -
Insulate hot 'equipment. Use reflective or absorptive
shielding between the heat source and man. Paint
the surface of hot equipment or shield or clothe it by using white colour for short wave of solar
radiation and aluminum colour for infra red radiation. Wear protective clothing of reflective
surface of polished metal or paint or ventilated suits. Interpose line of sight barrier. Cover exposed
parts of the body. Use fans to move air and exhaust ventilation.
To reduce high humidity (restriction on loss by E) - Prevent steam leaks. Improve general
ventilation. Apply dehumidification in confined spaces. Use ventilated suits for high humidity.
Decrease humidity and increase air speed.
2. Methods of Personnel Management (Administrative efforts):
a) Provide ample supplies of cool water or flavoured drinks.
b) Provide extra salt where required.
c) Ensure lightweight, loose fitting clothing. In conditions with no radiant heat load, use as
little clothing as possible. With high radiant heat loads, clothing should cover skin; where
possible, clothing should be of cotton and white.
d) Ensure quickest development of acclimatization. Lack of salt, lack of water or poor
physical condition retards acclimatization.
e) Where possible do not employ men in hot conditions if they are : obese, suffering from any
cardiovascular disease, suffering from or recovering from febrile illness, over 45 years of.
age, physically unfit and suffering from any skin disease or if they fail to sweat properly.
f) Where possible, arrange for men who are to work in hot surroundings to spend their first
two weeks working in cool surroundings in the morning and in the heat in the afternoon.
(This - will help acclimatization)
g) Analyze Working situations for estimation of heat load through various channels. Apply
physical methods to control hazard; if necessary amplify by control of work and rest
routine.
h) 8. Rest periods should betaken in cool surroundings. Men may effectively 'cool off even
when they continue to work in cool conditions.
i) In extreme conditions man may: wear ventilated suits, be pre-cooled by immersion in cool
water and be cooled down by spraying them with cool water.
j) Train in first-aid for heat strain symptoms.
k) 11. Pre-employment andperiodic medical examinations for proper placement of
individuals considering their age, sex and physical fitness and
l) 12. Observation of individual physiological responses to heat and to change their job or
place if necessary.
3. Acclimatization:is an important factor for a worker to work for a long period in hot
environment. Acclimatization means the habit by which a person adapts himself to living and
working in a hot and humid atmosphere. It is manifested as a reduction in the heart rate and
internal body temperature at the expense of increased sweating.
The factors affecting physiology of acclimatization are (1) Process of thermal regulation (2)
Cardiac output and heart rate (3) Sweating.
22
Sweating starts when the skin temperature exceeds 33 °C. There are some 25 lacs sweat glands in
a body of 70 kg man. During the period of acclimatization, the sweating rate may rise from 1.5 lit/
h to 3.5 lit/h. The maintenance of a body temperature 37 °C is achieved by constant adjustment of
the process of thermo genesis and thermolysis. An acclimatized person should not lose more than I
lit/h and the rectal temperature should not exceed 38 °C.
The following factors help acclimatization to high temperatures:
1. Persons having less than 50 kg body weight, more than 45 years of age and maximum oxygen
consumption less than 2.5 lit/min should not be selected. Females get difficult to acclimatize.
2. Liquids should be taken in small quantities and often from the start of exposure to high
temperatures.
3. The intake of fatty foodstuffs should be reduced.
4. Small doses of vitamins B and C are supplementary.
5. Work breaks during shift should be increased. During rest cold drinks reduce stress.
6. Heat resisting barriers which include insulation over the heat source, polished reluctant
shields, absorbent shields (being cooled by air or water) and personal protective equipment (e.g.
water jacketed clothing).
(1) Dilution or Cross Ventilation: Inlet openings should be located on the windward side at a low
level and outlet openings should be located on the leeward side near to the top so that incoming air
stream is passed over the occupants. Greatest flow per unit area opening is obtained by using inlet
and outlet openings of nearly equal areas. Under the Factories Rules ventilation opening area in a
work room shall be at least 15% of the floor area. At least 10% of the floor area shall be located at
not more than one meter sill level height from the floor level. Wind velocity in hot weaver should
be 40 to 60 mt/min. Ventilation due to wind outside is given by the formula Q = kAV given in
Part-9.
Inlet openings should not be obstructed by surrounding buildings, walls, partitions, trees and other
obstructions in air path. Great advantage is available by providing windows in west and east
direction. However if wind direction is not effectively available, openings in all four sides can
help the natural ventilation.
Fig. 10.9 With flat roof, cross ventilation is effective when span is less than 20 meters.
When the room temperature is higher than that of outside because of hot processes, season etc.,
cool outside air tends to enter through openings at low level and warm air tends to leave through
openings at high level. Therefore it would be advantageous to provide ventilators near to the
ceilings.
(2) Roofed Ventilation: Cross ventilation suitable for narrow building is not much suitable for
large buildings and where roofed ventilation is suitable. Here ventilators are provided in roofs viz.
cowl, vent pipe, covered roof and ridge vent to give stack effect.
(2) Local Exhaust or Extract Ventilation: It is applied at the release points of contaminants
(dust, gas, fumes, particles etc.) to reduce their concentration in the workroom below TLVs. Su(;h
points shall be enclosed except where access is necessary for the process, but in that case, the
exhaust appliance shall confine the contaminants as much as possible.
The volume of air required is calculated from the area of openings and the capture velocity
sufficient to prevent outward escapement. The sizes of the ducts shall be calculated from the
volume of air required and duct velocities necessary to convey the contaminants with minimum
static resistance.
Capture velocities may vary from 0.25 to 10 m/ s proportionately increasing with the contaminants
velocity as given in Table-10.3. The test report for dust/ fume extraction system shall be in form
No. 26A under the Gujarat Factories Rules.
Where the emissions of heat or contaminants are high, dilution ventilation is not fully effective
and the well designed exhaust ventilation becomes necessary.''
23
Exhausted air may be re-circulated after cleaning and filtering to increase the rate of mechanical
ventilation.
Hood, duct, air cleaning device, filter or collector (to separate contaminant from the air before
discharging it into atmosphere) and fan and motor (for air flow) shall be designed or selected
properly.
Hoods are of many types - booth, canopy, side draft, cabinet, single or double lip and push and
pull type. Duct may be square or rectangular, with material to resist abrasive or corrosive action.
Sharp corners shall be avoided. Cleaning and trapping gates shall be provided. Generally the
conveying velocity may be from 10 to 25 m/s depending upon the type of contaminant and
balancing of equal flow rate of air.
Types of air-cleaners, dust separators or collectors are settling chambers, cyclones, dry dynamic
precipitators, scrubbers, wet collectors, electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters and air cleaners for
gases and vapours. The fan selection depends upon air volume and static pressure required.
Points to be considered while designing a hood are :

1. Enclose the operation as much as possible. Hood should be as near as possible to the source of
generation. Doubling the distance require approximately four times the air volume.
2. Hood should be so located as to keep the flow of contaminants away from the worker.
3. Hood should be so placed as to take advantage of initial velocity and direction of the throw of
the contaminant. For example, lighter vapour, hot substances, gas tending to rise, should be
collected by hood overhead, while heavier particles or gas/ vapour with vapour density > I and
tending to settle, should be collected by placing hood down or at the side.
4. Hood should not interfere the movement of the operator and the job.
5. Portable power drills, grinders, saws etc. should have machine attached extractor and dust
collection chamber to be carried on back or on wheels to suck the particles flying at the point of
operation. Fixed machine like carding machine also needs extract ventilation.
Minimum capture velocities are given in Table 10.3, for the capture of dusts, fumes, gases,
smokes, mists etc.
24
Noise and Vibration

Types of Sound / Noise :Sound or Noise is continuous when the source is constantly
vibrating, e.g. motorized bell. It may be impulsive when the source causes vibration only for a
short time e.g. sound from a drop forge hammer, explosion or a rifle shot.
Third category of sound is classified as fluctuating sound. In a large workshop where numbers of
machines are in operation, noise level varies from time to time. As a result the noise pattern
produced throughout the day is plotted. Then equivalent continuous level should be measured as a
mean of fluctuating level.
The effect/hazard of noise on man:The harmful effects of noise depend upon a number
of factors:
1. Noise frequency and intensity.
2. Total length of exposure.
3. Length of exposure at a time.
4. Distance from the noise source.
5. Whether noise is continuous, interrupted, sudden or impulsive.
6 Whether ear protector is worn or not and
7. Individual susceptibility depending on age, health (ear disease)
Harmful Effect due to Excessive noise :-
1. Mental stress: Excessive noise produces physiological (Sleep disturbance (WHO report, even
at less than 35 dBA) and stress reaction (e.g. jet aircraft personnel exposed to 120 dBA or more)
have been noticed. Psychological effects on industrial workers, such as, mental fatigue, irritation,
annoyance (people are annoyed by noise- unexpected impulsive -noise can be more annoying.
High frequencies are more annoying than low frequencies. Distraction (The sudden ringing of a
telephone or any audio signal can distract attention and disturbs concentration), nervousness
masking (hearing interference). Continuous noise may have subtle psychological and psychomotor
effects.
2. Physical stress: Nausea, tiredness,, vascular neuropathy, myopathy etc.
A very loud impulsive noise can cause ringing in the ears (tinnitus) and immediate loss of
hearingsensitivity. It can disappear if there is no further exposure to high noise levels. The
impulsive or
impact level should not exceed a ceiling limit of 140 dB (OSHA).
It is also reported that noise above 115 dBC (i.e. ceiling level) as 8-hour TWA and 155 dBC as
peak exposure (impulsive or impact noise) to the abdomen of pregnant workers, beyond the fifth
month of pregnancy may cause hearing loss in the fetus.(Arbhak-Infant)
3. Certain illness : change in blood pressure or/and respiration or digestive system, dilatation of
pupils and headache
4. i) Hearing Loss: Hearing ability can be greatly reduced by repeated or long exposure to
high noise and this permanent effect is known as noise induced hearing loss. (temporary result
from ageing, long-term exposure to high noise which is more than 90 dBA) It is impairment in ear
that obstructs receipt of sound and understanding of speech in a sentence form (not in the form of
test words). It is deafness. It is irreversible and incurable disease and can be corrected partly by
hearing aids. Early audiometric examination can prevent further damage. Some of the men tested,
even at 30 years young, found it difficult to understand speech after about 10 years of exposure.
25
Men showed greater hearing loss than women because the women had regular work breaks during
each shift while the men did not.Generally hearing losses in this frequency range which are
compensable under Workmen's Compensation Laws.
ii) Deafness: Permanent hearing loss including physical damage to ear due to ruptured
eardrums by very high intensity noise which is more than 160 dBA). ).
5. Accidents: Not hearing horn blown can cause accident to deaf person
6. Labour productivity: There is a Noise induced Behavioral Effects. Impulsive noise disrupts
work performance.
Hearing Loss:Temporary hearing loss can be caused by exposure to loud noise for up to a few
hours, which numbs the hair cells. Fortunately, hearing is usually restored after a period away
from noise.Permanent hearing loss occurs when exposure to loud noise permanently damages or
destroys the hair cells. Hearing cannot be restored. Signs of permanent hearing loss include -
1. Inability to hear pitched or soft sounds.
2. Trouble in understanding conversation, or speech heard over the telephone.
3. Ringing or roaring m the ears (tinnitus).
Sensor neural hearing loss is mostly irreversible. It involves the organ of corti and
degeneration of the natural elements of the auditory nerve. It indicates sever injury to the hair
cells. This type of loss occurs due to various causes including presbycusis, viruses (e.g. mumps),
some congenital defects and drug toxicity (e.g. streptomycin).
Mixed hearing loss occurs when above both the types of losses are found in the same ear.
Central hearing loss means person's difficulty to interpret when he hears. The abnormality is
localized in the brain between the auditory nuclei and the cortex.Psychogenic hearing loss
indicates nonorganic basis for threshold elevation. It may be due to malingering and hysteria.
No cure exists for hearing loss caused by noise. Hearing aids do not restore noise damaged
hearing, although they help some people if such aids are properly selected.Exposure to intense
noise creates a temporary threshold shift (TSS) first. This is greatest from 1 to 24 hours after the
exposure and reduces gradually if the noise has not been too loud. or has not been too long. This
condition is also known as auditory fatigue. This effect is transitory i.e. removable. It is of two
types TTS, and TTS,,. The later persists beyond 16 hours.
While deciding whether a certain noise is a hazard, the important factors are both the sound level
and the number of hours of exposure per day. Table 12.4 and 12.5 given in Part 4 must be
followed for that.
Hearing loss is a notifiable Disease under the Factories Act 1948 :Noise induced hearing loss
(exposure to high noise levels) is a notifiable disease under the Third Schedule of the Factories
Act and duty is cast upon both the manager of the factory and the medical practitioner attending
the person affected, to report to the Chief Inspector of Factories without delay (Sections 89 & 90).
26
MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION:

Sources of Industrial Noise:Before studying methods of measurement, it is necessary to know
the main sources of industrial noise. They are:
1. Impact: Impact noise is usually impulsive but it can be continuous as in case of
tumbling. Operations like forging, riveting, chipping, pressing, cutting, weaving,
tumbling and sheared steel plates falling one over another produce such noise.
2. Friction: Friction processes like grinding, sawing, sanding, cutting and turning on
lathes and other machine tools, brakes and less lubricated bearings produce noise.
3. Reciprocation: Vibrating, reciprocating or unbalanced rotating machinery radiate
noise and vibration directly.
4. Air Turbulence: High velocity air, steam or gases cause noise. The intensity increases
with the velocity of the air stream. Examples are exhaust noise from pneumatic tools
and jet engines.
5. Other Noises: In addition, there are other noises also, such as humming noise from
transformers
Need of Measurement:
Measurement of sound provides definite quantities which describe and rate sound. This
measurement can be useful in
1. Improving building acoustics.
2. Permitting precise, scientific analysis of annoying (Irritating) sounds, and
3. To Identify damage to hearing and suggesting corrective measures to be taken. Hearing
loss can be determined by measuring a person's hearing sensitivity by audiometry.
Methods of Measurement: (IS: 3483 describes following points :)
Intensity levels are measured by a sound level meter.
Process: The noises are picked up by a high quality microphone, passed through an octave-band
filter and the sound pressure levels recorded on a level recorder. Alternatively, noises recorded on
a magnetic tape. It is also sometimes displayed on oscilloscope screen.
As the noise levels are not the same at all locations inside the factory or workshop, the levels are
measured mostly at locations enveloped by high integrity noises. Also while determining damage
risk, it is necessary to measure the noise levels as close to the operator's ear position as possible.
The methods depend on the objective to be attained is to assess -
1. The hearing loss (auditory effect).
2. The interference with communication essentials for safety and
productivity (Non auditory effect), and
3. The hazard involve in the task (to study a specific problem).
Results obtained from sound level meter should be compared with threshold
limits of National or International standards. 85 dBA is an alert threshold limit
27
and 90 dBA a hazard threshold limit. Ear protector is must to work in exposure exceeding 115
dBA.
For measuring ……….
Continuous noise, the equivalent continuous sound level should be determined in
dBA and frequencies be analyzed as per standard methods.
Impulsive noise is measured either by using sound level meter in 'impulse'
Position a calculating mean value of 8 hour per day,
Risk areas (1) Where noise hazard is liable to be present (2) Supervision,
inspection or medical examination suggest that there may be a noise hazard and
(3) Workers complain such inconvenience to them.
Where speech communication at normal voice is interfered at a distance of 50
cm, noise level should be assessed.
The noise levels should be measured at a height of @ 1.5m above the work floor
and at distance of at least 1 mtr. from the walls. It is advisable to establish the
mean value of the sound level recorded in different directions.
Noise level should be measured at the worker' head level in his normal work
posture or at a distance of I m from either side of his head position.
A noise chart should be prepared of the area where the measured noise levels are equal to or in
excess of 80, 85, 90, 100 and 115 dBA. The Measurement Report:
A measurement report should contain at least the following information.
1. A sketch of the measurement site showing applicable dimensions (e.g. size of room
machine dimensions), the location of the microphone and object being measured.
2. Standard(s) to which measurements are made. (Ref. Std. for comparison)
3. Type and serial number of instrument (s) used.
4. Method of calibration.
5. Type of sound (e.g. impulsive, continuous etc.).
6. Background noise level. (Surrounding Ambient Noise)
7. Envt. Conditions (e.g. winter, summer or rainy season)
8. Data on object being measured (e.g. Location, Area, machine type, ).
9. Date when measurements were performed.
28
Noise Dose Measurement: (Commonly used)
A noise dose is a measurement of noise or individuals who move between many different noise
environments during the working day and can be obtained by using a
noise dose meters.
Noise dose meter is a portable instrument which can be carried in a
person's pocket. The microphone can be operated from the noise dose
meter body and should be mounted close to individual's more exposed
ear.
Noise dose meters display the percentage of daily allowable noise dose.
They directly measure the noise continuously and at the same time read
out (display) noise does as a percentage of maximum allowable (100%)
over an exposure period of 8 hrs. Beside this it also indicates when
certain levels are exceeded i.e. 115 dB(A) maximum allowable and 140
dB(A) peak.
Wearable Noise monitor (Discretely varying Noise Levels) :
Many employees are exposed to varying noise levels because the job
requires them to move around the department or plant.
Noise codes describe procedures for summing a series of partial doses
that such employees receive during their working period
In addition OSHA and many other national standards impose an
overriding limit of 115 dB(A) "S" which should never be exceeded for
any length of time.
One method of determining the noise dose of mobile employees is
through the job-study interview. First/ a noise survey is conducted
throughout the factory to determine the noise level at each working
location. Then each employee is interviewed to determine what
locations he works at and for how long. This rapidly leads to the
determination of noise doses received by a large number of employees;
furthermore periodic updates can be performed quickly. The job-study
interview method readily lends itself to computerized record keeping. It
is also a valuable aid for setting priorities in noise control schemes by identifying locations where
the noise doses are excessive. A record form may be of the following type:
29
Employee noise exposure record
Employee name _________________________________________________________
Date ______________________________ Signed _____________________________
Interview Computation iso

Work location % time Db (a) 8 hr dose Partial dose *
A-5 60 85 30% 18%
A-8 5 95 315 16
B-21 10 88 60 6
D-13 25 91 125 31
100
Total dose 71%
Recommendations :
Within ISO limits
% Time
* Partial dose = x 8 hr dose
100
Permissible Limits of Noise and Evaluation:
The evaluation and control of noise hazards include -
1. Setting objectives for a noise abatement programme.
2. Measurement of noise levels at workplaces and also with a moving man by measuring his
doses of exposure.
3. Comparing the measured values with the permissible exposure limits and assessing the
situation whether within limit or needs control measures (90 dBA under GFR).
4. Controlling exposure of excessive noise, and
5. Monitoring the hearing of exposed persons.
First three steps are 'evaluation' and the last two steps call for engineering control
measures, audiometric and hearing conservation programmes.
As mentioned ACGIH booklet, TLVs for noise to prevent a hearing loss at higher
frequencies such as 3000 Hz and 4000 Hz are given in Table 12.3.
30
Table: TLV for Noise (ACGIH, 2007)
Duration per day Sound level dBA

(exposure time) (TLV)
24 Hours 80
16 Hours 82
8 Hours 85
4 Hours 8/8
2 Hours 91
1 Hours 94
30 Minutes 97
15 Minutes 100
7.5 Minutes 103
3.75 Minutes 106
1.88 Minutes 109
0.94 Minutes 112
28.12 Seconds 115
14.05 Seconds 118
7.03 Seconds 121
3.52 Seconds 124
1.76 Seconds 127
0.88 Seconds 130
0.44 Seconds 133
0.22 Seconds 136
0.11 Seconds 139
In measuring above values, standard sound level meter or dosimeter is to be used arid
no exposure above 140 dB is permitted. The meter response should be kept slow. A dosimeter or
integrating sound level meter should be used for sounds above 120 dB. Exposure is to be limited
by noise source and not by administrative control. Method and formula to calculate the combined
effect of two or more periods of noise exposures of different levels are also suggested.
The TLVs in Table 12.3 should be used as guide in the control of noise exposure and
due to individual susceptibility. They should not be regarded as fine lines between the safe and
31
dangerous limits. The TLV cannot protect all workers from the adverse effects of noise exposure.
It can protect the median of the workers against slowly growing hearing loss.
It must be noted that a hearing conservation programme with audiometric testing is
necessary when workers are exposed to noise at or above the TLV levels.
Hearing impairment should be evaluated in terms of a worker's ability or inability to
hear speech under daily conditions. To hear sentences and to repeat them correctly indicates good
hearing ability. Workers working in a noisy environment should be regularly checked for any
detrimental effect on their hearing.
The critical factors to analyze noise exposures are
1. A weighted sound level.
2. Frequency composition or spectrum of the noise.
3. Duration and distribution of noise exposure during a typical workday.
dBA as a function of number of occur exposures per day.
A variety of sound measuring instruments are 1 available such as sound level meters,
octave band! analyzers, narrow band analyzers, sound survey meters, tape and graphic level
recorders, impact sound level meters and equipment for calibrating these instruments. Of these,
the first two provide ample information.
Thus by measuring high noise levels at work places and interrogating workers
regarding hearing difficulty if any and carrying out noise surveys, noise values are evaluated and
their effects are also determined by audiometric tests on workers. This suggests the necessary
steps for noise control. For assessment of measured values and control measures, statutory
provisions and IS are useful.
CONTROL METHODS
First step is to measure the quantity and quality of noise by sound level meter, octave band
analyser, sound dosimeter, audiometer or vibrometer. Control areas are the source, path and the
receiver. Control methods should be aimed at
1. Controlling noise at sources.
2. Precluding the propagation, amplification and reverberation of noise, (path)
3. Isolating the workers (receiver).
Based on this, the control methods for prevention and reduction of noise can be classified as
under:
32
Control at the Source :

Much noise can be eliminated by good engineering design. Wire mesh screens instead of
sheet metal panels reduce vibrating noisy surfaces. Lining of absorbent materials would also
reduce noise considerably. Machines can be mounted on rubber or other materials so that vibration
and noise will be reduced. Quitter machine with plastic or rubber parts, lubrication, tuning and
well maintenance give less noise.
Noise sources are of three types (1) Mechanical forces such as vibration of solid or liquid
surface (2) Aerodynamic forces such as turbulence in air or gaseous environment and (3)
Electrical forces such as electric arc or electric corona discharge.
Vibrations can be reduced by maintaining dynamic balance, diminishing the force causing
vibration, reducing rpm, increasing duration of work cycle.
Response of vibrating elements can be reduced by increasing their damping power and
improving fastening.
Liquid/gas flow rate should be reduced. Acoustic insulation on pipes can reduce 10 to 20
dBA.
Other measures include conversion of reciprocating movements into rotational movements,
replacement of sudden stoppage by gradual braking, helical teeth instead of straight teeth on spur
gears, prevention of impact of falling materials, installation of damping elements at points of
contact between machine and plant elements, proper design of fan blades, proper tool and cutting
33
speed in conformity with the material, proper design of air lines, ventilation ducts, gas mains and
liquid pipes to prevent noise propagation, providing rubber tyres on trucks, trolleys etc., reduction
in noise radiating surface area, machine guards of perforated sheet or wire mesh instead of plain
sheet, reducing transmission of mechanical vibrations, inserting rubber or felt pads between the
ends of the spring and the surfaces to which it is fastened, use of felt/cork as resilient mats or pads
under machine bases, using isolators between the machine' and its foundation, heavy machines
likely to cause impact noise should be rigidly mounted on massive concrete blocks having weights
many times greater than the weights of the supported machines, loose and flexible connections in
all pipes and conduits lending from vibrating machine, reduction in clamp sizes, use of sharp
cutting edges, wobble dies in forging, quitter dies, use of anti vibrating mounts, mufflers for
exhaust pipes and use of asphalt or tar for vibration damping.
Noisy machine may be placed in an enclosure or behind a barrier. A close-filling acoustic
(insulated) box serves good purpose. The inside of the enclosure can be lined with sound
absorbing materials. Bounding walls of enclosures should have adequate transmission loss to
provide proper sound insulation (IS:1950).
Noise propagation can be controlled by installing machines on vibration-damping bases,
using ant vibration mountings and separate installation of noisy machines.
Substitution of Less Noisy Processes:
Examples are : Welding instead of riveting, mechanical forging instead of drop forging,
grinding instead of chipping, belt drives instead of gears etc.
Other substitution includes hydraulic riveting instead of pneumatic riveting, grinding or
flame gouging (20 dB) instead of chipping (120 dB), mechanical ejectors instead of air ejectors,
slow acting process instead of high speed, hot working of metal instead of cold working, presses
instead of hammers, rotating shears instead of square shears, belt drives for gears, pressing
instead of rolling or forging etc.
Segregation and Isolation:
Noisy machines are removed to an area where few people work (segregation). Well
insulated partition and tightly closing doors may be installed surrounding the machines (isolation).
Other isolations include providing a soundproof booth for the operator, separate location of
noisy machines and processes from quiet ones -e.g. air compressor or diesel generator rooms
should be separate and away from library, training centre, conference room, medical centre etc.
Similarly office space should be segregated from the production area.
Equally noisy areas should be located together and segregated from quiet areas by buffer
zones that prod
34
Reflected sounds from ceiling and walls can be reduced by hanging isolators made of
rubber, felt or cork.
Enclosure of Noise Source :
Noise producing operation can be enclosed or baffled in such a manner as to prevent
dissipation of the noise into the surrounding area. Sound proofing by barrier structures.
Enclosures and barriers (partial or full, insulated or uninsulated, soundproof etc.) can
curtail sound waves and reduce noise. More surface area of enclosure will reduce more noise.
A partial reduction of noise in certain directions can be obtained by one or more sided
walls of barrier. Barrier wall facing the noise source should be coated with acoustic absorption
material on that side to reduce noise appreciably. The barrier/enclosure opening should face a wall
covered with sound absorbing material. If the top of the enclosure is open, sound absorbing
material should be applied on the ceiling overhead.
Double wall with 10 cm intervening space is more effective than single partition of the
same height.Porous materials (e.g. porous concrete) can absorb more sound than rigid material.
Sound Absorption and Silencers:
High frequency sounds can be absorbed by applying sound absorbents to ceilings and
walls in die form of acoustical tiles, plasters and blankets of porous materials such as glass wool.
Acoustic baffles can be hung from the ceilings.
Reflection of sound waves from surfaces can be prevented by using absorbents which are
usually porous materials that convert incident sound energy to heat. The amount of absorption
depends on frequency and angle of incidence and can be expressed by the absorption coefficient
which is die ratio of the absorbed energy to the incident energy.
A variety of absorbent materials are available for an acoustic engineer in the form of
vegetable or asbestos fibres, glass or mineral wool and hard but porous plaster having less
susceptibility to physical damage, fire resistance, light reflection, aesthetic qualities etc.
By sound absorbing walls, the operator near machine is not protected from noise, but the
other workers working behind the walls would be benefited, particularly, if there arc
reverberations 'in the building.
Application of acoustical material on ceiling and side walls, can reduce 3 to 8 dB noise
level and bring down the general reverberate noise level to make the noise conditions less
confusing.
Functional Sound Absorbers may be clustered as near the machines as possible. These
units may be suspended and- distributed in any pattern to obtain lower noise levels within the
35
machine shop. They are pyramidal or rectangular in shape. They use fibre glass as packing
material. They have higher noise reduction coefficients than conventional acoustic materials
placed directly on ceilings and walls. Noise reduction (absorption) coefficients are given in Table
12.9.
Noise Absorption Coefficients
Type Coefficient for 250-2000 c/s
1 Flat area
Fibre glass thickness
2.5 cm 0.7
5 cm 0.93
2 Functional Sound Absorber
(a) Pyramidal Shape
Fibre glass
Thickness
2.5 cm 0.91
5 cm 1.39
(b) Rectangular shape
Fibre glass
Thickness
2.5 cm 0.6
5 cm 1.18
Most of the construction materials (concrete, bricks, glass blocks etc.) absorbless than 2 %
of sound energy incident on their surfaces reflecting the rest 98% back to the room. Note that the
level of noise produced by a source located in the room is 5 to 15% higher in loudness than that
produced by the same source in open.
The application of sound absorbing materials with high coefficient of sound absorbency
for walls and ceilings permit the reflected noise to be diminished thereby reducing the total noise
level in workroom.
Another benefit from sound absorption is the possibility of easy aural checking on
operation of machinery because a direct sound from every apparatus or a machine tool installed in
the enclosure can be detected by the ear easily.
Ceilings and upper portion of walls 1.5 to 2.00 mtrs above floor levels should be lagged
(insulated) with sound absorbing material.
Best result can be achieved when at least 60% of total area of walls and ceilings are
insulated.
Mufflers or silencersare also one type of sound absorbers. The velocity .and pressure
of the air gets reduced when it is routed through devious paths in the muffler components.
36
The mufflers are of two types. In absorptive or dissipative type a lining of absorptive
material is provided and is protected by a perforated metal cover. Reactive mufflers are similar to
electrical filters and give good reduction over a narrow range of frequencies by reflecting the
sound energy.
The absorptive silencer has better performance at higher frequencies whereas the reactive
type at low frequencies. Sound reduction or insertion loss increases with length, thicker splitters
and reduced air gap.
Sound proofing :
Soundproofing includes construction or barrier structures such as walls or partitions, to
safeguard the workers from external noise.
Sound proofing utilises the principle of reflection of sound i.e. the greater part of sound
energy incident on a surface is reflected and only it's smallest part (l/ 1000 or less) penetrates
through it.
In fact an ideal sound proof structure should not let noise into an enclosure it safeguards.
More heavy (massive) the barrier-structure, the more soundproof it is. The sound proofness of
barrier surface is determined by its acoustic in entrance. It is more sound proof to high frequency
sound waves than to sound waves of low frequencies. Therefore the knowledge of the
characteristics of sound is very important in sound proofing. In sound proofing following factors
are required to be considered for obtaining desired results of sound proofing.
1. Intensity of sound.
2. Frequency of sound.
3. Co-efficient of absorbency of material used for sound barriers.
A higher co-efficient of sound absorbency is preferred to that of low coefficient in order to
get good noise attenuation.
Adequate care should be taken to ensure that all openings in the noise enclosure should be
properly sealed over entire area to prevent any leakage of unwanted sound through such openings.
Doors and windows should be properly fit to match the perimeter and window frames receiving
glass panels should be adequately shut. All such measures should be essential for efficient
isolation of room with noise producing processes.
Ear Protection :
37
Ear plugs, ear muffs and helmets can be used by the exposed person for attenuation of
noise to a safe level. Where noise levels are very high, better attenuation can be obtained by using
both ear plugs and ear muffs.
These devices are a preventive measure, Ear plugs or
defenders (Fig. 12.10) are the simplest, cheap and convenient
devices used to reduce the harmful effect of noise. They are
conical shaped plugs of various materials for insertion into the
ear to reduce perception of noise, particularly impulse noise.
They can be soft or rigid. Rigid plugs are made of rubber or
plastic materials while soft plugs are of cotton cloth or of very
fine glass cloth impregnated with oil or a waxy mastic. Plugs
do not prevent the wearer from wearing headpieces or goggles. However, during long use, ear
defenders may cause discomfort and irritation in the ear, particularly
at elevated temperatures. Application of multi-use ear defenders
requires special medical supervision.
Earmuffs (Fig. 12.11) are large pads of rubber or similar
material attached to a band or strap and worn about the head for
reducing the effect of noise on factory workers (during impact
riveting, straightening, chopping and the like operations). The device
is light, convenient to wear and effective against noise of high
frequency which is exclusively harmful to the human ear
Head-niece or helmet is an effective device against the effect
of noise levels exceeding 120 dB where the above protective devices are ineffective. High level of
noise affects the skull causing the bones to vibrate. Such vibration adversely affects the auricular
nerves and the brain function. Helmets provide adequate protection of the skull, particularly its
paratideic region.
The efficiency of ear protectors is expressed by the degree of attenuation of the noise
penetrating into the external ear canal. Noise attenuation by ear protectors is limited by bone
conduction for high frequencies and by skin resistance to low ones. Earmuffs offer higher
attenuation than earplugs at the same frequency. Hearing protector's attenuation capacity is known
as Noise Reduction Rating (NRR) and must be printed on the package.
Hearing protective devices are classified in four groups:
1. Enclosures (entire head) e.g. helmet.
38
2. Aural inserts e.g. earplugs - formable, custommoulded & remoulded type.

3. Super aural protectors - A soft rubber like material is held and inserted in the
external ear canal. Band tension holds it inside (ear plugs).
4. Circum aural protectors e.g. earmuffs. Two cups are held by a spring-loaded
suspension assembly or headband.
Rotation of personnel :
Since the effects of noise on hearing depend partly on the length of exposure, the bad
effects may be reduced by removing the worker from the noisy environment wherever audiograms
indicate a hearing loss.
There rotation of noisy job or worker or dividing the noise period among one or more
workers to reduce their exposure time is explained. Rotation of personnel or changing their work
place should be done by taking their union in confidence so as to avoid any labour problem. As
this is for the purpose of safety and health, normally they should co-operate.
Active Control (Antipas) System:

Sound waves are intervened and obstructed by similar powerful sound waves to nullify
their effect. Thus 'sound against sound' is the principle employed here. Reference microphone,
error sensor and active control unit are used. Reference microphone detects the sound coming
from source and supplies information to controller unit. This control unit with the aid of digital
signal processing system, calculates the drive signals. Loudspeakers use these drive signals to give
antiphase sound. Upper and bottom peaks of sound waves (cycles) are flattened. Bottom curves of
drive (control) sound waves are thrown on the top curves of the sound waves to be absorbed. This
modern system is useful to control noise from diesel engine, gas turbine, aero plane, submarine
and compressors.
Most of the practical aspects to control noise at source are given as under:
1. Substitution of non percussion tools and processes for pressure ones e.g. use of hydraulic
drives instead of (Mechanical) cam or eccentric drives and straightening instead of forged
rolling (Avoid roller noise)etc.
2. Use of rotational, preferably uniform motion instead of reciprocating motions,
3. Use of vee-belt transmission instead of chain or gear transmission,
4. Use of lubricant baths for meshed gears and forced feed lubrication for articulated joints
to minimize wear and noise caused by friction.
5. Use of lining/elastic inserts in joints to avoid or minimize transfer of vibrations from one
part to another.
39
6. Use of rubber lining for insides of metal containers and crates to be used for material
handling.
7. Use of plastic and mute materials for metal or combination of metal parts with plastic.
8. Keeping fans and engines off when not in use.
9. Good regular maintenance by tightening loose guards and panels.
10. Oiling, greasing and replacement or adjustment of worn, loose or unbalanced parts of
machines.
11. Reduction of forces and speeds.
12. Use of vibration dampers.
13. Reduction in radiating area and overall size.
14. Use of flexible mountings and couplings.
15. Use of resilient flooring and sound absorptive material on walls and ceiling.
16. Reduction in pressure, turbulence and increase in the cross section of the streams.
17. Elimination of air and steam leaks.
18. Increase in the distance from the noise source.
Care at the planning stage is more useful. Vendors and suppliers should be asked to
provide information on the noise levels of currently available equipment. The inclusion of noise
specifications in purchase orders is useful to get quiet equipment. If purchasers will insist, the
designers will pay more attention on noise control.
Remote control of noisy equipment or its isolation in a separate room can control the
exposure.
Administrative controls such as providing ear protection to workers, rotation of Jobs or
workers in order to reduce their exposure times, transferring workers from high noise location to
lower one for some period, scheduling of machine operating time so as to reduce the radiating
time and also the number of workers exposed to noise, transferring more susceptible workers to
less noisy area or dividing work at high noise level or extended period among two or more
workers, if it may not cause any personnel problems.
Implementation of the legal standards and purchase agreements is also essential to reduce
noise levels in all work places.
Despite of all efforts, periodical audiometric tests of workers working in high noise areas
must be carried out and their records maintained.
7.1 Industrial Lighting & Illumination
40
PURPOSE AND BENEFITS OF GOOD LIGHTING
Purpose and Advantages of Good lighting:

Purpose, need, advantages or benefits of good lighting are many. There are three groups of
working conditions : (1) Physical or environmental i.e. lighting, ventilation, noise, atmospheric
conditions etc. (2) Relating to time i.e. hours-of work, rest pauses etc. and (3) Relating to social
situation within which an individual works. The lighting influences all the three categories and is
an important working condition not only in factories but at all work places. Therefore it should be
effective and not poor.
The purpose of light is most important, because without light the things have no appearance, no
colour, no shape and no perspective. Light and colour affect human efficiency, accident-possibility
and his general well-being, morale and fatigue. Medical research has proved that a sufficient
amount of light is needed for the healthy physiological functioning of human organism. Light
regulates various physiological functions within the body and poor light adversely affect the
health. .
Benefits of good lighting are also direct and manifold, because, it affects our sight as well as the
object to be seen. It helps in two ways, by better seeing for work performance and better
environment. Better seeing condition causes better discrimination, concentration, alertness and
less fatigue. Better discrimination causes less spoilage and quick fault detection. Greater
concentration causes better work. Less fatigue allows greater output and greater production. Better
environment produces better morale,. comfort, supervision and interest. All these factors cause
better ability to perceive objects and keep a clear view of all details, of better conservation of
energy and material, reduced labour turnover, better housekeeping, more production with less
waste of material, energy and labour, prevention of eye strain and accidents, increased accuracy,
efficiency, productivity, speed of seeing and reading and improvement in health and safety of
work-people. It is most useful to elderly people.
PURPOSE OF LIGHT
Lighting is primarily provided for people, not for the buildings or roadways or objects
illuminated. Peoples‘ needs should determine what kind of lighting is provided. Meeting those
needs is important because a good visual environment is critical to health, productivity, comfort,
aesthetics, safety, communication and mood. Lighting designers have an opportunity and
responsibility to support and improve the quality of life for everyone.
41
Recently, lighting has become a subject of much greater interest than for many years. This is for
three reasons:
 The ageing of the population in many developed countries. As the human visual system
ages, its capabilities deteriorate. Lighting can be used to help older people to see well and
hence to live active lives for longer.
 The need to reduce carbon emissions to minimize climate change. Lighting is a major user
of electricity and the generation of electricity is a major source of carbon emissions. This
means that lighting is under pressure to do more with less.
 The recognition that exposure to light can have significant non-visual effects on human
health. The potential for exposure to light to cause tissue damage has been known for
many years, but now its influence on the human circadian system, which operates at a very
basic level of human physiology, is also appreciated. The Health & Performance section
includes a detailed conversation regarding the circadian system.
Taken together, these developments mean that the number of factors that should be considered
when determining if a lighting installation is fit for purpose has increased. However, one factor
that will almost always need to be considered is how well the lighting enables people to see. This
is the topic of this chapter
42
The Benefits of Good Lighting

Did you know that approximately 80% of all information reaches us through our visual link
withthe environment?
This fact sheet is aimed at business, but the information can be used in the home.
The quality of light affects people in many different ways. For example, office worker satisfaction
and productivity can be positively affected by well-designed illumination. Building owners and
managers have the potential to add value, reduce costs and enhance performance through the
application of good lighting. People are attracted to well-lit public facilities, shopping areas and
parks. Good lighting enhances the mood and desirability of these spaces, and it contributes greatly
to people's sense of wellbeing.
Even though each lighting situation is different the basic elements are to provide a safe,
comfortable and pleasant visual environment that is easy to maintain and is as efficient and cost-
effective as possible.
What is involved in good lighting design?
It is vital to consider the effect different lamps (or globes) and fittings will have on the area and
objects you are illuminating. Differences in colour temperature and colour rendering capabilities
can change the colour appearance of objects quite dramatically. A qualified lighting designer can
help you to decide the best application for your business ?choose one with experience in the
specific lighting applications that relate to your business.
Then consider how objects, people and the interior space as a whole is lit. For example, where it is
important to achieve true colour rendition for clothing, cosmetics and other instances, low voltage
lamps are used with metal halide lamps. Metal halides are used for the punch and the low voltage
are used for the color rendition. Well-designed lighting helps:
direct customers to displays and products highlight areas of service ensure true colors in spaces
such as change rooms etc.show products and staff in their best light?
The rest of the interior is then considered for ambient lighting, color warmth, wall or floor surface
characteristics, objects and structural features.
Ceiling height, color of walls, surface texture, daylight, size of the space, and energy usage are
also considered.
It is important to provide a reasonable budget. Ineffective lighting results when the design
specifications are altered in the interests of cost savings.
Common mistakes:Poor lighting design may be immediately recognised or subtly felt over time,
usually resulting in visual fatigue. For example:
43
not having sufficient light on the tasktoo great a contrast between the task and its background (e.g.
working on a drawing board using a local light while the rest of the room is in darkness)glare due
to luminaries, windows or other sources, seen either directly or by reflection (e.g. the mirror effect
of display windows or showroom glass means that customers can't see the products)
flicker from lamps.
Imitating lighting from other establishments, unless the purpose, installation, natural light etc. are
the same, may not give you the desired effect.
Lighting designers For critical and demanding projects, professional lighting designers should be
considered. Their in-depth knowledge of the equipment and marketplace, as well as the techniques
of theatrical and architectural lighting, allows them to offer the most appropriate and cost-effective
solutions.
BENEFITS OF GOOD LIGHTING
New studies show the quality of light affects people in many different ways. For example, office
worker satisfaction and productivity can be positively affected by well-designed illumination.
Building owners and managers have the potential to add value, reduce costs and enhance
performance through the application of good lighting. It's no secret that people are attracted to
well-lighted public facilities, commercial shopping districts and parks.
Good lighting enhances the mood and desirability of these spaces. It contributes greatly to people's
sense of well-being. Many of the current efforts to attract people to downtown areas after dark are
being spearheaded by IALD lighting designers.
Through cost-control techniques, IALD lighting designers help clients realize improved energy
efficiency and reduce lighting costs. The initial investment in a professional lighting designer is
offset by a reduction of construction and operating costs.
An IALD lighting designer will add value to any project, whether large or small, interior or
exterior, public or private.
For greater details, see the Why Use a Lighting Designer
44
Types of Light Sources:

It is interesting to note that electric lamps produce more heat than light as follows:
Type of Lamp Heat (%) Light (%)
Incandescent 97 3
Fluorescent 90 10
Sodium Vapor 80 20
Other types and lamp data are given in Table
Lamp Data: There are following types of Artificial Lamps
Type of Lamp Luminous Efficiency Bulb life Hours Colour Rendering

lumens / watt Index
Incandescent 12-22 1000 100
GLS or PAR 10-13
Tungsten-filament 13-18 10000 50-69
Tungsten- 20-27
2000 70-84
halogen (T-H) 14-22
Fluorescent 75-95 5000 55-75
Tube 50 85-95
White Tubes 62-66 5000 56
Triphosphor 69-70 7500 85
Mercury Vapour 3000
Lamps High Pressure 55 5000 25
(HPMV) with
fluorescence 35-50 6000 45
MBI 63-72 7500 70-84
Sodium
Vapour 110-140 4000 20
Lamps
Low
Pressure
(SOX)
High
Pressure 95 8000 45
Metal halide lamps 75-125 3000 to 20,000
Apart from above factors, the selection of light source also depends on -
1. Type of application.
2. Atmospheric conditions of industrial interiors and/or exteriors.
3. Surface features.
4. Initial outlay.
5. Running cost.
6. Ease of maintenance.
Types of lamps are:
45
Incandescent filament lamps including tungsten and halogen are simple, compact, versatile and
suitable where artificial lighting is occasionally required, space is restricted and a powerful
concentrated beam of light is required. Short life and low efficiency are their disadvantages.
Halogen lamps are mainly used for terrain lighting and as automobile head (driving) lights.
Fluorescent lamps or tubes are good for medium height ceilings and general uniform lighting
whereas for highways HPMV lamps or their combination with tungsten filament lamps are used.
Generally fluorescent tubes are preferred because of their higher efficiency, long life, low
brightness, minimum glare and shadows, colour rendering close to daylight, less heat and linear
form. They are mostly required for regular artificial light, good colour rendering effect and
increasing illumination level.
Mercury vapour lamps, colour corrected, are more suitable and economical in a large, lofty
building (viz. steelworks) having high height and also for exterior lighting of storage areas, clocks,
roadways etc. If colour rendering is not important, ordinary uncorrected mercury lamps may be
used.
Sodium vapour lamps are seldom suitable for interior lighting due to their poor colour
rendering properties. Low-pressure sodium lamps are used for terrain and road lighting and also in
high halls where colour rendering is not demanded. High pressure sodium lamps are also
developed to improve colour rendering.
High-pressure sodium lamps have efficacies that range from 77 lumens per watt to 140
lumens per watt, depending on size. The colour rendition is a distinct orange. Warm-up time for
high-pressure sodium lamps is from 3 minutes to 4 minutes. Restrike time is less than I minute,
and instant restrike devices are offered for 50-watt to ISO-watt high-pressure sodium lamps.
Power factors range from 40 percent to 99 percent depending on the heavy type and the age of the
lamp. Lamp life is 24,000 hours.
Metal halide lamps are similar in construction to mercury vapour lamps. The difference is
that metal halides are added to the mercury and argon in the arc tube. The efficacies are improved
to the range of 75 lumens per watt to 125 lumens per watt, excluding ballast loss. The colour
rendering is quite white and is usually superior to the phosphor-coated mercury vapour lamp. The
warm-up time for metal halide lamps is 2 minutes to 4 minutes, and re-strike time varies from 5
minutes to 15 minutes, depending on the type. Power factors in the range of 90 percent can be
obtained. Lamp life varies from 3000 hours to 20,000 hours. Metal halide lamps have more rapid
lumen depreciation than do mercury vapour lamps and have high surface operating temperature
46
which must be. considered before application in classified locations. The lamp life and lumen
output are affected by burning position.
Compared with incandescent lamps, mercury vapour lamps offer the advantages of longer
average life and higher lumen output; however, with the advent of metal halide and high pressure
sodium lamps, the mercury vapour lamp is considered by many to be obsolete, except in existing
plants .having similar lamps. The mercury vapour lamp is considered obsolete because of its rapid
lumen depreciation and low lumens-per-watt characteristics.
Mercury vapour, or mercury-halide lamps, tubular fluorescent and sodium vapour lamps are
generally called 'electric discharge lamps' as electric current is passed through certain gases to
produce emission of light.
From above types the mercury vapour lamps take up to 6 minutes and sodium vapour lamps take
up to 20 minutes to reach their maximum output, the actual time will be determined by the wattage
of the lamps. In the event of a power failure, restoration of power will immediately start
machinery, while discharge lamps would take 'warming time' to relight. This time gap may cause
accident due to insufficient lighting. To avoid such situation emergency lighting is a must which
will glow during power absence.
General Principles of Good Lighting:
General Principles or requirements of good lighting are as follows :
1. Adequate illumination. 6. Appropriate colour contrast.
2. Avoidance of glare. 7. Colour effect and
3. Avoidance of shadow. 8. Avoidance of flicker and
4. Uniform lighting. stroboscopic effect.
5. Appropriate contrast.
These are briefly explained below :
Adequate Illumination :
Adequate, rational or good illumination needs sufficient quantity of illumination necessary for
avoiding discomfort to the worker and undue strain on eyes-
The quantity or intensity of illumination is given by luminous flux, luminous intensity,
illuminance, luminance and reflection factor as explained in the foregoing part 3.1. Its requirement
varies from place to place, person to person and with the age of person also. Therefore by
experiments, standards of illumination are recommended for a variety of places and jobs to have
sufficient quantity of light for better work performance. Such statutory standards and Indian
standards are separately given in part 4 of this Chapter.
47
Visual acuity (sharpness of vision) increases with light

intensity and is about equal to daylight acuity as 1000 lux is
approached. However, this degree of acuity is seldom required and it
is apparent that the desired amount of lighting will vary with the
amount of detail required in the work. For example, for very fine
work like distinguishing black thread on black cloth, intensity of
2000 lux is required but for exit road, car parking, storage area 20 lux
is required.
Although individuals differ in amount of light they find most desirable, 65% of the subjects of one
study judged intensity between 10 to 30 foot-candles or 100 to 300 lux, the most comfortable for
reading.
The quality of illumination depends on three factors - diffusion, distribution and colour
value. Regardless of the quantity of illumination, its effects may be impaired because of the
unevenness, the glare or the faulty direction of the light.
Diffusion is the breaking up of a beam of light and the spreading of its rays in many directions by
a surface. It is the process of reflection of -light by a reflecting surface or of transmission of light
through a translucent material.
Thus adequate illumination requires sufficient quantity and good quality of light necessary for the
work.
Glare :
Glare is the condition in which brightness or the contrast of brightness interferes with
vision.Glare is produced by excessive light stimuli i.e. excessive luminance in the field of vision
which disturbs the adaptation process of retina.Sometimes glare impairs the visual function, of the
eye and reduces visual performance.
Glare causes discomfort, annoyance, eye fatigue and impairment of or interference with vision. It
is produced by excessive light stimuli i.e. too much light which affects the adaptation process of
the retina. It can be considered at three levels.(types)- (1) Direct or disability glare (2) Discomfort
glare and (3) Indirect or reflected glare.
Direct or disability glare comes directly from the light source to the eye and impairs the ability to
see clearly (e.g. dash on upward headlight of a car). This is due to excessive light focused on the
eye and scattering of light inside the eye. It depends for its effects upon the position of the light
source in the field of view and on the contrast in brightness between the light source and its
background. It can be avoided by:
48
1. Provide diffuser over the lamp or reflector (screen) with

minimum reflecting angle 20° below the horizontal, (dipper)
2. Reducing the brightness of the light source (e.g. by
enclosing the lamp in bowl reflector).
3. Reducing the area of high brightness (e.g. by installing
louvers below the light source).
4. Increasing the angle between the' source of glare and the
line of vision i.e. by increasing the mounting height.
5. Decreasing the source of glare so as to lessen the contrast.
Discomfort glare is due to liberal (less) or bright (more) light. It
causes visual discomfort without necessarily impairing the ability to see and may occur from
unscreened windows in bright sunlight or when over-bright or unshaded lamps in the workroom
are too strong in brightness for the workroom environment.
Reflected glare is glare that comes to the eyes as glint (flash) or reflection of the light source from
some polished or shining surface. It is caused by a mirror image of the bright light sources
reflected from shiny or wet workplaces such as glass or plated metal. These reflections distract or
distort attention, make important detail difficult to see and reduce contrast or cause acute
discomfort. It can be avoided by:
1. Changing the shining finish by matt finish.
2. Changing the task position or its surrounding.
3. Using light source of low brightness or providing lamp shade.
4. Arranging the geometry of the installation so that there is no glint at the particular
viewing direction, e.g. increasing the source height.
5. Providing supplementary lighting.
6. Painting walls and ceiling with light colour so that surrounding becomes bright.
49
Increasing brightness to reduce relative brightness of the glare.

Rule 32 of the Gujarat Factories Rules prescribes, for
the purpose of prevention of glare, that where any lighting
source is less than 5 mt above floor level, no part of that light
having brightness greater than 5 lamberts (1.5 foot candles=16
lux) shall be visible to persons normally working within 30 mt
from that source, except where the angle of elevation from the
eye to that source exceeds 20°. It is also suggested that local
light (lamp on the job) shall be provided with opaque shade or
effective screen to prevent glare in the eyes of workers working
nearby.
Values of limiting glare index along with average illumination
lux value are given in IS:6665 and Appendix D, Part 4 of National Electric Code.
Shadow :
Shadow affects the amount of illumination and is caused not by poor lighting but - by
fixing light sources too wide apart or in wrong positions so that light is obstructed by some object.
Light (faint) shadow may be allowed but dark (dense) shadow that conceals hazard or indicates
wrong thing is not desirable, as it may cause accident.
Shadow on staircase, near door for entry or exit, near tool rack or on the work (job) table is not at
all desirable and must be removed by providing extra or local light or shifting the light source or
the object causing shadow.
Harsh shadows should be avoided, but some shadow effect may be desirable from the general
lighting system to make more noticeable the depth and form o~ object. There are few specific
visual tasks where clearly defined shadows improve visibility and such effects should be provided
by supplementary lighting equipment arranged for the particular task.
Uniform Lighting :
The human eye can clearly perceive differences in luminance of over 50%. It takes time to adopt
sudden variation in the intensity of lighting, particularly from higher to lower intensity. Uniform
distribution of lighting is desirable. Distribution of light requires two problems to solve (1)
uniformity of
illummation and (2) elimination of shadows.
In uniform lighting, the distribution of light with a maximum and minimum illumination at any
point should not be more than one-sixth above or below the average level in the area. Indirect
50
lighting is the best method for producing uniform illummation. Here all the usable light is
reflected light, high points of light from the bulb striking the eye directly are out of the visual
field. The disadvantage of indirect light is its cost, since considerable light is lost through
absorption. However its benefit is more worth than its extra cost.
Contrast:
The ability to see detail depends upon the contrast between the detail and its background.
The greater the contrast, difference in luminance, the more readily the seeing task is performed.
The eyes function most comfortably and efficiently when the luminance within the remainder of
the environment is relatively uniform. Therefore all luminance in the field of view should be
carefully controlled. 15:3646 (Part I & II) provide details for this. Reflectance should be
maintained as near as practical to recommended values (For ceiling 80 to 90%, for walls 40 to
60%, for desks and bench tops, machine and equipment 25 to 45% and for floors not less than
20%). High reflectance surfaces are desirable to provide the recommended luminance relationship
and high utilisation of light. They improve the appearance of the work place. It is also desirable
that the background should be slightly darker or paler than the seeing task. Too much contrast is
not desirable.
The contrast recognises the object easily and increases visual performance. If the
difference between the object (job or seeing task) and its background is not noticeable, it is
difficult to work. A black machine in black background (darkness) is difficult to notice. There
should be a minimum contrast between the visual target detail and its background.
The differences in luminance of visual task, its immediate background and environment
should not exceed certain maximum values i.e. a relationship of 10: 3:1 for normal tasks and 10 : 5
: I and 10 : 10 : I for precision work.
3.2.6 Colour Contrast:
Eye sees an object by the light it reflects and distinguishes its details mainly by colour contrast.
Thus, in addition to luminance contrast, colour contrast may be influenced by the choice of the
colour of light. The choice of the correct colour of light depends on the task to be performed and
the requirements to be met by vision. It may be noted that there must not only be adequate
illumination to see an object clearly, but also the object must be visible in its surroundings. It must
have moderate colour contrast. The colour approximating to white will give better colour
rendering and light yield. The colour approximating to red will give low Quality colour rendering
but the light will create an emotional atmosphere.
A well painted machine inspires a feeling of personal pride and proper maintenance is encouraged.
51
Colour Effect:
It refers to the appearance of coloured objects when illuminated by a particular light source. It is
the property of light which facilitates the perception of surface colours and depends on the spectral
composition of the light. For example, red surface will appear red only, if the light falling on it
contains red, but it will appear brown under the yellow of sodium street lighting.
The maximum value of the index is 100 and at this value there is no shift, i.e. the colour rendering
is perfect. For example, an incandescent tungsten filament lamp has a colour rendering index of
100, fluorescent tubes between 55 to 95, mercury vapour lamps approximately 45 and low-
pressure sodium vapour lamps less than 25. Where colour discrimination and colour matching are
a part of the work process, the light source selected should have the desired colour rendering
properties. .
Flicker and Stroboscopic Effect:
All lamps working on alternating current give light which pulsates at twice the supply frequency.
This type of discontinuous light of almost all frequencies can produce (fleshing rapidly to show
moving object stationary) effect, in which a rotating or reciprocating object can appear to be
stationary, or moving slowly, or even appear to be rotating in the opposite direction etc. This false
belief can cause accidents in the industrial situation. It is a real hazard in the presence of moving
machinery. High intensity discharge lamps and fluorescent tubes have some 'flicker content in
their light output at twice the mains frequency. The steps to diminish the stroboscopic effect are:
1. Light the moving object with lamps fed from two different out of phase a.c. supplies, or
from two or three phases of a three-phase supply or lead lag luminaries.
2. Select a lamp with a low flicker characteristic, e.g. a fluorescent coated high-intensity
discharge tungsten filament (GLS) lamp or ordinary filament lamp.
3. Add a local GLS lamp to augment the general lighting.
4. Use GLS or tungsten halogen lamps fed from a direct current (d.c.) supply.
5. Use the common twin-tube circuit.
RECOMMENDED STANDARDS OF ILLUMINATION
It is not a simple matter to specify suitable intensity levels based upon sound reasoning. As
there is no fixed threshold level of illumination below which a visual task is greatly impeded,
some compromise has to be made between an ideal level and adequate level. Generally a
recommended level is arrived at after careful consideration of eyesight, the visual task, the
environment and the economy involved. Any specification is therefore, opens to controversy, the
recommended level, however, serves chiefly as a guide to good practices. Standard illumination
benefits people with normal sight and helps to faulty vision. It can be achieved through a
52
combined usage of day lighting and artificial lighting and maintained by proper cleaning and re-
lamping etc.
Importance of illumination level:
Illumination, noise, temperature and other environmental conditions such as chemical
exposure and vibration play an important role in the ability of humans to interact effectively with
equipment or a system.
Lighting is an important element in the design of any system as improper lighting levels
may cause system elements to be seen incorrectly or not seen at all. Improper-illumination level
may result in the eye strain, muscle fatigue, headache or accidents.
The adequacy of lighting depends upon the type of lighting provided, its quality and
quantity, the age of the worker and visual requirements of the task or system.
Illuminance ranges
Circumstances may be significantly different for difficult interiors used for the same
application or different conditions for the same kind of activity. A range of illuminance is
recommended for each type of interior or activity. Each range consists of three successive steps of
the recommended scale of illuminance. Middle value of each range, represents the recommended
service illuminance that would be used unless one or more of the factors mentioned below apply.
Higher value of the range should be used when:
1. Unusually low reflectance or contrasts are present in the task.
2. Errors are costly to rectify.
3. Visual work is critical.
4. Accuracy or higher productivity is of great importance.
5. The visual capacity of the worker makes it necessary.
The lower value of the range should be used when:
1. Reflectance or contrasts are unusually high.
2. Speed and accuracy is not important.
3. The task is executed only occasionally.
Depending upon importance of the work, illumination level must be according to the
standards mentioned below.
Statutory Provisions :
Section-17 of the Factories Act requires sufficient and suitable lighting, natural, artificial
or both and prevention of direct or reflected glare and shadows causing eye strain or risk of
accident.Rules 30 to 34 of the Gujarat Factories Rules prescribe further details. General level of 30
meters candles (30 lux) or more at the horizontal level of 91.4 cm (3 feet) above the floor is
prescribed. Where the light source is above 7.6 meter height from the floor, at least 10 meters
candle minimum illumination should be available. It should be at least 30 meters-candles (30 lux)
where the work is actually going on. Walkways require at least 5 meter candles (5 lux) at floor
level. Rule 32 describes details to prevent glare, (see Part 3.2.2)
Minimum illumination levels prescribed by Rule 35 of the Maharashtra Factories Rules is
given in Table Minimum Illumination Levels u/r 35 MFR
S. No. Area / Workroom Minimum Intensity
of Illumination in
Lux
53
Stock-yards : main entrance and exit roads, cat-walks of 20

1
outdoor plants, coal unloading and storage areas.
Passage-ways, corridors and stairways, warehouses, stock'
2 rooms for large & bulky materials, platforms of outdoor 50
plants, basements.
Engine and boiler rooms, passengers and freight
elevators, conveyor crating & boxing departments,
3 100
storerooms for medium and fine materials, locker rooms,
toilet and wash-rooms.
Where discrimination of detail is not essential (e.g. handling
4 of material of coarse nature, rough sorting, handling coal or 50
ashes etc.)
Where slight discrimination of detail is essential [e.g.
production of semi-finished iron and steel products, rough ; 100
5
assembling, opening, carding drawing, spinning (ordinary)
counts of cotton].
Where moderate discrimination of details is essential (e.g.
medium assembling, rough bench work and machine work,
6 inspection and testing of products, canning, sawing, sewing 200
of light coloured textiles and leather products, weaving light
thread, warping, spinning fine counts).
Where close discrimination of S detail is essential (e.g.
medium bench and machine work, fine testing, .flour
7 grading, leather finishing, weaving cotton goods or light 300
coloured woollen goods, welding sub-assembly, drilling,
rivetting, book-binding and folding ).
Where discrimination of fine detail is involved under a fair
degree of contrast for long periods of time (e.g. fine
8 assembling, fine bench and machine work, fine inspection, 500
fine polishing and bevelling of glass, fine wood working,
weaving dark coloured woollen goods).
Where discrimination of extremely fine detail is involved
under conditions of extremely poor contrast for long periods
of time. (e.g. extra fine assembling, extra fine inspection,
9 1000
jewellery and watch manufacturing, grading and working of
tobacco products, dark cloth hand tailoring, final perching in
dye works, make-up and proof-reading in printing plants).
Indian Lighting Standards :
SP 32 a Handbook on functional requirements of industrial buildings (lighting &
ventilation) may be referred.
Indian Standards on Lighting
S. Area / Workroom Minimum Intensity of
No. Illumination in Lux
1 Industrial lighting 6665
2 Day lighting of factory buildings 6060
54
3 Day lighting of buildings 2440

4 Principles of good lighting and aspects of design (Part I) 3646
5 Schedule for values of illumination and glare index (Part II) 3646
6 Calculation of coefficient of utilization by the BZ method 3646
(Part III)
7 Electro technical vocabulary Part 16 1885
8 Flameproof electric lighting fittings 2206
9 Dust – proof electric lighting fittings 4012
10 Dust-tight electric lighting fittings 4013
11 Miners‘ Cap-lamps 2596
Out of 63 types of industrial buildings and processes, only 15 are selected from Table-2 of
15:6665 and given in Table 9.4 as a sample recommendation.
Table: Recommended Values of Illumination (IS : 6665)

S. Industrial buildings and processes Average Illumination
No. Lux
1 General Factory Areas:
a Canteens 150
b Cloakrooms, Entrances, Corridors & Stairs 100
2 Factory Outdoor Areas:
Stockyards, main entrances, exit roads, car parking, internal 20
factory roads
3 Assembly Shops:
a Rough, work, for example, frame assembly, assembly 150
of heavy machinery
b Medium work, for example, machined-part, 300
engine assembly, vehicle body assembly
c Fine work, for example, radio and telephone 700
equipment, typewriter and office machinery assembly.
d Very fine work, for example/assembly of very small 1500
precision mechanism, instruments
4 Boot and Shoe Factories :
A Sorting and grading, Cutting table and presses 1000
stitching
B Clicking and closing, preparatory operations, 700
bottom stock preparation, lasting and bottoming,
finishing and shoe rooms
5 Canning and Preserving Factories :
a Inspection of beans, rice, barley etc. 450
b Preparation : kettle areas, mechanical cleaning, 300
dicing, trimming, high speed labelling lines
c Cam-led and bottled goods :Rotors. 200
d Can inspection 450
6 Chemical Works:
a Hand furnaces, boiling tanks, stationery dryers, 150
stationery crystallisers, dryers, filtration inechanical
bleaching, percolators, or gravity mechanical
evaporators, plants, crystallising, extractors, nitrators,
55
electrolytic cells.
b Controls, gauges, valves, etc. 100
c Control rooms: Vertical control panels & Control 200 to 300
desks
7 Die Sinking :
a General 300
b Fine 1000
8 Engraving :
a Hand 1000
b Machine (see Die Sinking) -
9 Foundaries
a Charging floors, tumbling, cleaning, pouring, shaking 150
out, rough moulding and rough core making.
b Fine moulding and making inspection. 300
10 Inspection Shops (Engineering):
a Rough work, for example, counting, rough checking 150
of stock parts etc.
b Medium work, for example, 'Go' and 'No-Go' 300
gauges, sub-assemblies.
c Fine work, for example, radio and telecommunication 700
equipment, calibrated scales, precision
mechanisms, instruments.
d Very fine work, for example, gauging and inspection 1500
of small intricate parts.
e Minute work for example, very small- instruments 3000
11 Iron and Steel Works :
a Marshalling and outdoor stockyards 10 to 20
b Stairs, gangways, basements, quarries, loading docks, 100
slab yards, melting shops, ingot stripping pits, blast
furnace working areas, picking and cleaning lines
mechanical plants, pump houses.
c Mould preparation, rolling and wise mills, mill motor 150
rooms, power and blower houses.
d Slab inspection and conditioning, cold strip mills, 200
sheet and plate finishing, tinning, galvanizing,
machine and roll shops.
e Plate inspection 300
f Tinplate inspection Special Lighting
12 Laboratories and Test Rooms :
a General laboratories, balance rooms 300
b Electrical and instrument laboratories 450
13 Machine and Fitting Shops :
a Rough bench and machine work. 150
b Medium bench and machine work, ordinary automatic 300
machines, rough grinding, medium buffing and
polishing.
c Fine bench and machine work, fine automatic 700
machines, medium grinding, fine buffing and
polishing.
56
14 Paint shops and Spraying Booths :

a Dipping, firing, rough spraying. 150
b Rubbing, ordinary painting, spraying and finishing. 300
c Fine painting, spraying and finishing. 450
d Retouching and matching. 700
15 Sheet Metal Works :
a Benchwork, scribing, pressing, punching, shearing, 200
stamping, spinning, folding.
b Sheet inspection. Special Lighting
ILO Recommendation:
As given by ILO Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety, some recommended
illuminance are given in Table.
Table: ILO Recommendation
Class of Visual Recommended
Typical Examples
Task Illuminance (Lux)
1. Exceptionally Inspection of minute work, jewellery, watch-
2400 or more
difficult tasks making, hosiery, knitwear.
Extra-fine bench and machine work, tool & die
b. Very difficult making examining of dark goods, dye works - 1600
final perching.
Clothing trade-inspection, hand tailoring, grading
and matching dark leather, dye-works-colour 1200
matching.
Fine bench and machine work, extra fine
3. Difficult painting, spraying, matching, dye works- 800
reception, grey perching.
4. Normal range
Office work with poor contrast, drawing office,
of task and work- 600
fine painting, proof-reading, computer rooms.
places
5. Moderately Medium bench and machine work, typing, filing,
400
difficult reading, writing, wood working, steel fabrication.
Chalkboards & charts, pharma-stores, bottling &
6. Ordinary canning plants, book binding, food preparation, 300
cooking, canteens
7. Simple Rough bench and machine work, counting, 200
checking, halls, waiting rooms, warehouses,
stores, parking, dispatch.
8. Rough Live storage, rough bulky material, loading bays, 100
intermittent tasks change / locker rooms.
9. Movement & Corridors with heavy traffic, walkways, stairs, 50
Orientation. rest-rooms, lanes.
Corridors with light traffic 20
57
58
CHAPTER-2
1.1 Industrial Hygiene :
1.2 Definition of Industrial Hygiene, Industrial Hygiene:
Definition: Industrial (Environmental) hygiene is defined by the American Industrial Hygiene
Association (AIHA) as that science and art devoted to the anticipation, recognition, evaluation and
control of those environmental factors of stresses, arising in or from the workplace, which may
cause sickness, impaired health and well-being or significant discomfort and inefficiency among
workers or among the citizens of the community.
Control Methods:Control method includes engineering and administrative controls, safe disposal
of wastes, medical examination, use of PPE, education, training and supervision.
The control measures can be applied at following three levels.
(1) At Source:
1. Substitution e.g. toluene in place of benzene, silicon carbide in place of silica in
grinding stone, or water in place of solvent.
2. Change of processor technology (airless paint spraying).
3. Enclosure of process (cover).
4. Isolation (by space or time).
5. Wet methods (water blasting).
6. Local exhaust ventilation (Capturing at source).
7. Waste disposal (pollution control).
8. Good maintenance.
(2) At Airpath:
1. Increasing natural ventilation.
2. Proving exhaust ventilation (fans).
3. Increasing distance between source and the receiver (semi-automatic or remote
control).
4. Dilution or Mechanical ventilation (supplied air).
5. Continuous Area monitoring (pre-set alarms).
6. Good housekeeping.
7. Good maintenance.
(3) At Receiver:
1. Personal Hygiene Methods (Washing, bathing, good diet methods, no smoking,
no- intoxication etc.).
2. Use of personal protective equipment and good maintenance.
3. Use of protective cream or lotion.
4. Personal monitoring device (Dosimeter).
5. Enclosure of worker (AC cabin).
6. Rotation of worker (Split up of dose).
7. Training and Education.
8. Medical Examination and follow up.
The control measures (technology) can also be classified as under:
59
Engineering Controls:
In this category are included those procedures which are applied to the working
environment rather than to the individual. They are as follows:
1. Substitution and Modification : The highly toxic material (carcinogenic, mutagenic or
teratogenic) and processes should be replaced by less hazardous materials and processes.
Following table gives such examples :
Substance Substitute
60
White phosphorous Phosphorous sesquisulphide

Mercury compounds Mercury free materials.
Leaded glaze, paint, pigments Leadless glaze, paint, pigment
Benzene Cyclohexane or certain ketones
CCI4 Methyl chloroform, Dichloromethane
Solvents with low B.P. and high V.P. Solvents with high B.P. and low V.P.
Organic solvents Detergent and water cleaning solutions
Chlorine Argon for degassing
Asbestos Fibreglass
Quartz and Non-silica aggregates
Sand blasting Steel or silicon carbide shot
Silica bricks Magnesite or Aluminium oxide bricks
Sandstone grinding wheel Synthetic grinding wheel
Broom cleaning Vacuum cleaning
Precaution required while selecting safer substitute is that it should not bring any new hazard.
Modifications in the process or equipment can reduce the hazard. Reduction in noise, vibration,
excessive light and temperature, speed, grinding or mixing speed, mechanical handling instead of
manual, use of tongs instead of fingers, sitting posture instead of long-standing etc. help in
decreasing the health effects. Following table gives some examples –
Modification Instead of
Toxic pellet or lump Powder

Closed charging of toxic material Open charging of toxic material
Electrical motor Internal combustion engine
Covered containers Open containers
Mechanical gauges Mercury gauges
Mechanical pump seals Gasket pump seals
Material of the required size Odd size and then cutting
Copper electric wiring Aluminium electric wiring
Airless spray Hand spraying
Low pressure, Low temperature process High pressure, high temperature process
Water or air jet looms Ordinary power looms
Use of catalysers (to convert CO into CO2), silencers, suppressing chemical (urea can suppress
generation of NO2), tank-size reduction, content reduction, dikes to reduce evaporating surface
area etc. are also necessary modification/ alterations.
2. Isolation and Enclosure of a Process:This has its widest application in the chemical
industries where frequently it is possible and practicable to design totally enclosed systems
for carrying out the manufacture or processing of chemical compounds. Enclosure may be
total or partial. Closed systems, barrier walls, cabins and isolation by distance or time are
possible.
61
3. Segregation: This may be accomplished by shifting a potentially dangerous process to a

segregated or enclosed area to prevent contamination of adjacent work spaces. In some
situations, segregation can be accomplished by locating a process in an open shed or even
completely out of doors.
4. Ventilation : This is perhaps the most important engineering control measure.
Ventilation may be general or local. General ventilation consists in rapid dilution of
contaminated air with fresh air usually by fan. Local ventilation usually consists in
providing air suction close to the point where potentially harmful dusts, fumes, vapours,
mists or gases are generated. Safe collection and disposal of contaminants removed by
local exhaust ventilation is necessary. For volatile chemicals, it is common practice to
install a recovery system as part of the ventilating equipment,.
5. Wet Process : The use of water to limit the dispersal of atmospheric contaminants finds
its chief application in the control of dust. This procedure is widely used in rock-drilling
and useful when sweeping is done in a dusty work room. Water spraying on coal heaps
suppresses coal dust.
6. Neutralization or inactivation of chemical compounds is sometimes useful in connection
with local exhaust ventilation and in cleaning up contaminated areas. See Chapter-18 also.
7. House Keeping :Regular clean up schedules, particularly where dust is a problem are
essential in any control programme.
Planning and follow-up for Control of House-keeping should include -
 Deciding policy and technique for good housekeeping.
 Proper layout of work area.
 Marking of aisles, ways and storage areas.
 Cabinets and holders for tools and equipment.
 Storage arrangements for materials.
 Containers for materials in process.
 Efficient sequence of operations to avoid bottlenecks.
 Anticipation of waste, scrap, dust, spillage, splashes etc., and inclusion of methods of
their control stated in Part 5.2.
 Efficient transportation of raw material, finished:; products and refuse. Use of
mechanical feeding belt conveyor etc..
 Efficient cleaning methods including vacuum cleaners etc., and without interrupting
the production schedule.
 Necessary training of workers.
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Waste Disposal (Air Pollution Controls) :

1. Industrial ventilation systems viz. dilution ventilation, hood, duct, fan etc.
2. Settling chamber and dust collector.
3. Inertial devices viz. cyclone collector, centrifugal collector, multiple cyclones etc.
4. Electrostatic precipitators.
5. Particulate scrubbers viz. cyclone scrubber venturi scrubber, spray chambers etc.
6. Filters viz. filter bed, packed filter, bag filter etc.
7. 7. Absorption devices viz. gas scrubbers, absorption towers.
8. Adsorption devices viz. fixed-bed adsorbers, moving bed adsorbers etc.
9. Combustion devices viz. combustion chamber, flares, incinerators, catalytic
afterburners etc.
10. Condensation devices viz. direct contact condensers, surface heat exchangers etc.
For the details of such system study Reference No. 5 given at the end of this Chapter.
a. General safety measures to control air pollution in an industrial area are :
11. Air pollution control technique should be adopted from the design stage.
12. The allowable emission rate should not be exceeded by individual plant.
13. Total load of pollutants in any area should not be exceeded the prescribed limit
(community exposure).
14. A continuous air monitoring should be conducted in the locality.
15. Site appraisal Committee (Section 41A of the Factories Act) should consider
meteorological and ecological conditions to decide a sitting of a new factory.
Air Pollution Control Systems:

1. The stack height should be sufficient depending upon pollutants, meteorological condition
and statutory standards. See Table 12 to 14 of Chapter-32. Heated and unheated emissions
should be considered for stack design. Highci stack disperses the pollutants over a wider
area thus reducing their concentration.
2. Settling chambers (inertial separators, dynamic separators, wet and multiple cyclones and
other devices)
3. Filtration by fibrous mats, aggregate beds filters, paper filters, and fabric filters.
4. Liquid scrubbing by spray chambers, packed towers, plate towers, orifice" scrubbers and
mist eliminators.
5. Electrostatic precipitators.
6. Gas solid absorption.
7. Thermal decomposition and
8. Combination systems.
Thermal Incineration is an effective waste disposal methods and is defined as engineered
process that use high temperature thermal oxidation to convert waste to a less bulky, less toxic or
less noxious material. The flue gases may generally contain CO,, water vapour and inert gases.
But depending on the residues being incinerated, it may also contain acidic gases such as halides
and their acid oxides of phosphorous, sulphur, nitrogen and entrained salts of metals. Incineration
process can be employed to burn solid, liquid or gaseous wastes. Some such processes are given
below.
63
Incineration Process Temperature Range oC Residence Time
Rotary kiln 820 to 1600 Liquids, gases- seconds Solids-

hours.
Liquid injunction 650 to 1600 0.1 to 2 seconds
Fluidised bed 450 to 980 Liquids, gases-seconds. Solids-
longer.
Multiple heart Drying zone 320 to 540
Incineration 760 to 980
Coincineration 150 to 1600 Seconds to hours.
Starved air 480 to 820 0.1 second to hours/
Combustion
Venturi Scrubber is a simple, high efficiency unit to collect dust or fume by direct
contact with water and is useful where the gas to be treated is at elevated temperature or when the
contaminant is a difficult or sticky material. A venturi scrubber occupies little space, is easy to
maintain and has a further advantage of predictable collection efficiency (dependent upon particle
size and density) for a given pressure loss. It may be a low-pressure loss unit (6 to 20 in wg
range) or a high pressure loss unit (20 to 60 in wg range).
Personal and Medical Controls :
This term is used to describe those procedures which are applied to the employed person
(biological sampling, diagnosis and applying remedy). It includes-
1. Preplacement medial examination : Purpose of this examinations is to protect workers
with known susceptibility against any potentially harmful exposure, e.g. worker affected
by pulmonary tuberculosis should not be placed in exposure of silica and chlorinated
hydrocarbon atmosphere.
2. Periodic medical examination : A major purpose is to detect any existing evidence of
poisoning at an early stage when corrective measures can be expected to result in complete
recovery. Corrections may call for improved industrial hygiene practices for temporary or
permanent change of job assignment or both of these.
3. Personal Protective Devices : Protective clothing, masks, and respirators should be
properly selected for the purpose for which they are intended and usually worn to prevent
injuries. A programme of using, cleaning and replacing worn out parts is highly desirable.
4. First-aid : Keep first aider to take charges in the event of an emergency due to poisoning.
Give proper first-aid training to workers.
5. Laboratory Procedures : Check blood, urine, stool, lungs, skin etc. to detect onset of
symptoms of health effects.
Special Control Measures:
Above mentioned control measures are general measures applicable to most of the industries, but
special control measures are required depending on the speciality of the process or material. Such
measures may very with the nature of industry. See Chapter-23 for 38 types of different industries
and more than 500 control measures.
Biohazards exist due to bacterial, fungal, viral, rickettsial, chlamudial, parasitic agents etc. (see
Part 10.9 of Chapter-28) and places where they exist include laboratory, hospitals, agriculture,
animal area etc. Their control measures include good housekeeping, personal hygiene, laboratory
safety, animal care and handling, biological safety cabinets, use of sterilisation (autoclave) and
disinfection and precautions from Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) and
Legionnaires' disease.
64
Maintenance:
Keeping all the Control equipment in good working condition, maintenance is necessary.
 Regular maintenance
 Break-down Maintenance
 Annual Maintenance Schedule
 Weekly Maintenance Schedule
1.3 Introduction to Chemical Hazards :
(A) Gases and Vapours :
(1) Gases : Normally formless fluid which occupy the space of enclosure and which
can be changed to the liquid or solid state only by the combined effect of increased pressure and
temperature. Gases diffuse. The particle size varies from 0.0005 to 0.01 micron. Example: Cl2,
NH4, SO2, H2S, HCN, CO
Main pollutants are oxides of carbon, sulphur and nitrogen.
(2) Vapours : The gaseous form of substance which are normally in the solid or liquid
state and which can be changed to these states by either increasing the pressure or decreasing the
temperature alone. Vapours diffuse. The particle size varies from 0.005 to 0.01 micron.
Examples are vapours of lead oxide, benzene, xylene, trichloroethylene and other solvents. Gases
and vapours are also classified as under-
1. Organic solvent vapours e.g. alcohol, acetone, CS2, CCI4, benzene, xylene.
2. Pulmonary irritant gases e.g. C12 NO2, phosgene.
3. Upper respiratory irritant gases e.g. NH3, SO2, formaldehyde, acetic acid.
4. Chemical asphyxiant gases e.g. CO, HCN.
5. Simple asphyxiant gases e.g. N2, CO2, methane, its homologues and acetylene.
6. Other inorganic and organic gases e.g. H2S, arsine and pesticides vapours.
(B) Particulate Matters:
These are solid tiny particles produced by blasting, crushing, drilling, grinding, mixing etc.
and suspended in the air. Examples are as under:
(1) Dusts : Solid particles generated by handling, crushing, grinding, rapid impact, detonation
and decrepitation of organic or inorganic materials such as rocks, ore, metal, coal, wood,
grain etc. Dusts do not tend to flocculate except under electrostatic forces. They do not
diffuse in air but settle under the influence of gravity. The particle size varies from O.I to
1000 microns. Fly ash from chimneys varies from. 3 to 80 microns.
(2) Fumes : Solid particles generated by condensation from the gaseous state, generally
after volatilisation from molten metals etc. and often accompanied by a chemical reaction
65
such as oxidation. Fumes flocculate and sometimes coalesce. The particle size varies from
0.001 to 100 microns. Examples : lead, zinc, or nitrous fumes.
(3) Mists : Suspended liquid droplets generated by condensation from the gaseous to the
liquid state or by breaking up a liquid into a dispersed state, such as by splashing, foaming
and atomising. The particle size varies from 50 to 100 microns. Example : sulphuric acid
mist.
(4) Smokes : Small gas-borne particles resulting from incomplete combustion and consisting
predominantly of carbon gaseous material are grouped in this category. The particle size
varies from O.I to I micron.
(5) Aerosols : It is a colloidal system m which the dispersion medium is a gas and the
dispersed phase is solid or liquid. The term aerosol is applicable till the solids or liquids
remain suspended in the gaseous media. The particle size varies from 0.01 to 100 micron.
Dust, smoke or mist are examples.Aerosols affect weather, damage materials and impair
health. Atmospheric aerosols like hydrocarbons, lead, arsenic, sulphuric acid etc. may
injure human health because of their toxic nature.
66
1.4 Routes of Entry (Avenues) to Human System:

Following are the four main routes of entry of toxic material into human body :(1)
Absorption through skin (Dermal tract) : Skin absorption attains its greatest importance
in connection with the organic solvents. The significant quantities of these compounds may enter
the body through the skin either as a result of direct accidental contamination or indirectly when
the material has been spilled on the clothing. Using industrial solvents for removing grease and
dirt from the hands and arms is a source of
dermatitis. Some solvents penetrate the intact
skin, get into the blood stream and produce ill
effects on the blood and throughout the body,
e.g. nitrobenzene, aniline, phenol, nicotine.
Occupation envolving handling and

spraying pesticides, liquid splashes may enter
through skin and cause toxic effects. Vapours
of pesticide can enter through nose and solid
or liquid pesticide if taken through mouth
(unlolowingly, accidentally or suicidal) it can
pass through digestive route also. Safety
measures are suggested in Part 24 of Chapter-
23.
Volatile material like phenol, aniline,
nitrobenzene, cresol, tetraethyl lead and many
organ phosphorous or organo-chlorine pesticides pose greater hazard through skin than through
inhalation. Absorption through lessings of the pidemis is more rapid than through the intact skin.
Cut skin may absorb quickly. Therefore safety gloves, aprons, face shield, goggles and overalls
are always desirable.
(2) Absorption through Tongue. (Ingestion or Digestive Tract) : Use of contaminated and
dirty vessels used for eating and drinking is the most common route of ingestion. Accidental
swallowing of chemicals is also possible. The detoxification affects the liver exerts when the
ingested quantity is small. However, massive dose can lead to fatalities in absence of medical
attention.
1.5 Concept of Threshold limit values
67
Threshold Limit Values (TLVs)

- Prepared by ACGIH volunteer scientists
- Denotes the level of exposure that nearly all workers can experience without an
unreasonable risk of disease or injury
- An advisory limit; not enforceable by law
- Generally can be defined as ceiling limits, shortterm exposure limits, and/or time-
weighted averages
- Usually equivalent to PELs
Air Sampling :
Basic need of air quality sampling and work environment monitoring and analysis is to
find the level of pollution and to work out strategy to reduce it. Need of sampling and
monitoring is statutorily suggested by Form no. 37, Rule 12B of the Gujarat Factories Rules. The
format calls for identification of airborne contaminants, sampling instruments and methods,
number of samples and comparison of measured value with the TWA concentration in 2nd
schedule of the Factories Act to assess the working environment and also the number of workers
exposed to that. Correct record of such workplace monitoring is essential for good health and
good housekeeping.
Need of sampling and monitoring is also inferred from the types, sources and hazards of
air pollutants mentioned below. Monitoring is more than air sampling or medical examination of a
worker. It includes a series of actions to assess the protection necessary.
Purpose & Types of Air Sampling:
Purpose of sampling are (1) To determine type and concentration of exposure due to health
hazards to workers (2) To determine the types and effectiveness of the control measures provided,
any change if necessary in them and new control measures to be provided (3) To investigate
complaints and (4) For research purposes.
Types of Air Sampling : They are (1) Personal sampling (2) Area sampling (3) Grab
sampling and (4) Integrated sampling.
In personal sampling the sampling device is worn by the worker near his breathing zone to
evaluate personal or individual exposure to him.
In area sampling the air samples are taken at fixed places in a workroom or confined
spaces to evaluate general concentrations of flammable, explosive or toxic material in air for the
purpose of isolation or restriction to work or to design the control measures. It includes continuous
monitors for leak detection, ventilation failure, equipment malfunction etc.
68
Short period (instantaneous) sampling is called grab sampling and long-period sampling is
called integrated sampling. Grab sampling is used to measure concentration at a particular time (at
least two samples within 5 minutes) e.g. peak value of NH3 or Cl2 at a particular time. The sample
is collected in evacuated flask or plastic bag, sealed and sent to a laboratory where trace analysis is
carried out by gas chromatography, IR spectrophotometry etc. Direct reading instruments can also
be used for grab sampling. Temperature and pressure should be recorded during sampling. It
should not be used for reactive gases.
Integrated air sampling is carried out by direct reading instruments (e.g. gas detector tubes
or digital meters) to measure STEL value for 15 minutes and TLV for 8 hr TWA limits. An air-
sampling train consisting of air-inlet orifice, collection media (solid or liquid sorbent, filters and
passive monitors), air-flow meter, flow-rate control valve and suction pump, is used by qualified
and trained personnel. Direct-reading gas and vapour monitors include (1) Colorimetric devices -
stain tubes and hand or battery operated pump (2) Colorimetric paper tape samplers (3) Electrical
instruments (4) 0 monitors (4) CO monitors and (5) IR analysers.
Types of sampling is also classified as
(1) Passive or diffusive' air sampling which involves collection of airborne gases/
vapours through a diffusion barrier onto absorbing medium without the use of air
sampling pump and
(2) Active air sampling which involves collection of airborne contaminants by
means of a forced movement of air by a sampling pump and through appropriate
collection medium i.e. filter.
Selection of equipment for air-sampling is important and depends on many factors such
as purpose of sampling, type of sampling, type of equipment available, nature of toxicant,
environmental conditions, required accuracy and sensitivity, reliability, property of air-
contaminant, presence of other chemicals which may mix or interfere, duration of sampling, cost
etc.
Sampling Calculations : Calculations for gas and vapour concentrations depend on gas laws that
where temperature, volume, pressure, Concentration (mass/volume), molecular wt., density of
gas are considered
Concentration is normally expressed in ppm or mg/m3.
The following equation is used –
Samples are collected in the areas of (1) Breathing zone of the worker (2) General
atmosphere of the room (3) Operation itself.
69
The factors determining the duration of sampling or the volume of the air to be sampled
are: (1) Sensitivity of the analytical procedure (2) TLV, STEL etc. (3) The expected air
concentrations.
The number of samples to be collected depends on (1) The purpose of sampling (2) The
concentration of the contaminant.
A minimum of 3 to 5 samples are necessary.
Air Sampling Methods:
Two basic methods employed to collect the gaseous contaminants are :
1. Use of a gas collector, such as an evacuated flask. The collector is resealed immediately to
prevent loss before to the sample is analysed and
2. Passing a known volume of gas or air through an absorbing medium to remove the desired
contaminants from the sampled atmosphere. The absorbing medium is chosen according to
its efficiency for a particular contaminants.
Field methods require (1) Survey of work environment to collect basic data (2) Sampling
principles or strategies to decide location of measurement (nose level of the worker, at source of
emission and in general atmosphere of the workroom) (3) Types of samples (4) Minimum and
optimum volume of sample (5) Duration and time of sampling and (6) Number of samples.
Then air sample is collected and the contaminant is removed for analysis. Gas detection
tables, papers and liquids are used and finally the results are interpreted.
Sampling Strategies : Factors to be considered while deciding sampling strategy are as under :
1. Collection techniques : The sampling device is attached to the worker who wears it
during his presence in the workplace. It can be held at his breathing zone (nose level). For
environmental monitoring, it is placed in a fixed location in the work area. For designing
engineering control, it should be placed near the source of emission.
2. Place of Sampling : Purpose of sampling should be decided and accordingly the place, e.g.
breathing zone, source of emission, work area, confined space, place of highest
concentration, garage, tunnel etc. should be decided.
3. Selection of highly exposed worker : A worker who is closest to the source of toxic
emission should be selected. Individual differences in work habits can show different
levels of exposure at the same place - the same job, or the same material. Their work
methods should be noticed. Air movement pattern should be studied. The ventilation
booths, air supply inlets, open doors, windows, combustion or heating processes are some
factors which can produce higher concentrations away from the source.
4. Time of Sampling : When there are wide temperature difference during different seasons
(e.g. summer & winter), samples should be taken during all such seasons. When there are
more than one shifts, it should be taken in all shifts. For A.C. area, normally the
contaminants remains same throughout the year. The time of highest degree of hazard
should be selected.
70
5. Duration of Sampling : The volume of air and duration of sample depend on the type of
measurement i.e. 8-hour TWA TLV or 15 minutes STEL value and also on the sensitivity
of the analytical procedure or direct-reading instrument.
6. Types of Samples : They may be instantaneous or spot samples collected within short
period of 2 to 10 minutes and continuous samples collected over a long period in different
shifts or on different days for the same spot or the same worker.
7. Minimum Required Volume (MRV) : If the volume is insufficient, false result is
possible. For detection of lower concentration, larger air samples are required. The
minimum required volume is given by -
MRV = S x 22400 x 760 x 273+t
M x TLV P 273
where MRV = minimum required volume of sample (litres), S = sensitivity of analytical

method mg, M = molecular weight of contaminant, TLV in ppm, P = barometric pressure in mm
Hg and t = air temp °C.
If t = 25 °C (or near about) and P = 760,
MRV = S x 24450
M x TLV
and if TLV is in mg/m' instead of ppm,
MRV = S x 1000
1. Number of Samples : Again depending on purpose, the number of samples can be

decided. For TLV or STEL value, several dozen samples may be necessary to have
accurate result Amount should be sufficient for laboratory use and decision.
2. Accuracy and Precision : They should be maintained for meaningful data, reliability
and compliance of the statutory requirement.
1.6 Biological Monitoring
Biological monitoring is defined as the respective and regular measurement and
assessment of agents or their metabolites either in blood, urine, secreta, expired air or
combination of these to evaluate exposure and health risk compared to an appropriate reference.
The personal air monitoring provides airborne concentration of a contaminant, not
necessarily the absorption of the contaminant by an exposed individual. Biological monitoring
has distinct advantages over air measurement, mainly because it is the absorbed chemical, and/or
its biomarker, is measured.
Biological Exposure Indices (BEIs) are' analogues to TLV, except for BEIs apply to
biological monitoring and TLVs to air monitoring.
71
Biological or biochemical samples are the blood, urine, faeces, breath (expired air),
plasma, body fluid, sweat, tissues, hair, nails, saliva etc. They are analysed to measure any change,
deformation or damage due to absorption of a toxic material. Measurement of quantity deposition
or effect of lead, mercury, cadmium and fluoride in blood or urine gives evidence of their health
effect. By establishing baseline levels, such monitoring indicates need of personal or
environmental monitoring and also the need of necessary environmental control or improvement
in work method or need of personal protective equipment.
Biological monitoring is not a replacement of any other form of monitoring. It is
complementary. Work environment monitoring does not give evaluation of individual's exposure
which is given by the biological monitoring.
Analysis of biological samples obtained from exposed workers provides information of
body burden of the substance, the amount circulating in the blood or the amount being excreted.
Though every tissue and fluid in the body can be analysed, but mostly the urine or blood samples
are analysed. Previous exposure of CO and many solvents can be known from the exhaled breath
samples. In addition to the air measurement, biological assays and determinants are more reliable
indicators (markers) of health risks and strengthen the evidence.
72
Biological analysis can be performed -

1. for unchanged substance in body fluids and tissues, e.g. Pb, Hg, As, Acetone, MEK,
phenol, ' styrene etc. This is called Direct Biological Monitoring.
2. for changed substance i.e. metabolite, e.g. phenol formed in urine due to exposure to
benzene, aniline or phenol and Hippuric acid formed in urine diie to exposure to Toluene.
This is called Indirect Biological Monitoring.
3. for changed level of enzyme or other biochemical substance present in body fluids or
tissues, e.g. depression of cholinesterase activity in red cells due to exposure to organo-
phosphorous. Following tables give some examples.
Indications of Breath, Blood & Urine analysis
Breath analysis may indicate the effect of
Alcohols, aliphatic hydrocarbons, chloro-hydrocarbons, Co, ketones etc.
Blood analysis may indicate the effect of Lead, mercury, CO, zinc, manganese, aluminium,
cadmium, methyl bromide etc.
Urine analysis may indicate the effect of
Most of the toxic metals, gases and compounds such as mercury, nickel, zinc, cobalt, thallium,
vanadium, arisine, stibine, benzene, HCN, HF, HBr; aniline, nitrobenzene, acrylonitrile, fluoride,
parathion etc.
Metabolic products as Determinants or Indicators or Markers
Product in Urine Indicates presence of

Phenol Phenol, Benzene, Aniline
TTCA CS2
Formic acid Methanol
Thiocyanate Cyanate, Nitriles
Hippuric acid Toluene, Styrene, Ethyl benzene
Methylhippuric
acids Xylene
Trichloroacetic acid Trichloroethylene
p-Nitrophenol. Prathion
2.5 Hexanedione n-Hexane
p-Aminophenol Aniline
BEIs or BELs : The ACGIH of USA publishes biological limits known as Biological
Exposure Indices (BEIs) for a limited chemicals. They represent the levels of determinants (i.e. the
chemical itself or its metabolite(s), or a biochemical change induced by the chemical) which are
most likely to be observed in specimens collected from a worker exposed to chemicals. BEIs
apply to 8 hr exposures, 5 days a week. Timing is indicated with BEI. The sample should be
collected at the same time, otherwise BEI is not applicable. Some BEIs are reproduced below from
the ACGIH booklet (2007).
73
Adopted Biological Exposure Indices

Substance and Metabolite Time of Sample BEI
Acetone
in urine End of shift 50 mg/L
Aniline
p-aminophenol in urine End of shift 50 mg/L creatinine
Benzene
t.t. muconic acid in urine End of shift 500 g/g creatinine
S-phenyl mercputrle acid in urine End of shift 25 g/g creatinine
Cadmium and
Inorganiccompounds
Cadmium in urine Not critical 5 g/g
Cadmium in blood
Not critical creatinine 5 g/L.
CO
Carboxyhemoglobin in blood End of shift 3.5% of haemoglobin
CO in end-exhaled air End of shift 20 ppm
Chlorobenzene
4-chlorocatechol in urine
p-chlorophenol in urine End of shift 100 mg/ g creatinine
End of shift 20 mg/ g creatinine
Chromium
Total chromium in urine Increase during shift 10 g/L
Total chromium in urine End of work week 25 g/L
Lead
In blood Not critical 30 g/100 mI
Mercury
Hg in urine Prior to shift 35 g/g creatinine
Hg in blood End of workweek 15 g/L
Phenol
Phenol in urine End of shift 250 mg/g creatinine
Toluene
Hippuric acid in urine End of shift 1.6 g/g creatinine
O-Cresol in urine End of shift 0.5 mg/L
T in blood Prior to last shift of work week 0.05 mg/L
Xylenes
Methylhippuric acid in urine End of shift 1.5 g/g creatinine
These values (markers) - BEIs or BELs - can be developed for those substances only
which
1. can appear in biological sample.
2. appear as metabolites.
3. change type or amount of body constituent.
4. change activity of an enzyme or
74
5. change quantifiable physiological function.

a. Such values cannot be developed for substances which are body constituents and
normal metabolites of the body itself and do not show any change.
2. do not dissolve, are rapidly decomposed or have local effect (e.g. corrosives, irritants).
3. produce allergic effects.
4. produce carcinogenic effects.
Initial studies on animals and later on human volunteers, defined the relationships between
exposure, absorption, biotransformation, retention and excretion of exogenous substances.
Response (damage) of the organism depends on concentration reached in the sites and the
concentration depends on physical, chemical and environmental properties, the mode of impact
and the person's own biological factors.
Biological Indicators, Determinants or Markers:
Biological indicators are determined from the biological samples - blood, urine, breath,
sweat, faces, hair, nails, body fluid, tissue etc. - and their biological analysis. For correct result
time of collection of sample is most important because, different chemicals show their significant
effects at different time, e.g. metabolite 'methylhippuric acid' in urine is completed within 16 hr
after the end of exposure and therefore its sample should be collected at the end of the shift.
Similarly sample for determination of effect of trichloroethylene should be taken at the end of
week as its metabolite 'trichloroacetic acid' in urine is metabolised slowly.
Thus after taking biological samples (bioassays) at the correct time after allowing
biotransformation (metabolic transformation) biological analysis of these samples is carried out to
study the biological indicators, determinants or markers. These indicators are (i) the substance
itself i.e. exogenous agent (ii) metabolite formed if any and (iii) the metabolic effect (change)
produced.
Useful information : Above indicators provide some useful information which cannot
otherwise be available, as under :
1. Long-term effect of exposure/absorption.
2. Amount absorbed in body.
3. Routes of absorption.
4. Evaluation of total exposure due to workplace and outside environment.
5. Amount absorbed due to workplace effect, climatic factors, age, sex, genetic
characteristics, physical effect, condition of the organs for biotransformation and
elimination processes etc.
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6. Type and time of risk (exposure) which cannot be proved in any other way.
a. This is the usefulness of biological monitoring.
Medical monitoring means medical examination by the occupational health doctors of the
workers exposed to health hazards. Pre, periodical and post medical examination or monitoring
gives better judgement.
2.1 Personal Protective Equipment :
2.1.1: Need for personal protection equipment, selection, applicable standards,

supply, use, and care & maintenance respiratory and non-respiratory PPE
NEED for PPE

For any accident prevention work, engineering control is the best control, and aid of personal
protective equipment should be the last resort or a supplementary control. Nevertheless
importance of personal protective equipment (PPE in short) is not less, its scope and utility have
been tremendously increased during last few years and wide varieties of such equipment are
available in the market. This requires proper selection of quality and utility for specific purpose.
The problem is not of the availability, but is of its use by workers on the shop floors. Particularly
in a country like ours where the majority of workers are illiterate, not safety conscious and not
trained to wear such equipment, the problem becomes more acute mostly in small and medium
scale factories.
The statistics of accidents exclusively due to non-use, misuse or defects of PPE is not available as
there is no such distinct accident classification. But if we consider causes No. 7 to 15 in Table
5.20, Chapter5, it can be said that in 1997, out of total 246 fatal accidents due to these causes, at
least 160 i.e. 65.04% could have been prevented by the proper use of PPE. Total of causation No.
120 to 131 in the last row of Table 5.22, Chapter-5, gives 65.89% (10334 out of 15683 accidents
during 1994) fatal and non-fatal accidents. Of this at least half i.e. 33% of total accidents could
have been prevented by the effective use of PPE. The conclusion is that @ 30 to 40% of total
accidents can be prevented or controlled by the proper use of personal protective equipment. This
figure is not small and highlights the need of PPE.
Most of the minor accidents are due to material handling, striking against objects, hurt by falling
bodies, falling or slipping, injury by hot substances or chemicals and neglecting PPE. Such
accidents can certainly be reduced to great extent by the effective use of appropriate PPE.
The PPE provides good defense against hazards of toxic exposure, oxygen deficiency, dusting,
chemical splashes, steam, water and liquids, flying particles, hot substances, radiation, sharp
76
edges, welding, cutting, grinding, striking against and stepping over objects, glare, personal falls
and injury due to falling bodies, noise, scrap cleaning, material handling, opening of pipe lines or
any hazardous work, electric shocks, burns and fire fighting. Many fatal accidents are caused due
to these reasons and use of appropriate ' PPE can prevent or lessen many of them.
Limitation of the protection by PPE should be well understood. Respirators have limited use for
the concentration and time mentioned by the manufacturer. They cannot be used in higher
concentration for longer time. In heavy concentration, only self breathing apparatus (SBA) is
recommended and that too for a limited time. Instead of providing hood and suction on flying
particles, there is no meaning of giving respirator to a worker. Instead of providing guard on a
grinding wheel, it is meaningless to provide eye protection to workers. Instead of sealing leakage
of gas or dust or allowing to continue, it is unsafe to advise the worker to use gas mask. Similarly
instead of trying to reduce pollution, it is of no use to tell the workers to use PPE only. It is
always safer to improve the working conditions by engineering controls first. Then only the use of
PPE may be recommended. It is the second line of defence.
PPE is a second line of defence. The first line is to eliminate or minimise the workplace hazards.
PPE cannot eliminate the hazard, it can help eliminate an injury or reduce its severity.
I remember a few fatal accidents from my investigation where I was of the opinion that besides
engineering controls, PPE could have prevented such accidents. When an engineering control fails
or becomes ineffective, what is the protection? Then this line of defence (i.e. PPE) comes to help
and protect in most of the cases. In one case a worker died due to phosphine exposure and in
another case due to chloroform vapour in a tank. In third case due to a splash of 2-4
dichlorophenol a worker died within 15 minutes. In still other case, a worker died due to pesticide
exposure in delayed effect. All four were young workers and died due to these toxic chemicals. If
they would have worn appropriate PPE, they could have been survived. This shows the
significance of need of PPE. Though PPE cannot eliminate the hazard (like engineering control) it
can certainly protect from it.
1. The need of PPE can be well judged from:
1. Visual and foreseeable hazards.

2. Accident experiences.
3. Report of the safety committee/ representatives.
4. Safety audits, surveys, sampling, job safety analysis and risk assessment.
5. Legal requirements and remarks of the authorities.
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6. Record of the medical department.

The need of PPE exists because
1. Chances of failure of engineering controls, materials, process, equipment and safety

devices cannot be denied and in those circumstances, the PPE can act .as a barrier
between the man and hazard and to save from the injury.
2. There are certain operations or accidental situations where engineering controls are
less possible and PPE becomes necessary. For repair or maintenance or to enter into toxic
or oxygen deficient atmosphere, or while working at height or doing jobs like welding,
cutting, grinding, chipping, PPE gives good protection.
3. It effectively avoids the contact of dangerous substances, noise, vibration and radiation.
4. It protects from atmospheric contaminants.
5. It is a legal as well as moral duty to provide suitable PPE.
2 STATUTORY PROVISIONS
As per Factories Act 1948, PPE should be provided by the occupier for the protection from
hazards due to dust, fume, gas, vapour, flying particles, glare, revolving machinery, hot or
dangerous contents, entry in confined space, explosive or flammable atmosphere, fire, dangerous
operations and hazardous processes. Rules prescribed under above sections provide further
details. Noise induced hearing loss is an occupational disease under the 3rd Schedule of the
Factories Act.
OSHA standards prescribe tremendous details for PPE. requires noise reduction below 90 dBA
or to provide ear protectors to workers and their auditory examination by a doctor. Sch. 27
required protection against cotton dust.
INDIAN AND OTHER STANDARDS
Some IS Nos specify for protection of Head, Eye & Face, Ears, Hands, Feet & Legs, Body, Lungs
& standard of Breathing Apparatus
PPE Selection
Once it is decided that PPE is needed,
1. Select proper type of equipment (IS mentioned in Part 3 should be referred) and then
2. Make it sure that the supervisor sees to it that the worker uses and maintains-it correctly.
Proper selection, training and use of PPE are essential.
Factors of selection or requisite characteristics of PPE are :
1. It should give adequate protection against the nature, severity and type of hazard.
78
2. It should be of minimum weight, should give minimum discomfort with protective

efficiency.
3. Attachment to the body should be flexible yet effective.
4. The wearer should not be restricted in movement" or perceptions required for the job.
5. It should be durable and attractive.
6. It should not cause any hazard through its material, design, defect, use or failure.
7. It should conform Indian Standards and tests required
8. It should be easy to clean, repair and maintain. The parts, piece and service should be
easily available.
If all above criteria are not available effort should be made to get maximum of them.
Classification of PPE for selection and understanding is given below Table
For Protection of Head, Eyes, Ears, Face, Hands, Arms, Feet, Legs and Body. Special work
clothing- e.g. asbestos, aluminised, leather and wool garments, lead clothing, disposal clothing etc.
Table Selection and Classification of PPE according to the body part and hazards :
Body-Part Hazard PPE necessary
Head Falling objects, shock, chemical spurting Safety helmet, hard hats, safety caps,
headgear
Eye Chemical splash, dust, flying, particles, Spectacles, lenses and goggles for
gas, welding radiation. chemical, welding, grinding, furnace,
dust etc.
Ear High level noise (> 90 dB) Earmuffs, plugs, inserts
Nose Dust, toxic gases Dust mask, cloth mask, rubber mask,
fume mask, respirators for dust, gas
and vapour, rescuer plus pressure suit,
breathing apparatus (O2 or Air),
Canister gas masks, air line respirators,
chemical / mechanical filters.
Face Chemical splash, flying objects, hot Face shield, welding screen, furnace
substance. mask, face guard.
Hand Hot substance, acid, alkali, pigments, Hand gloves of rubber, PVC, hosiery
chemicals, handling, cut, sharp edge. cotton, leather, asbestos, canvas, fibre
glass, electrical rubber gloves, surgical
gloves, arm sleeves.
Body Chemicals splashes, hot substance, Aprons, coats and pants, pressure suit,
fire,handling, suits of rubber, PVC etc.
Foot / Leg Striking against objects, chemicals Leather or rubber sole shoes, steel toe-
falling bodies boots, antiskid sole shoes, ammunition
boots, gumboots, leg sleeves.
Overall Falling from heights, hurt by falling Safety belts, pole strap belt, nylon
79
bodies, chemicals safety harness, all purpose safety

harness belt, vertical lift safety harness,
Boatswain‘s chair, rope ladders, nets,
safety hooks.
Selection and classification of Respiratory equipment based on type of hazard :
1 Self contained Breathing Apparatus
2 Hose Mask and Blower with escape provision

Selection of Material of Construction of PPE is given in Table 25.2 :
Table:Selection of Material of Construction for PPF.
No. Material For the protection from
Flying particles, falling body, sharp
1 Metal
edge, abrasion.
2 Fibre metal Sparks, falling body, flying particles,
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sharp edge, abrasion, machinery

3 Metal screen Sharp edge & abrasion
Hot liquid, moisture, water, petroleum
product, acid, alkali, spark, falling
4 Plastic, PVC
body, flying particles, electric shock,
sharp, edge, abrasion, skin protection
Hot liquid, moisture, water, acid,
5 Rubber alkali, electric shock, machinery, skin
protection
6 Conductive rubber Explosive substance
Hot substance, flying, particles sharp
7 Chrome leather
edge, abrasion, sparks
Flying particles, sharp edge, abrasion,
8 Canvas
machinery
9 Asbestos Heat, hot substance, sparks
10 Acid proof fabric Acid & alkali
11 Reflective fabric Hot liquid
Heat, hot substance, sparks, chemicals,
12 Flameproof duck
flying particles, machinery
Heat, sparks, machinery, skin
13 Cotton wool
protection
14 Cotton canvas Sharp edge & abrasion
15 Steel hoe boot Falling body, striking
16 Non-skis shoes Moisture, slippery surface
Heat, hot substance, moisture, water,
17 Wooden sole boot or scandal acid, alkali, slippery surface, sharp
edge, abrasion.
18 Soft silicon rubber or plastic Moulded type ear plug
19 Plastic goggles with hydrophilic coating To prevent fogging
20 Wirescreen lenses (face shield) Heavy fog or dampness
Laser safety goggles (Antilaser
21 Laser beams
eyeshield)
22 Aluminised welding helmet Infrared rays and to reduce heat effects
23 Polarising lenses (filtershade lenses) To prevent glare
24 Steel, reinforced plastic & hard rubber Safety toe boot for foot protection
Boot with non-ferrous coating and Static charge, friction sparks, and to
25
conductive sole reduce fire and explosion possibility
Work with hot metal in foundry, quick
26 Congress or gaiter type shoes
removable shoes without lash
Non-conductive or insulating (non-
27 Electric work
metallic shoes)
28 Flexible metal reinforced stole or inner Construction work and cold metal
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sole work with possibility of foot injury

Pharmaceutical factory needing higher
29 Plastic shoe cover or cap
product safety.
30 Specially made asbestos clothing To work with hot metal upto 1650 oC
To work near a furnace at temperature
upto 540 oC for fire fighting. Such
Aluminised asbestos or glass fibre and
31 proximity clothing should to be utilized
wool lining
to enter into the fire. they are for
working from a distance.
Flameproof or flame resistant cloths – Fireproof cloths to work in the fire
32
THPC, Nomex or Modaphrilic fabrics flames
To carry heavy or sharp edged load on
33 Cushion pads or padded duck
shoulder or back.
Apron of padded leather, fabric, plastic, For protection of abdomen or middle
34
hard fibre or metal body parts.
Thermal net cotton go quilted material To work in cold weather (unsuitable to
35
(decron or nylon) work in hot or fire).
For construction and maintenance
36 High visibility and night hazard clothing Police and Fire brigade and Traffic
hazards
Disposable clothing (Plastic or In less radioactive work or drug or
37
reinforced paper) electronic industry
Leaded clothing (lead glass fibre, leaded Laboratory work, protection against X
38
rubber, leaded plastic) and Gamma rays
39 Electromagnetic radiation suit Radar field
For linemen to work at extra high
40 Conductive clothing voltage. Such clothing keeps the
linemen at the proper potential.
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APPLICABLE INDIAN AND OTHER STANDARDS

Some IS on PPE are as under:
Head - Helmets, industrial safety 2925, for two wheelers 4151, non-metal for
police force 9562, wooden head- form for testing of helmets 7692,
miner's cap lamps 5679 3
Eyes and Face- Guide for selection of eye, face and ear protection 8520, 8521,
maintenance and care 8940, for welding 1179, methods of test 7524 (Parti
& 2), eye protectors, filters 5983, safety glass 2553, eye and face showers
10592
Ears - Guide for selection 8520, ear protectors 9167, earmuffs, method for
measurement 6229
Hands - Guide for selection 8807, Gauntlets and mittens, leather 2573, gloves -
safety 6994, rubber - electrical 4770, surgical 4148, postmortem 4149
Feet & Legs - Footwear, selection 6519,10667, Ankle boots for general purposes 583,
boots and shoes safety, leather 1989, leather for firemen 4128, rubber -
canvas for miners 3976, 10665, gaiters, protective 2472, knee boots,
rubber 3736, 3738, leather for leg guard 3946, toe caps, steel for footwear
5852, boots for oilfield workmen 9885 (Part I & 2), footwear for steel
plants 10348, for mines and heavy metal industry 13295, safety shoes for
women workers in mines and steel plants 11225, footwear with direct
moulding sole 11226, rubber footwear 11264, PVC boots 12254,
chemical resistant 13292, 13695, PVC boots, oils and fats resistant 13038,
code of practice for manufacture 13295, lined antistatic rubber footwear
13575, wooden, heavy duty 5520, rubber lined boots 5557, conducting
13996
Body - Guide for selection of body protection 8519, aprons - rubberised acid and
alkali resistant 4501, rubber for hospital use 6407, leadrubber, X-ray
protective 7352, Clothing - fire resistant 4355, fire (flame) resistant suit
7612, leather 6153, sheath rubber 3701, fabrics, PVC coated for foul
weather 3322, belt and strap, leather, lineman's safety 3521, material
(nylon webbing) for aircraft safety belts 8947, maintenance and care of
safety clothing 8990, evaluation of whole body vibration 13276 (Part I to
3), mechanical vibration and shock affecting man 13281
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Lungs - Glossary of terms relating to respiratory protective devices 8347,

selection, use and maintenance of respiratory, protective devices 9623,
colour identification of air purifying canisters and cartridges 8318,
mouth-piece assemblies 14170, full face mask 14166, threads for face
pieces 14138. Respirators - chemical cartridge 8522, canister type (gas
mask) 8523, filter type for particulate matter 9473, CO filter 9563, bag
type, positive pressure, manually operated 6194.
Breathing apparatus 10245 -
Part 1 : Closed circuit (0, cylinder).
Part 2 : Open circuit.
Part 3 : Fresh air line.
Part 4 : Escape type, short duration, self contained.
Breathing apparatus for fire brigade self contained 1910, Resuscitators for use with
humans 13366, life jackets 6685
Use, and care & maintenance respiratory and non-respiratory PPE
General Precautions to use PPE :
Following precautions are useful for training and practice
1. Hazards at workplace must be thoroughly studied, gas, oxygen, contamination, noise etc.
should be measured and their level should be minimised by engineering controls first and
then only the need of necessary personal protective equipment (PPE) should be ascertained.
2. PPE should be kept ready and in sufficient number. Gloves, shoes, goggles, aprons, earplugs
etc. should be given individually and kept clean by the worker in his locker.
3. PPE should be of approved (IS) quality and tested before use. Manufacturer's instructions,
limitations, time limit if any, procedure or method of use, symptoms of malfunctioning,
emergency action if it does not work and instructions for maintenance and care should be well
understood before using any PPE.
4. Written instructions should be prepared and displayed or given to the workers for the safe use
of the equipment. After medical examination of the worker, need and type of the equipment
shall be reconsidered. Change if any, should be incorporated.
5. Laziness in using PPE is not good. A cloth in place of effective respirator is insufficient.
Avoiding PPE because the use is for a few seconds or minutes, is unsafe.
6. Loose PPE should be kept away from the moving machine parts.
84
7. While entering in a tank or working at height, safety belt must be worn, in addition to good
sitting and supporting arrangement (safe platform or fencing). Gas and oxygen level should
be measured and kept safe as far as possible. PPE shall be selected based on its level.
8. Cotton clothing in hot days, woollen clothing in cold days and tight fitting clothing while
working near machinery are 'basic requirement. Synthetic cloths are unsuitable to health. PPE
on cotton clothing gives more comfort.
9. A man working on electricity should wear nonconductive helmet. Conductive shoes or
clothing are required to discharge static electricity induced in a human body.
10. Canister gas mask and dust mask are useful for low concentration (100 to 200 ppm) and for
the gas and duration mentioned on the mask only. Filter is to be changed or cleaned soon after
choking. Canister gas mask is not useful if oxygen is insufficient (less than 18%) in air.
Different types of gas masks are recommended for different level of concentration.
a. Canister mask is not safe while working in a tank. When gas is less than 5% of LEL, canister
mask may be worn just to clean the tank. If this level is from 5 to 20% of LEL, airline
respirator may be used. If concentration is more than this it should be diluted.
b. Six months old canister mask should not be used. Every six months its chemical is to be
freshly filled. It should not be used after 100 hours after breaking its seal. If face piece is used
by another person, it may be reused only after sterilisation. User of a gas mask should get his
heart and lungs checked by a doctor.
c. Canister mask of a gas which has no smell (e.g. CO, PH3), should be used new every time.
Gas mask should be kept away from moisture and heat and should be regularly checked.
11. Chemical cartridge and dust respirators can be used where flammable gas, fume or dust
concentration is so low that canister mask is not necessary. When the gas is poisonous or in
high concentration, eye burning, or without smell or where oxygen is insufficient, chemical
cartridge or dust respirators cannot be used. The cartridges should be kept dry. If they are
moist or giving smell, they should be changed. Valves for inhale and exhale should be
checked and kept efficient.
12. Where oxygen is less, gas, dust or smoke are more, toxic gases like C1 2, CO, H2S, PH3
phosgene exist, proper canister gas mask is not available or where one has to work in a tank
for a long time, an airline respirator is useful, because fresh air is available through blower or
air compressor and polluted air is being driven away near the nose. But because of the limited
length (80 mt maximum), where one has to move at a longer distance or upstairs and
downstairs at different floors, only SCBA is useful.
85
d. Connections (joints, clamps, clips etc.) of air line should always be checked before use,
otherwise accidental detachment of air supply will cause harm to .the wearer. Air drawing
point should not be kept in polluted air. Air filter (cleaner), air control valve, safety valve and
alarm are all necessary. Air flow should not be less than 6 ft3/min and its temperature should
be comfortable. If hydrocarbon gas content is more than 20% of LEL, it is unsafe to enter into
a tank with air hose mask. Air inlet valve should not be completely closed (it should remain
partially open).
e. Cooling effect and circulating air type suits are also available which are useful in working
near high temperature.
13. Earplugs should be washed with soap and' water, dried and put into its box after every use.
Earplugs used by others should be sterilised before use. Earplugs should be supplied
individually to the workers. Ear muffs should also be cleaned before and after use.
14. Fire rescue (proximity) suit should be worn by two persons at a time so that one may act as a
standby. Air cylinder and lifeline should also be kept ready.
2. 15. Safety belt should be kept clean, dry and in sound condition. Its
connections and wear and tear should be checked before every use. Its free end should be tied
with a fixed (immovable) structure while working at height or given in another person's hands
while entering in a tank.
a. Strength members of a safety belt should be of very sound material other than leather.
Buckles should withstand 1315 kg tensile test and be quickly openable.
b. Lifeline should not be of pieces tied together. Nylon rope of '/2 inch diameter is safe. Wire
rope should be made oily before and after using it in acidic atmosphere. Metallic life line
shall not be used near electric work.
15. Nothing should be kept in helmets. It should be checked for crack and proper fitting.
16. Contact lenses are to be protected against gas, vapour, fumes, excessive heat, molten metal
and chemical splashes. Therefore safety goggles over the lens or numbered glass are always
necessary. Safety .goggles are also necessary with the faceshield. When goggles or faceshield
are splashed with chemicals, they should be washed by a water shower before taking out from
the face. Plastic lenses are more useful than glasses. Side shields are useful.
17. Mechanical filter respirators are useful for dust and smoke. Filters are to be changed or
cleaned when choked. Mechanical filter respirators are not suitable for solvent vapour, toxic
gas or oxygen deficiency. In fire fighting work, only SBAis useful and not the gas mask.
86
18. A respirator should be carefully selected while working in IDLH (immediately dangerous to
life and health) environment. An operator is necessary with blower hose mask. One can run
away till the air is available from the hose even when the blower is closed. While working
with SBA, one should come out after hearing the low pressure alarm.
19. No other gas mask than SBA or air line is useful where oxygen is less than 18%. Level of
oxygen should be measured with oxygen meter.
20. When gas concentration is more than its safe limit or within explosive range (between LEL
and UEL) or oxygen is less than 18% in a tank, (or confined space), it should be ventilated by
air (not by oxygen), the levels should be again measured and when they are safe, permit to
enter should be signed.
21. Air supplying hoods are useful in hot or dusty atmosphere to work for a longer time.
22. Where atmospheric pressure is more than 2 bar, oxygen SBA should not be used because of
the possibility of oxygen poisoning. Quick start canister used in closed circuit oxygen self
generating (recirculating) SBA, may prove dangerous in atmosphere of gas having less than
315 °C auto ignition temperature. Venting device to release excess oxygen is required in that
case. Used canister should be disposed safely. SBA should be used by a healthy and trained
worker only.
23. In empty air cylinder, oxygen should not be filled. It may cause fire due to contact with oil or
grease.
24. Safety toe shoes should withstand 300 ft pound impact load. Resistance of conductive shoe
should not exceed 450 kilo ohms.
c. Electrician's boots should not have any metal parts, and steel toe if any, should be insulated.
d. Sole with flexible metal sheet inside, give protection against nails and sharp edges.
25. Where full hand gloves are not required,, stalls for fingers, mittens or pads for palms, and
other PPE for thumb, wrist, palm and elbow are also available.
e. Leather gloves are Useful to work with glass or metal sheet or sharp edges but not useful to
work above 65 °C temperature.
f. Natural rubber is not suitable to work with oil, grease or organic solvent.
g. Hand gloves with any metal part are not suitable for electric work. High voltage tested rubber
gloves are suitable for such work.
26. After the use is over, PPE should not be left anywhere. They should be returned to the proper
person or put in a cupboard meant for it.
87
27. Arrangement for keeping, cleaning, testing and disposal of PPE should be provided and every
such person should be properly trained in addition to the user.
Respirator Care :
Proper inspection, maintenance and repair of respiratory protective equipment is
mandatory to ensure success of any respiratory protection program. The goal is to maintain the
equipment in a condition that provides the same effectiveness it has when first manufactured.
Inspection
All equipment must be inspected periodically before and after each use. A record shall be
kept of all inspections by date with the results tabulated. Follow precisely the recommendations of
the manufacturer. Maintenance
All respiratory protective equipment shall be cleaned and decontaminated after each use.
Repair
Replacement of other than disposable parts must be done only by personnel with adequate
training to ensure the equipment is functioning properly after the work is accomplished. Only
parts supplied by the manufacturer for the product being repaired shall be used.
Maintenance :
It is a cooperative activity between the employee who takes care of his equipment and the
safety professional who teaches him how to use it and provides proper instructions. After
inspections, cleaning and necessary repair, personal protective equipment shall be stored to protect
against dust, sunlight, heat, extreme cold, excessive moistures or damaging chemicals to retain its
original effectiveness. When in doubt about the maintenance of any type of personal protective
equipment, it is a good practice to contact the manufacturer. All PPE should be cleaned and
examined after each use. Respirators should be cleaned daily. Face-piece should be washed in
warm water with soap or a detergent. Filter and chemical cartridge should be replaced when
needed.
2.1.2: Non-Respiratory PPE ( Head protection, Ear protection. Face and Eye
protection. Hand protection, Foot protection, body protection.)
Selection and Classification of PPE according to the body part and hazards:
88
Body-Part Hazard PPE necessary
Head Falling objects, shock, chemical spurting Safety helmet, hard hats, safety caps,
headgear
Eye Chemical splash, dust, flying, particles, Spectacles, lenses and goggles for chemical,
gas, welding radiation. welding, grinding, furnace, dust etc.
Ear High level noise (> 90 dB) Earmuffs, plugs, inserts
Nose Dust, toxic gases Dust mask, cloth mask, rubber mask, fume
mask, respirators for dust, gas and vapour,
rescuer plus pressure suit, breathing
apparatus (O2 or Air), Canister gas masks, air
line respirators, chemical / mechanical filters.
Face Chemical splash, flying objects, hot Face shield, welding screen, furnace mask,
substance. face guard.
Hand Hot substance, acid, alkali, pigments, Hand gloves of rubber, PVC, hosiery cotton,
chemicals, handling, cut, sharp edge. leather, asbestos, canvas, fibre glass,
electrical rubber gloves, surgical gloves, arm
sleeves.
Body Chemicals splashes, hot substance, Aprons, coats and pants, pressure suit, suits
fire,handling, of rubber, PVC etc.
Foot / Leg Striking against objects,

chemicals Leather or rubber sole shoes, steel toe-boots,
falling bodies antiskid sole shoes, ammunition boots,
gumboots, leg sleeves.
Overall Falling from heights, hurt by falling Safety belts, pole strap belt, nylon safety
bodies, chemicals harness, all purpose safety harness belt,
vertical lift safety harness, Boatswain‘s chair,
rope ladders, nets, safety hooks.
NON RESPIRATORY EQUIPMENT IN DETAILS

Head and Hair Protection : Head protectors are hard hats, caps and helmets made of aluminium,
PVC fibre glass, laminated plastic or vulcanised fibre. They may be fitted with brackets for fixing
welding masks, protective face screen or a lamp. The hats and caps are provided with replaceable
harness which provides sufficient clearance between the top of the head and shell. Selection is as
follows:
Material Protects against
1 Asbestos Sparks, hot materials, heat
2 Plastic rubber Hot liquids, moisture, acids, alkalis, electric shocks,
89
dermatitis
3 Cotton wool Sparks and heat, dermatitis, machinery
4 Metal Falling objects, flying particles, cuts, abrasions.
5 Sparks, falling objects, flying particles electric shock,

Plastic
cuts, abrasions.
Head Protectors
Type Protects Against Characteristics
Generally made of aluminium alloy, PVC,

fibreglass, or vulcanized fibre. Saddle
(geodetic strap suspension) inside to dissipate
Falling objects, hitting against
Safety impact pressure over wide area of head and to
obstructions such as low
Helmet provide clearance between the head and the
ceilings, beams, scaffold
(Hard hat) shell of helmet.Chin strap or other device to
members etc.
prevent displacement. Peak and full brim to
protect face, neck, ears. Ventilation holes for
comfort.
Electrical Electric shock when working Made of synthetic electrically non-conductive
Safety near live electrical lines. materials (PVC etc.)
Helmet
Welder‘s Falling welding spatters from
Made of leather with cloth lining inside.
Cap above.
Usually fibre / plastic material with saddle
Crash Skull injuries in road inside, without peak or rim and with chin
Helmet accidents. strap. Covers forehead, temples and lower
portion of head (above neck)
Soft caps and hoods are also used for protection against heat, spark and other dangerous
materials and are made of appropriate materials. Some time hoods are made with rig frame which
is held away from the head.
Long hair or beards may be caught in moving machine parts (e.g. belts, chain, in-running
nips etc.) while seeing or leaning down or by heavy static charges. Protective caps covering the
hairs are useful. Hair net is not a full protection. The hair cap should be of flame- retardant
material for protection against sparks or hot metal. It should be cool, lightweight, adjustable and
with visor infront.
Ear Protection:
Hearing loss is an occupational disease under the Factories Act, 1948
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Noise level above 90 dBA is hazardous for an exposure more than 8 hrs/day or 48
hrs/week. It may cause deafness, fatigue, loss of efficiency, irritation and also loss of hearing.
Noise level can be measured by a noise
average meter or a noise dose meter. Ear
plugs or Ear muffs reduce to @ 25 to 40
dBA. Ear plug is made of plastic, rubber or
polyurethane foam. Ear muffs covers
external ear and provides better attenuation
than ear plug.
Face and Eye Protection :
Eye injuries can be caused by
mechanical, chemical, thermal and radiation hazards such as dusts, flying particles, splashes and
harmful radiation. Eye protectors are safety spectacles, mono goggles, impact goggles, welding
goggles, foundry goggles, chemical goggles, gas tight goggles, face shields, welding helmets etc.
Possible hazards are:
Chipping, fettling, riveting, sledding,
1 Large flying particles from
chalking.
Scaling, grinding, stone dressing, wood
2 Dust and small flying particles from
working.
Pouring of liq. metal from ladle, crucible etc.,
3 Splashing of metals from casting of metals, galvanizing and dipping in
molten metals.
Splashing of liquids, gases and fumes

4 Handling of acids and other chemicals.
from
Reflected light, glare and radiant Foundry work, glass furnaces, gas welding
5
energy from and cutting, arc welding.
Utility and characteristics of eye protectors are shown in Table
Type Protects Against Characteristics
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Spectacle-type Flying bodies (dust, metal chips, Plain, shatter – proof, toughened
Goggles etc.) glass or plastic lenses.
With or without side shields.
Metal or heat –resistant frame.
Panorama Oil and paint splashes, dust and chip Light in weight, Non-fogging
Goggles exposure cellulose clear visor.
Ventilation holes on either side.
Soft pliable plastic frame wide
enough to wear over prescription
glasses.
Leather-mask Smoke, dust, foreign bodies Sweat lining along edges, ventilation
Goggles holes with baffles for light and dust.
Shatter-proof lenses.
Chemical Chemicals and toxic dusts Acid / alkali – resistant rubber frame
Goggles with clear lenses and shielded
ventilating ports.
Gas-tight Goggles Irritating fumes, vapour or gases Airtight – fitting without ventilating
ports.
Welding Goggles Gas Welding/ Cutting. Flames & Similar to panorama goggles with
sparks filter glass of suitable grade and
indirect ventilation ports.
Welding Shields Arc Welding / Cutting flames and Fibre or fiberglass shield, hand-held
sparks or suspended from helmet, with
window for filter glass.
Eye and face protection standards are provided for - Rigid and non rigid welding helmets.
Welding hand shields. Attachments like lift fronts, chin rests, aprons, magnifiers, snoods etc..
Face-shields, Flammability, Goggles for welder, cutter, chipper (eye cups) and dust & splashes
and Spectacles of metal, plastic or combination.
Face Protection: Plastic face shield with acrylic visor, and Darvic
guard with fibre/PVC head band, with adjustable head gear helmet
attached to face shield.Welding screen shield. Furnace masks.Large
vision red vinyl goggles with perspex lens and sponge lining.
Laser eyewear should be marked with optical density values and
wavelengths for which they are to be used. Laser glasses or goggles
designed for specific wavelengths should not be used for different
wavelengths of laser radiation.
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Hand and Arm Protection:

Protection of hands and arms are required when
workers have to handle materials having sharp end, sharp
edges, hot and molten metals, chemicals and corrosive
substances. The protective equipment may be gauntlet
gloves, wrist gloves, mittens, hand pads, thumb and
finger guards and sleeves. Gloves, hand leathers, arm
protectors, finger stalls, mittens etc. should not be used
near moving machinery or machine parts. Selection
guideline is given in Table 25.5.
Selection of Gloves :
1 Asbestos Sparks, hot materials, heat.

2 Chrome leather Sparks, hot materials, hot liquids, flying
particles, cuts, abrasions.
3 Flame proofed Duck Sparks, hot materials, heat, flying particles,
machinery.
4 Plastic Hot liquids, moisture, acids and alkalis,
demartitis.
5 Rubber Hot liquids, moisture, acids and alkalis electric
shock, dermatitis
6 Chemical resistant material Acids and alkalis
7 Reflective fabric Hot liquids
8 Plastic rubber coated fabric Hot liquids, moisture, acids and alkalis
9 Metal Mesh Cuts and abrasions
10 Cotton Canvas Cuts and abraisons
Glove material selection should be asunder:
1. Natural rubber gloves are stretchable and highly resistant to punctures. Thiey perform well
in mild caustics and ketone-based solutions and in temperatures ranging from 0°F to 300
"F. These gloves work well for job which require handling rough materials or sharp-edged
objects such as plate glass and lumber.
2. Neoprene is a premium-grade, synthetic rubber. Gloves coated with neoprene are resistant
to strong acids, oils, grease, solvents and caustics. They perform well in temperatures from
0°F to 300 °F.
3. Nitrile is a super synthetic compound available in either a smooth or rough finish. They
perform well in temperatures from 25°F to 300 "F. Nitrilecoated gloves offer superior
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abrasion, snag and puncture resistance for tasks such as handling coarse building materials
and rough castings.
4. Viton gloves are especially useful for resisting chemical permeation from chlorinated and
aromatic solvents as well as many other liquids and vapours.
5. Polyvinylchloride (PVC) plastic gloves resist a broad range of chemicals and abrasives.
They provide ample flexibility and durability in temperatures ranging from 25°F to 150 °F.
PVCcoated gloves are ideal for jobs which involve handling rough machine parts, castings
or petrochemicals.
6. Butyl rubber gloves offer high permeation resistance to many gases and vapours.
7. Latex gloves are not appropriate for primary chemical resistance but offer good protection
from standard grit/grime.
Hand Protectors
Type Protects against Characteristics
Leather gloves Cuts, bruises, abrasions, lacerations Plain, cut-resistant leather

during handling of metal sheets and with or without metal mesh at
other sharp-edged objects and sparks palm.
Aluminised fabric Flames, intense heat radiation, burn Heat-resistant aluminized
gloves injuries fabric or other special material
Asbestos gloves -do- Padding inside for comfort
and to withstand high
temperatures
Acid/Alkali- Corrosive chemicals (organic acids or Rubber, neoprene or vinyl
proof,rubber/ synthetic petroleum products) material
gloves
Lead – lined gloves Ionising radiation (X-rays, gamma rays, Rubber, leather or plastic with
etc.) lead lining.
Canvas gloves Grease oil, dust and dirt which may Fabric or coated fabric
cause slipping of hands
Electirc gloves Low voltage electric shocks (up to 4000 Made of insulated rubber
V) High voltage electric shocks (tested having required dielectric
11 KV) strength and electrical
resistance. Generally red in
colour
Barrier Cream Contact dermatitis from solvents,
lubricants and other oils.
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Foot and Leg Protection :

Some typical risks are handling of heavy materials,
caustic and corrosive liquids, wet conditions, molten
metal‘s, etc. Common foot and leg protective equipment are
safety shoes or boots, leggings and foot guards. Leg
guards (e.g. Cricketer type) are used to protect - shins
against impact. Knee pads are worn by mould lofts men and
others who do continual kneeling. Selection is as follows:
Safety shoes/boots may be conductive, non
conductive or spark resistant. Rubber boots are useful to
work in wet conditions, steel toe boots against impact and
puncture resistant soles to walk on surfaces having nails, sharp objects etc.
Conductive shoes allow draining of static charges and non-ferrous shoes reduce possibility
of friction sparks and much useful in fire/explosion prone area. Conductive footwear resistance
should not exceed 450 kilo ohms.
Conductive shoes are used where floors are nonconductive and grounded such as in
manufacture of certain explosive compounds or while cleaning tanks that have contained solvent
or volatile hydrocarbons. These shoes have conductive soles and non-ferrous metal parts.
Foundry workers should wear gaiter or congress type safety shoes which have no fasteners
or lashes and rapidly removable. The tops of the shoes should be covered by full pant leg, spats or
leggings to keep out molten metal. Electricians need insulated shoes with non-metal parts. Leather
shoes are useful to work in wet condition. Wooden soles to walk on hot surfaces and rubber shoes
for working with acids and alkalis but not with solvents which dissolve the rubber.
Feet Protection
Hazards Protection
Falling, rolling objects and materials Shoes with steel toe-caps. Aluminium, steel fibre or
plastic instep to protect top of feet
Sharp cutting edges, wood chips, glass shards, Steel spring in –soles.
nails
Chemicals, solvents, alkalis, caustics, bleaches, Non-soluble natural rubber, vinyl, plastic footwear,
cutting oils and compounds, grease, creosol. synthetic rubber, neoprene, cord or cork soles
Oily floors Synthetic rubber or chrome leather soles
Hot surfaces, sparks, metal splashes Heat-resistant soles, slip-on wooden sandals over
shoes; foundry boots with elastic band or buckle for
quick removal; trouser legs rolled down over boot
tops
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Extreme heat and direct flame Insulated or aluminized over-shoes or boots of fire-
resistant material
Fungal infection from prolonged exposure to Lined rubber shoes. Silicone- treated leather or
water rubber shoes for minor or occasional wetness
Sparks can ignite flammable gases, liquids and Shoes with non-ferrous metal parts, steel toes
explosives covered with non-sparking material.
Static electricity built up in the body can ignite Shoes with special conductive soles of cork, leather
volatile material etc.
Skids and slips; icy surfaces Cleated, wooden, non-slip or neoprene soles. Slip-on
non – skid sandals ; strap – on cleats.
Live circuits or equivalent Electrically non-conductive standard safety shoes.
Sanitation hazards; Contamination and infection Special plastic over shoes; paper or shower shoes.
Disposable strictly not to be re-used.
Safety footwear must be carefully chosen for maximum protection and its suitability for the particular
hazard. Care and proper maintenance are of vital importance.
Footwear must be regularly inspected. Worn-out or defective shoes should be immediately repaired or
replaced. Defective footwear should never be worn. Footwear must always be kept clean and dry.
Material for Knee Pads, Leggings etc.
SR Material Protects against
2 Chrome leather Sparks, hot materials, hot liquids, flying particles, cuts,
abrasions.
3 Flame proofed Duck Sparks, hot materials, heat, flying particles, machinery.
4 Plastic Dermatitis, hot liquids, moisture, acids, alkalis.
5 Rubber Dermatitis, hot liquids, moisture, acids, alkalis, electric

shock
6 Fibre metals Sparks, flying objects, flying, particles, cuts, abrasions,

machinery.
7 Chemical resistant material Acids and alkalis
Material for Shoes and Boots
SR Material Protects against
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1 Steel toe caps Falling bodies
2 Non-skid shoes Moisture.
3 Wooden soles Hot materials, heat, hot liquids, moisture, acids and alkalis,
slips and falls, cuts, abrasions.
4 Chrome leather. Sparks, hot materials, heat, hot liquids
5 Rubber Hot liquids, moisture, acids and alkalis, electric shock,

dermatitis.
6 Conductive rubber Explosive.
Body, Skin and Fall Protection :

Body protectors are coats, waist, aprons, overalls, jackets and complete head to toe
protective suits. Aprons of different materials are used for protection against blows, splashes,
radiant heat, flying particles etc. Pads are used to protect shoulders and back from bruises.
Impervious clothing of rubber or synthetic fabrics are used for protection against water, moisture,
dusts, vapours and liquid chemicals.
Nature of potential hazard, degree of the hazard involved and nature of activities of the
wearer are important in the selection of safety clothing. Although complete coverage of the body
and legs is not needed in many cases, unnecessary safety clothing may hamper the efficiency of
the wearer. No compromise should be made with strict safety requirements. Selection is as
follows:

2 Chrome leather Sparks, hot materials, hot liquids, flying particles,
cuts, abrasions.
3 Plastic or Rubber Hot liquids, moisture, acids, and alkalis, electric
shock, dermatitis, machinery.
4 Canvas Flying particles, cuts, abrasions, machinery.
5 Chemical resistant fabric Acids and alkalis
Types of body protection available are :

Body Protection :- Asbestos combination suit, asbestos jacket, hood, clogs, boots and
gloves, mittens, aprons, spats, leggings, furnace mask; rubber apron with hood combined, low
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weight rubber coated fabric suit, low weight PVC coated fabric suit, heavy duty PVC suit or
rubber coated fabric suit, PVC or rubber coated aprons with sleeves, sand or shot blast helmet
rubber mat for electrical purpose, vulcanised fibre face mask for radiant heat, PVC splash proof
coat, PVC hood with protected ventilator, PVC pressure suit, PV( boiler suit, overall, coat-pant
and hood.
Special work clothing includes leather or wool clothing, asbestos or aluminised clothing
and flame retardant or fireproof work cloths.
Safety Belts :- Linesman leather belt, leather safety strap or belt, man-hoisting leather
belt, safety belt of harness made from leather or cotton webbing, nylon safety belt. Quick-on
coverall harness. Suspension harnesses. Wrist rescue systems. Descent system. Total
encapsulating suit harness. Linemen's belts. Structural steelworker's, car dropper's and derrick
worker's belts, Shock-absorbing lanyards. Retractable lanyard, Retractable lifeline. Winches, Rope
grabs. Horizontal lifeline system. Rail slider anchorage connector. Surehold confined space
positioning equipment or system.
Skin covers the whole body and it is the first defensive barrier for body protection.
Therefore skin protection cannot be avoided. Types of skin affecting hazards can be classified as
under :
Preventive measures should include -
1. Frequent skin washing using proper cleansers.
2. Changing contaminated clothing and washing and drying the cloths properly.
1. 3. Removal of irritants and chemicals (including oils) by effective washing
using shower bath, eye washer fountain etc.
3. Wash immediately cuts, scrapes, punctures etc. and apply antiseptic bandage and seek
medical advice.
4. Use appropriate PPE to protect skin, fingers, foot and body. Selection of proper
goggles, gloves, footwear, aprons, overalls and clothing is important. Avoid loose
clothing and exposed skin or body parts to moving machinery, high temperature, toxic
chemicals (e.g. pesticides) etc.
5. Barrier creams to protect against dermatitis, lubricants, solvents, hydro-carbons etc.
Aprons for Skin Protection

Type of Apron Protects against
PVC, Acid / alkali proof Chemical splashes
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rubber, Face shield with visor

Leather Hot materials like molten slag, chips, hot or sharp
surfaces.
Asbestos Heat radiation
Lead Ionising radiation (X-rays, Gamma rays)
Fall protection for the body includes safety belts, lifelines (ropes) and lanyards, harnesses
(belts & straps with buckles) and fall-arrester devices or safety net.
Full body harness with Safety Belt and fall arrester
It is important to note that such safety belts and associated equipment are used when fall
hazards cannot be eliminated by strong support like railings, floors, platforms etc.
OSHA Standard has prohibited the use of a body belt-only for fall arrest and a fall arrest
system is suggested, since 1-1-1998.
Body belts are used where less than I m free fall is anticipated and a body harness (belts
or straps on chest, shoulders and thighs) is used for a limited fall upto 2 m. A harness can spread
the shock load over the shoulders, thighs and seat (hips). The body belt or lifeline D-ring should
be arranged at the back of the worker. The wearer of the safety belt should not tie off below waist
level (to prevent turning down head). A window cleaner's belt length is limited to 8 ft (2.5 m). The
chest belt is worn loosely to allow smooth breathing.
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The lifeline may be vertical from a fixed anchorage or horizontal between two fixed
anchorageindependent of the work surfaces Lanyard is a flexible .line up to 6 ft (1.8m) to secure
the wearer's harness (D-ring) to a lifeline or fixed
anchorage. Lanyards may be made of nylon or other
fibrous or metallic material and non-stretchable to
limit free fall distance. -Shock-absorber lanyards
are available to absorb up to 80% of the stopping
force of a normal lanyard. Metal lanyard must not
be used where electrical hazard is possible. Snap
hooks (locking type •preferable) and D-rings should
be maintained in good condition. Knots or
lengthening of lanyards must be avoided. Horizontal Lifeline
Body belts (work belts) are used to reduce the probability of falls. Chest harnesses are
used where there is limited fall hazard (not vertical free fall) such as for removal of a person from
a tank or bin. Body harnesses, covering chest, shoulders and thighs, are used to arrest the most
severe free falls.
Retrieval method is necessary to shorten the hanging distance after a fall upto 6 ft
(maximum limit of free falls, for more fall height, other supporting fixed structure must be
provided by fencing, railing, platform, fixed-ladder with platform and handrails etc.). Retractable
lifeline, which will be shorten automatically (e.g. spring action) after its full length, can limit falls
to inches and avoid prolonged suspension causing high discomfort to a hanging person.
Fall arrester net, if used, should be tied firmly as near as possible under the working place
to minimize the fall distance.
Belts, harnesses, lifelines, lanyards, buckles, joints, D-ring etc. should be checked for weak
points, washed regularly and kept dried at room temperature.
2.1.3: Hazard, Classification &Selection of Respiratory PPE

Respiratory Hazards:
Type of hazards to which a worker is exposed is the basis of selection of the right type of
respiratory protective equipment.
There are three basic classifications of respiratory hazards: oxygen-deficient air; particulate
contaminants; and gas and vapour contaminants.
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1. Oxygen Deficiency :
Normal ambient air contains an oxygen concentration of 20.8 percent by volume. When
the oxygen level dips below 19.5 percent, the air is considered oxygen-deficient. Oxygen
concentration below 16 percent is considered unsafe for human exposure because of harmful
effects on bodily function, mental processes and co-ordination.
It is important to note that life-supporting oxygen can be further displaced by other gases,
such as carbon dioxide or nitrogen. When this occurs, the result is often an atmosphere that can be
dangerous or fatal when inhaled. Oxygen deficiency can also be caused by rust, corrosion,
fermentation or other forms of oxidation which consume oxygen. The impact or oxygen-
deficiency can be gradual or sudden.
Atmospheres in confined spaces such as vats, tanks, hold of the ships, etc. may contain air
with oxygen content much lower than normal (21% by volume). This may be due to dilution or
displacement of the air by other gases or vapours or because of loss of oxygen due to decay of
organic matter, chemical reaction and natural oxidation over a long period of time. A person
breathing air with oxygen content of 15% or less may exhibit symptoms ranging from increased
rate of breathing, acceleration of pulse rate to unconsciousness and death,. Such oxygen
deficiency condition can easily be detected as the flame of a safety lamp will be extinguished in
such atmosphere. Oxygen deficient atmosphere is immediately dangerous to life. The respiratory
protective equipment in such conditions should either supply normal air or oxygen to the wear.
Self contained or combination breathing apparatus is suitable.
2. Gaseous Contaminants :
Gas and vapour contaminants can be classified according to their chemical characteristics. True
gaseous contaminants are similar to air in that they possess the same ability to diffuse freely
within an area or container. Nitrogen, chlorine, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and sulphur
dioxide are examples.
Vapours are the gaseous state of substances that are liquids or solids at room temperature. They
are formed when the solid or liquid evaporates. Gasoline, solvents and paint thinners are examples
of liquids that evaporate easily, producing vapours.
In terms of chemical characteristics, gaseous contaminants may be classified as follows :
Inert Gases - These include such true gases as nitrogen, helium, argon, neon, etc. Although they
do not metabolise in the body, these gases represent a hazard because they can produce an oxygen
deficiency by displacement of air.
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Acidic Gases - Often highly toxic (corrosive), acidic gases exist as acids or produce acids by
reaction with water. Sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and hydrogen chloride are examples.
Alkaline Gases - These gases exist as alkalis or produce alkalis by reaction with water. Ammonia
and phosphine are such examples.
In terms of chemical characteristics, vaporous contaminants may be classified as follows :
Organic Compounds - Contaminants in this category can exist as true gases or vapours produced
from organic liquids. Gasoline, solvents and paint thinners are examples.
Organo-metallic Compounds - These are generally comprised of metals attached to organic
groups. Tetra-ethyl-lead and organic phosphates are examples.
These may be toxic or inert gases or vapours. The toxic gases may produce harmful effect even if
they are present in relatively low concentrations. The inert gases produce undesirable effects
primarily by displacement of oxygen. Vapours are from volatile, evaporating liquids. Gaseous
contaminants can also be classified as:
a) Gaseous Contaminants Immediately Dangerous to life: These contaminants are
gases present in concentrations that would endanger life of a worker breathing them even
for a short period of time. In other words, a gas is immediately dangerous to life if it is
present in certain concentration. Where it is not possible to determine the extent 6f
concentration or the kind of gas, all gases should be considered as immediately dangerous
to life and health. IDLH values of many gases and dusts are available. Positive pressure
self-contained or combination breathing apparatus is suitable.
b) Gaseous Contaminants not immediately Dangerous to life : These contaminants are
gases present in concentration that could be breathed by a worker for a short time without
endangering his life but which may cause possible injury after a prolonged single exposure
or repeated short exposures. But even after the concentrations of the contaminant is
known, no exact formula can be applied to determine if the contaminant is immediately
dangerous to life or not. Air - line respirator, hose mask with or - without blower and
chemical cartridge respirator are suitable.
3. Particulate Matter or Contaminants :
Particulate contaminants can be classified according to their physical and chemical
characteristics and their physiological effect on the body. The particle diameter in microns (1
micron = l/ 25400 inch) is of utmost importance. Particles below 10 microns in diameter have a
greater chance to enter the respiratory system and particles below 5 microns in diameter are more
apt to reach the deep lung or alveolar spaces.
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In the healthy lungs, particles from 5 to 10 microns in diameter are generally removed by the
respiratory system by a constant cleansing action that takes place in the upper respiratory tract.
However, with excessive "dust" exposures or diseased respiratory system, the efficiency of the
cleansing action can be significantly-reduced.
The various types of airborne particulate contaminants can be classified as follows :
Fumes - An aerosol created when solid material is vaporised at high temperatures and then cooled.
As it cools, it condenses into extremely small particles generally less than I micron in diameter.
Fumes can result from operations such as welding, cutting, smelting or casting molten metals.
Dusts - An aerosol consisting of mechanically produced solid particles derived from the
breaking up of larger particles. Dusts generally have a larger particle size when compared to
fumes. Operations such as sanding, grinding, crushing, drilling, machining or sand blasting are the
worst dust producers. Dust particles are often found in the harmful size range of 0.5 to 10 microns.
Mists - An aerosol formed by liquids, which are atomised and/or condensed. Mists can be created
by such operations as spraying, plating or boiling, and by mixing or cleaning jobs. Particles are
usually found in the size range of 5 to 100 microns.
Majority of particulate contaminants are not immediately dangerous to life. They may be solid,
liquid or a combination of solid and liquid and may be classified into three broad groups- dust,
mist and fumes. Dust and fumes are solid flying particles, fumes being extremely small. Mists are
tiny liquid droplets given off by spraying or .very fast mixing or agitating.
Dust, mist or fume respirator, air-line respirator and abrasive blasting respirator are suitable.
Types of contaminants can also be classified as under:
a) Toxic particulate contaminants :
These when inhaled may pass from the lungs into the blood stream and are then carried to
the various parts of the body. The effect may be chemical irritation, systemic poisoning or
allergic reactions. Common contaminants in this group are antimony, arsenic, cadmium,
chromic acid and chromate, lead and manganese.
b) Fibrosis-producing dusts:
These dusts do not pass into the blood stream but remain in the lungs and may cause
pulmonary impairment. The common example under this group are asbestos, coal, iron,
bauxite and free silica.
c) Nuisance Dusts :
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These may dissolve and pass directly into the blood stream or may remain in the lungs
neither producing local nor systemic effects. Examples are saw dust, chalK clay, starch,
cement dust etc.
4. Combination of Gaseous and Particulate Contaminants:
Here gaseous and particulate contaminants occur together as in case of paint spraying
where solvent vapour (gas) and paint mists are mixed. They may be entirely of different
substances like carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen produced by blasting or volatile liquids.
For contaminants immediately dangerous to life, positive pressure self-contained or
combination breathing apparatus or gas masks with special filter and for not immediately
dangerous to life, air line respirator, hose masks with or without blower and chemical cartridge
respirator with special filter are suitable.
Respirator Selection:
Respiratory protective devices vary in design, application and protective capability. Thus,
the user must assess the inhalation hazard and understand the specific use limitations of available
equipment to assure proper selection.
The respirators fall under two classifications : air-purifying and air-supplied. Air-purifying
respirators are used against particulate, gases and vapours. These include negative-pressure
respirators that use chemical cartridges and/or filters; gas masks; and positive pressure units such
as powered air-purifying respirators (PAPRs), Air-supplied devices rely on a primary air source to
deliver a steady flow of respirable air to the user's facepiece. These include SCBA and airline
devices.
Selection and classification of Respiratory equipment based on type of hazard :
2.1.4 Instructions and training ( in the use, maintenance and care) of self
containing breathing apparatus. Training in the use of breathing apparatus
(opens circuits and close unit).
SCBA Training
Instruction and Training in the use of Respirators :
Instructionsfor care should include the following aspects :
1. Why and how it is to be used.
2. Protecting the equipment from dust, heat, moisture, extreme cold and damaging chemicals.
Storing in a dry cool place.
3. Checking that it is in good operating condition. Valves should be maintained in efficient
working condition.
4. Fitting of respirator on the wearer and
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5. Proper use and maintenance of the respirator.

6. Cleaning and keeping it in a sealed plastic bag with name tag of the user.
Training for respiratory equipment should include following points :
1. Reasons of need of respiratory protection and limitation or inability of other controls or
Methods.
2. Identification and understanding of the hazard for which the equipment is to be used and
selection procedure;
3. Limitation, capability, function and operation of the respirator.
4. Proper fitting, wearing, adjusting face piece & valves and removing of the respirator.
5. Maintenance and storage procedure.
6. Practice to wear first in a safe atmosphere to become familiar with its characteristics.
7. Practice to wear in a test atmosphere under close supervision of the trainer, and to do
similar activities and to detect respirator leakage or malfunction.
8. How to ascertain and handle emergency situation.
9. Statutory provisions regarding use of respirators.
10. When and how to replace filters, cartridges, canisters and cylinders.
11. Instructions for special use if any.
The trainer should be qualified safety officer, industrial hygienist, safety professional or
manufacturer's representative
OSHA Standard for Respiratory Protection:

Program Requirements:
The OSHA Respiratory Protection Standard (29 CFR 1910.1-34) lists seven key elements that
every respiratory protection program should contain. These include :
1. A written plan detailing how the program will be administered.
2. A complete assessment and knowledge of respiratory hazards that will be encountered in
the workplace.
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3. Procedures and equipment to control respiratory hazards, including the use of engineering
controls and work practices designed to limit or reduce employee exposures to such
hazards.
4. Guidelines for the proper selection of appropriate respiratory protective equipment.
5. An employee training program covering hazard recognition, the dangers associated with
respiratory hazards, proper care and use of respiratory protective equipment.
6. Inspection, maintenance and repair of respiratory protective equipment, and
7. Medical surveillance of employees.
Administration:
The first step in a respiratory protection program is to establish written standard operating
procedures governing the selection and use of respirators.
Finally, there should also be regular inspection and evaluation of the program itself to
ensure its continued effectiveness.
Hazard Assessment:
Proper assessment of the hazard is the first important step to protection. This requires a
thorough knowledge of processes, equipment, raw materials, end-products and by-products that
can create an exposure hazard.
To determine an atmosphere's oxygen content or concentration levels of particulate and/or
gaseous contaminants, air samples must be taken with proper sampling instruments during all
conditions of operation. The sampling device, the type and frequency of sampling (spot testing or
continuous monitoring) will be dictated by the exposure and operating conditions. Breathing zone
samples are recommended and sampling frequency should be sufficient to assess the average
exposure under the variable operating and exposure conditions.
If contaminant concentrations exceed exposure limits recommended by the American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), OSHA or NIOSH, hazard control
procedures must be implemented promptly.
Exposure monitoring plays a critical role in the respirator selection process. The results
from such tests will help you determine whether respiratory protection is needed and, if it is, the
type of respirator required. Generally respirator selection is based on three factors:
1. The results of your atmospheric monitoring or sampling programme,
2. The accepted ACGIH, OSHA or NIOSH exposure limits for the substance(s) present and
3. The maximum concentration (of a substance) for which a respirator can be used.
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Exposure limits include ACGIH Threshold Limit Values (TLVs), OSHA Permissible
Exposure Limits (PELs), NIOSH Recommended Exposure Levels (RELs) and AIHA Workplace
Environmental Exposure Levels (WEELs). These values are guides for exposure concentrations
that healthy individuals can normally tolerate for eight hours a day, five days a week without
harmful effects. Unless otherwise noted, exposure limits are eight-hour, time-weighted-
average(TWA) concentrations.
In general, gas and vapour exposure limits are expressed in ppm by volume (parts of
contaminant per million parts of air), while particulate matters (concentrations) are expressed as
mg/ 3 (milligrams of concentrations per cubic meter of air). For substances that can exist in more
than one form (particulate or gaseous), concentrations are expressed in both values.
It is important to note that exposure limits and other exposure standards are constantly
changing as more data is gathered about specific chemicals and substances. As such, you must be
certain that you are using the most recent data when determining allowable exposure levels for
employees.
Hazard Control:
Hazard control should start at the process, equipment and plant design levels where
contaminants can be effectively controlled at the outset. With operating processes,, the problem
becomes more difficult. In all cases, however, consideration should be given to the use of effective
engineering controls to eliminate and/or reduce exposures to respiratory hazards. This includes
consideration of process encapsulation or isolation, use of less toxic materials in the process and
suitable exhaust ventilation, filters and scrubbers to control the effluents.
Because it is sometimes not practical to maintain engineering controls that eliminate all
airborne concentrations of contaminants, proper respiratory protective devices should be used
whenever such protection is required.
Respirator Selection:
Respiratory protective devices vary in design, application and protective capability. Thus,
the user must assess the inhalation hazard and understand the specific use limitations of available
equipment to assure proper selection.
The respirators fall under two classifications : air-purifying and air-supplied. Air-purifying
respirators are used against particulate, gases and vapours. These include negative-pressure
respirators that use chemical cartridges and/or filters; gas masks; and positive pressure units such
as powered air-purifying respirators (PAPRs), Air-supplied devices rely on a primary air source to
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deliver a steady flow of respirable air to the user's facepiece. These include SCBA and airline
devices.
Medical Surveillance:
Workers should never be assigned to any operations requiring respiratory protection until a
physician has determined that they are capable physically and psychologically to perform the work
using the respiratory protective equipment.
Although instituting a sound respiratory protection program will take effort and financial
investment, the objective of such a program is sound - ensuring that every worker is protected
against potentially fatal diseases.
Cleaning Procedures for Respirators:
1. Remove filters, cartridges, or canisters. Disassemble face pieces by removing speaking
diaphragms, demand or pressure-demand valve assemblies, hoses, or any components
recommended by the manufacturer. Discard or repair any defective parts.
2. Wash components in warm (43°C/110°F maximum) water with a mild detergent or with a
cleaner recommended by the manufacturer. A stiff bristle (not wire) brush may be used to
facilitate the removal of dirt.
3. Rinse components thoroughly in clean, warm, preferably running water. Drain the
components.
4. When the cleaner used does not contain a disinfecting agent, respirator components should
be immersed for two minutes in-
Hypochlorite solution (50 ppm of chlorine made by adding approximately one
milliliter of laundry bleach to one liter of water at 43°C/110°F), or
Aqueous solution of iodine (50 ppm iodine) made by adding approximately 0.8
milliliters of tincture of iodine (6-8 grams ammonium and/ or potassium iodine/lOOcc of
45% alcohol) to one liter of water at 43°C/110°F
5. The importance of thorough rinsing is most important. Detergents or disinfectants that dry
on facepieces may result in dermatitis. In addition, some disinfectants may cause
deterioration of rubber or corrosion of metal parts if not completely removed.
6. Components should be hand-dried with a clean, lint-free cloth, or air-dried.
7. Reassemble facepiece, replacing filters, cartridges, and canisters where necessary.
8. Test the respirator to ensure that all components work properly.
2.2 PPE TESTING PROCEDURES AND STANDARDS
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Fit Testing
Respirators should fit properly to provide protection. To obtain adequate respiratory
protection, there must be a proper match between respirator and wearer. Respirators not properly
fitting cause illusion of protection. To accommodate the variability of face size characteristics
among individuals, a number of manufacturers offer face pieces in several sizes and models.
Purpose:
The primary purpose of tit testing is to identify the (1) specific make (2) model, style and
size of respirator best suited for each employee.
In addition, fit testing also provides an opportunity to check any problem with respirator
wear, methods of donning and wearing the respirator.
Requirement:
1. Fit testing is required for all negative or positive pressure tight-fitting facepiece respirators.
2. The OSHA respiratory protection standard requires that tit testing be performed before an
employee first starts wearing a respirator in the work environment, whenever a different
respirator facepiece is used, and at least annually thereafter.
Method:
 Prior to the actual fit test, the employee must be shown how to put on a respirator
 Position it on the face, set strap tension, and determine an acceptable fit. Next, the
employee must
 be allowed to choose a respirator from a sufficient number of models and sizes so that the
employee can find an acceptable and correctly fitting respirator.
 Once an acceptable respirator has been found — which takes into account the position of
the mask on the face, nose, and cheeks; room for eye protection; and room to talk — a user
seal check must be conducted.
Types of Fit Testing.
 Fit testing may either be qualitative (QLFT) or quantitative (QNFT)
 Prior to the commencement of the fit test, the employee must be given a description of the
fit test and a description of the exercises that he or she will be per forming during fit
testing.
 The respirator to be tested must be worn for at least five minutes before the start of the fit
test.
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 The employee must be fit tested with the same make, model, style, and size of respirator
that will be used in the workplace.
Qualitative fit testing (QLFT).
Qualitative fit testing involves the introduction of a gas, vapor, or aerosol test agent into an
area around the head of the respirator user.
A determination is then made as to whether or not the wearer can detect die presence of the
test agent through means such as odor, taste, or nasal irritation. If the presence of the test agent is
detected inside the mask, the respirator fit is considered to be inadequate.
There are four qualitative fit test protocols approved in OSHA's standard.
1. The iso-amyl acetate (IAA) test determines whether a respirator is protecting a user by
questioning whether the user can smell the distinctive odor of IAA.
2. The. irritant smoke (e.g., stannic chloride) test involves a substance that elicits an
involuntary irritation response in those exposed to it.
3. Before conducting a qualitative test, the worker must undergo a sensitivity test to
determine if he or she can taste, smell or react to the substance.
4. When performing the iso-amyl acetate test, the protocol requires that separate rooms be
used for the odor screening and fit tests, and that the rooms be sufficiently ventilated to
ensure that there is no detectable odor of IAA prior to a test being conducted.
Quantitative fit testing (QNFT).
In a quantitative fit test, the adequacy of respirator fit is assessed by numerically
measuring the amount of leakage into the respirator.
This testing can be done by either generating a test aerosol as a test atmosphere, using
ambient aerosol as the test agent, or using controlled negative pressure (CNP) to measure the
volumetric leak rate. Appropriate instrumentation is required to quantify respirator fit.
Fit Test Exercises :
The following test exercises must be performed for all fit testing methods.
Normal breathing in a normal standing position, without talking.
Deep breathing in a normal standing position, breathing slowly and deeply, taking precaution not
to hyperventilate.
Turning the head slowly from side to side, while standing in place, with the employee
holding his/her head momentarily at each extreme so that the employee can inhale at each side;
Moving the head up and down slowly, while standing in place, inhaling in the up position
when looking toward the ceiling;
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Bending at the waist as if to touch toes (jogging .in place can be done when the fit test
enclosure doesn't permit bending at the waist); and normal breathing (as described above).
Retesting:
If the employee finds the fit of the respirator unacceptable, he or she must be given a
reasonable opportunity to select a different respirator and to be retested. In addition, retesting is
required whenever an employee reports, or the employer, supervisor, or program administrator
observe changes in an employee's physical condition that could affect respirator fit. Such
conditions include, but are not limited to, facial scarring, dental changes (e.g., wearing new
dentures), cosmetic surgery, or an obvious change in body weight.
Facepiece Positive and/or Negative Pressure Checks :
1. Positive Pressure Check
Close off the exhalation valve and exhale gently into the facepiece. *
The fade fit is considered satisfactory if a slight positive pressure can be built up inside the
facepiece without any evidence of outward leakage of air at the seal.
For most respirators, this method of leak testing requires the wearer to first remove the
exhalation valve cover before closing off the exhalation valve, and then carefully replacing it after
the test.
2. Negative Pressure Check
Close off the inlet opening of the canister or cartridge(s) by covering it with the palm of the
hand(s).
Inhale gently so that the facepiece collapses slightly and hold your breath for ten seconds.
The design of the inlet opening of some cartridges cannot be effectively covered with the
palm of the hand, which requires' that the test be performed by covering the inlet opening of the
cartridge with a thin latex or nitrile glove.
If the facepiece remains in its slightly collapsed condition and no inward leakage of air is
detected, the tightness of the respirator is considered satisfactory.
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CHAPTER-3
WHO definition of Occupational Health
About occupational health The main functions of WHO (occupational health) mandated in
article 2 of its Constitution include promoting the improvement of working conditions and other
aspects of environmental hygiene. Recognizing that occupational health is closely linked to public
health and health systems development, WHO is addressing all determinants of workers' health,
including risks for disease and injury in the occupational environment, social and individual
factors, and access to health services. WHO is implementing a Global Plan of Action on Workers‘
health 2008-2017 endorsed by the World.
Health Assembly in 2007 with the following objectives:
 devising and implementing policy instruments on workers' health;
 protecting and promoting health at the workplace;
 improving the performance of and access to occupational health services;
 providing and communicating evidence for action and practice; and
 incorporating workers' health into other policies.
5.1 Occupational Health Hazards:

5.1.1 Adverse effect of Noise & Vibration
Adverse Health Effects and Controls:
Noise & Vibration :
Noise - too low or too high cause ear strain or pain. Auditory effects are temporary or
permanent hearing loss. Non-auditory effects cause nervousness, fatigue, difficulty in
conversation, decreased efficiency, annoyance and psychological and systemic effects. The degree
of injury depends on intensity and frequency of noise, exposure time (duration) and individual
susceptibility.
EFFECTS AND HAZARDS OF NOISE
Moderate sound (F < 4000 Hz) is good but high sound or noise is hazardous.
The harmful effects of noise depend upon a number of factors:
1. Noise frequency and intensity.
2. Total length of exposure.
3. Length of exposure at a time.
4. Distance from the noise source.
5. Whether noise is continuous, interrupted, sudden or impulsive.
6 Whether ear protector is worn or not and
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7. Individual susceptibility depending on age, health etc.

Excessive noise harms overall health and may contribute to -
1. Mental stress
2. Physical stress
3. Certain illness
4. Hearing Loss or deafness
5. Accidents and
6. Labour productivity.
Labour productivity is declined when workers are exposed to high noise level.
The harmful effects of excessive noise have been well recognised and it has been shown
that such noise produces physiological and psychological effects on industrial workers, such as
hearing loss, deafness, fatigue, irritation, annoyance, distraction, masking. Such effects are due to
sound intensity.
J.L. McCartney‘s report 'Noise drives us crazy' shows that the work of assembling
temperature regulators increased more than 37% and errors fell to one-eighth of their former
number when the work was moved from the proximity of a boiler shop to a quiet area. Office
work increased 8.8% and typists' errors fell 24% with a noise reduction of 14.5%. The noise
reduction also decreased turnover or workers by 47% and absenteeism by 37.5%.
In factory where audible warning signals are to be heard or where an operator has to follow
the operation of his machine by ear, the background noise should not be so loud as to mask
(suppress) the signal or desired sound i.e. information sound to he heard.
Another noise criteria, known as Damage-Risk Criteria specify the maximum levels and
duration of noise exposure that can be considered safe.
Whenever the noise intensity at the workers position exceeds the levels and duration
suggested by the criterion curves, ear protection is recommended, since such exposure may cause
permanent auditory damage.
Noise induced hearing loss is not ameliorated by the use of hearing aid. It may rather
accentuate the frequency distortion.
Auditory ill-effects are of two types - temporary (threshold) hearing loss and permanent
hearing loss including physical damage (ruptured eardrums). For details see Part 2.1.
Non-auditory ill effects are vibration or change in blood pressure or/and respiration or
digestive system, dilatation of pupils and diseases like peripheral vascular disturbance IDH,
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vascular neuropathy, myopathy etc. Impulsive noise disrupts work performance. Continuous noise
may have subtle psychological and psychomotor effects.
Speech or hearing interference (masking), annoyance, distraction, fatigue (mental and
physical both), muscle tension, headache, nausea, tiredness, nervousness and contribution to other
disorders are also reported. For details see Part 2.
If noise cannot be reduced at source, or its transmission to the environment cannot be
prevented, use ear protection.
Exposure to excessive noise raises our hearing threshold i.e. the degree of loudness at
which we first begin to hear.
Some health effects are discussed in details below:
Auditory Effects (Hearing Loss) :

These are serious health hazards resulting in hearing loss or deafness.
Hearing Loss:
Hearing ability can be greatly reduced by repeated or long exposure to high noise and this
permanent effect is known as noise induced hearing loss.
It is impairment in ear that obstructs receipt of sound and understanding of speech in a
sentence form (not in the form of test words). It is deafness. It is irreversible and incurable disease
and can be corrected partly by hearing aids. Early audiometric examination can prevent further
damage.
A young person with normal hearing can easily detects sounds in 6 to 20000 Hz frequency
range. Important frequency range to understand speech is between 500 to 2000 Hz. Generally
hearing losses in this frequency range which are compensable under Workmen's Compensation
Laws.
Old definition of 'hearing impairment (loss)' means to begin to hear (threshold level) at 25
decibels more at 500, 1000 and 2000 Hz.
Ability to hear less than normal speech indicates degradation. It can result from ageing,
long-term exposure to high noise (more than 90 dBA) or from a sudden, very high intensity noise
(more than 160 dBA). Much of this degradation with age may be due to continuous exposure to
environmental noise of modern society rather than to simple ageing. It is possible therefore that
even where a factory complies with standards (say 90 dBA), workers will suffer hearing loss (due
to exposure outside) and be eligible for benefits under Workmen's Compensation Laws. Therefore
it is advisable to avoid loss claims, all attempts should be made to reduce noise to the lowest
possible level and not to be higher than 80 dB.
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One of the more extensive studies involving 400 men, 90 women and a period up to 40
years has been reported by LL Beranek and LN Miller, in 'The Anatomy of Noise', Machine
Design, 14-9-1967. The group was regularly exposed to noise of 90 dB in each of the six octave
frequency bands between 150 and 9600 Hz.
The study found that appreciable hearing losses at 3000, 4000 and 6000 Hz occurred in the
first 15 years. At 500, 1000 and 2000 Hz, hearing losses increased less rapidly, as linear functions
of exposure time. Some of the men tested, even at 30 years young, found it difficult to understand
speech after about 10 years of exposure.
Men showed greater hearing loss than women because the women had regular work breaks
during each shift while the men did not.
The ear's greatest sensitivity is in the 30005000 Hz range and hearing loss almost always
occurs first at about 4000 Hz. With time and continued exposure, the loss extends to a range of
3000 to 6000 HZ. This diminishes hearer's ability to follow conversation. The most important
frequencies for speech comprehension are at 500, 1000 and 2000 Hz. Therefore tests for hearing
losses are made at these frequencies for compensability. The lowest level at which a person (under
test) can detect sound is called hearing threshold. A loss is considered compensable if the
degradation in hearing is 15 dB or more in speech frequencies. 'This means that the hearing
threshold has been increased by at least that amount.
Effects of Chemicals on Hearing loss are also reported. Exposure to certain chemicals,
along with noise, can also cause hearing loss. Toluene, lead, mercury, arsenic, CS, manganese, n-
butyl alcohol, trichloroethylene, styrene are reported for such effect.
It is also reported that noise above 115 dBC (i.e. ceiling level) as 8-hour TWA and 155
dBC as peak exposure (impulsive or impact noise) to the abdomen of pregnant workers, beyond
the fifth month of pregnancy may cause hearing loss in the fetus.
In such combined effect of noise and chemicals, periodic audiograms and their careful
review are necessary.
A very loud impulsive noise can cause ringing in the ears (tinnitus) and immediate loss of
hearing sensitivity. It can disappear if there is no further exposure to high noise levels. The
impulsive or impact level should not exceed a ceiling limit of 140 dB (OSHA).
The ear can protect itself to some extent from noise by means of the reflex contraction of
certain muscles in the middle ear which tries to limit the energy being transmitted inside. This
protection is of little use when sudden very loud noise strikes the ear causing the muscle fatigue.
Factors affecting degree and extent of hearing loss are as under:
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1. The intensity of the noise (sound pressure level).

2. The type of noise (frequency spectrum).
3. The period of exposure each day (duty cycle per day).
4. The total work duration (years of employment).
5. Individual's susceptibility.
6. Age and health of the worker.
7. Co-existing hearing loss and ear disease.
8. Character of the surroundings in which the noise is produced.
9. Distance from the source, and
10. Position of the ears with respect to sound waves and wearing ear protection or not.
The first four factors are called noise exposure factors and are more important.
Because of so many factors i.e. possible contributory causes and complex relationship of
noise and exposure time to threshold shift (reduction in hearing level), time required to establish
criteria t( protect workers against hearing loss may last many years.
The signs and symptoms of hearing loss are
1. Ringing in the ear at the end of the work shift slight headache, tiredness, dizziness.
2. Intermittent ringing in ears.
3. Normal hearing is affected - if background noise is present, incapability of picking up
conversation, cannot hear ticking clock etc.
4. Feeling of hearing insufficiency is manifest.
Reduction in hearing capacity is not on) quantitative but also qualitative, that is, sounds a;
perceived in an abnormal manner.
Diagnosis and special tests include audiometric examination and monitoring noise levels at
the work place.
Hearing loss is of two types - temporary and permanent . They are also classified as
conductive sensorineural and mixed hearing loss.
Temporary hearing loss can be caused by exposure to loud noise for up to a few hours,
which numbs the hair cells. Fortunately, hearing is usually restored after a period away from
noise.
Permanent hearing loss occurs when exposure to loud noise permanently damages or
destroys the hair cells. Hearing cannot be restored. Signs of permanent hearing loss include -
1. Inability to hear pitched or soft sounds.
2. Trouble in understanding conversation, or speech heard over the telephone.
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3. Ringing or roaring m the ears (tinnitus).

Any condition interfering with transmission of sound to the cochlea (inner ear part) is
classified as conductive hearing loss'. It can be due to wax in auditory canal holes in eardrum,
blockage of Eustachian tube, fluid in the middle ear secondary to infection. This type of loss is
also due to medical or surgical treatment.
Sensorineural hearing loss is mostly irreversible. It involves the organ of corti and
degeneration of the natural elements of the auditory nerve. It indicates sever injury to the hair
cells. This type of loss occurs due to various causes including presbycusis, viruses (e.g. mumps),
some congenital defects and drug toxicity (e.g. streptomycin).
Mixed hearing loss occurs when above both the types of losses are found in the same ear.
Central hearing loss means person's difficulty to interpret when he hears. The abnormality
is localized in the brain between the auditory nuclei and the cortex.
Psychogenic hearing loss indicates nonorganic basis for threshold elevation. It may be
due to malingering and hysteria.
No cure exists for hearing loss caused by noise. Hearing aids do not restore noise damaged
hearing, although they help some people if such aids are properly selected.
Exposure to intense noise creates a temporary threshold shift (TSS) first. This is greatest
from 1 to 24 hours after the exposure and reduces gradually if the noise has not been too loud. or
has not been too long. This condition is also known as auditory fatigue. This effect is transitory
i.e. removable. It is of two types TTS, and TTS,,. The later persists beyond 16 hours.
Repeated exposures produce a permanent threshold shift (PTS). If no recovery is noticed

within a week (i.e. no hearing improvement by then), a return to the level before exposure is
improbable. It is a noise induced hearing loss.
While deciding whether a certain noise is a hazard, the important factors are both the
sound level and the number of hours of exposure per day. Table 12.4 and 12.5 given in Part 4 must
be followed for that.
Hearing loss is a notifiable Disease under the Factories Act 1948:
Noise induced hearing loss (exposure to high noise levels) is a notifiable disease under the
Third Schedule of the Factories Act and duty is cast upon both the manager of the factory and the
medical practitioner attending the person affected, to report to the Chief Inspector of Factories
without delay (Sections 89 & 90).
Non-auditory Effects:
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These are the effects other than the hearing loss and mostly temporary in nature. They may
be disappeared if their causative factors are removed.
Speech or Hearing Interference and Masking :
Oral communication is interfered by a noisy environment and misunderstanding may be
created about information being transmitted. It can lead to accidents. Such sound effect is called
masking.
Masking is a level in decibels, by which a sound must be increased to be understood in the
presence of another, interfering sound.
Tests were conducted of reception of pure tone (single frequencies) communications,
where masking was also provided by pure tones. It was found that the intensity of the message to
be communicated had to be increased 15 to 30 decibels to become understandable.
Various methods to measure the effects of noise levels on speech communications are
based on relationships among noise levels, voice (speech) levels and distance between speaker and
listener.
Annoyance :
Normally people are annoyed by noise. However types and levels differ from person to
person. Rock music annoys people who like classical music and vice-versa. Acclimatisation or
tolerance to certain level is an important factor. People who have been exposed to certain noises
over a long period develop a tolerance to that level. The same noises may annoy other persons
who have not developed the tolerance and to such a degree their efficiency is degraded. They may
become more prone to errors or accidents.
Normally louder noise or unexpected impulsive -noise can be more annoying. High
frequencies are more annoying than low frequencies.
Distraction :
It is another noise effect that diverts attention of a person. For example/passengers talking
with a driver of a bus can distract his attention which may lead to an accident. Persons talking in
the vicinity can distract the attention of other persons even if it does not annoy them. The sudden
ringing of a telephone or any audio signal can distract attention and disturbs concentration.
Physiological Effects :
Sleep disturbance (WHO report, even at less than 35 dBA) and stress reaction (e.g. jet
aircraft personnel exposed to 120 dBA or more) have been noticed.
Cancer: A case study was published in 'Current Science' weekly. 40 female rats were kept
under the effect of 25 kHz ultrasound waves daily for one minute and for a period of six months.
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In 70% of these test-rates, cancer tumours were observed, skin wrinkles were seen and their hairs
fell off. They were feeling difficulty in movement and died earlier than normal rates. Dr. S.N.
Chatterji of Nuclear Physics in Saha Institute and Dr. Pratima Sur of Indian Institute of Chemical
Biology carried out this experiment and warned against this ultrasound hazard mostly found in
equipment used for biological and medical diagnosis. (News 10-8-98).
Adverse effects on work output, efficiency and morale are another non-auditory effects of
noise. Fatigue and mental health' effect may also occur. However such effects are varying and
many a times human adaptability nullifies such effects.
Behavioural Effects:
Adverse effects on work output, efficiency and morale are other non-auditory effects of
noise. Fatigue and mental health effect may also occur. However, such effects are varying and
many a times human adaptability nullifies such effects.
Vibration of 10 to 500 Hz frequency range as normally found with pneumatic drills,
hammers and grinders affects the hands and arms. After exposure of months or years, fingers
become sensitive to spasm known as white fingers. Vibrations also produce injuries to joints,
elbows and shoulders.
Sick or Tight Building Syndrome is a health effect on workers, mostly IT personnel due to
heat or cold stress, poor ventilation, poor lighting, or monotonous work in fixed type of
environment for a longer period. Sickness is resulted in health effects like indigestion, psychosis
(mental fatigue), visual problem, mental feeling of impotency, headache, backache, uneasiness,
obesity, acidity etc. Remedial measures include-change in working environment, new and
attractive atmosphere, good lighting and ventilation, good house keeping, rotation of persons,
recreation facility and staggered working hours instead of continuous eight or more working
hours.
Adverse effect of Cold, Heat Stress, & Illumination
(1) Adverse effect of Cold, Heat Stress
a) The cold causes chilblains, shivering, frostbite, trench foot, vasoconstriction,
hypothermia and erythrocyanosis.
The control measures include (1) sufficient intake of water and salt (2) cotton and protective
clothing (3) break in exposure time and more rest intervals (4) engineering controls (5) medical
control and (6) acclimatisation of the workers.
b) Heat causes burns, exhaustion, stroke, cramps, fatigue, decreased efficiency, pain,
discomfort, heal collapse, systemic disorders, skin disorders, psychoneurotic disorders and
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tendency to cause accident. Acclimatization to high temperature requires reduction in heart rate
and internal body temperature at the expense of increased sweating. Radiant heat (e.g. ovens,
furnaces), stagnant heat (e.g. textile mills), and high temperature (e.g. mines, glass furnaces)
create stress and impair health.
The amendment (1995) in Gujarat Factories Rules has prescribed certain limits - Room
temperature < 30 °C (80 °F), Air movement > 30 mt/ min. Ventilation openings > 15% of the floor
area and in summer when temperature exceeds 35 °C and humidity 50%, air cooling is required.
For humidity control dry and wet bulb temperatures are also prescribed u/r ISA.
One UK Standard suggests the following criteria
Environmental Factor Standard
Air temperature 21 oC
Mean radiant temperature > 21oC
Relative humidity 30-70%
Air movement 30-60 mt / min
Temperature gradient (foot to head) < 2.5 oC
Microwaves (heating sources )

Uses of microwave radiation are heating sources like microwave ovens, dryers for food
products and plywood, pasteurization, ceramics, telecommunications like radio and TV and
medical applications (diathermy devices). Microwave ovens for heating or cooking food are clean,
flexible and instantly controllable. The heating rate is very high and use of any fuel or pollution
due to it should be avoided.
The primary effect of microwave energy is thermal. The higher frequency cause lower
hazard and vice versa. Frequencies less than 3000 MHz can cause serious damage. At 70 MHz,
maximum SAR (specific absorption ratio) in human takes place. Exposure of high intensity and
more time can cause localised damage by skin burning, tissue burns, cataracts, adverse effect On
reproduction and even death.
The basic safety measures include restricting energy (power density in microwatts/ m2 and
frequency) below the safe level, reducing time of exposure, shielding and enclosing microwave
source, reorienting antenna or emitting device, use of PPE and controlling at source.
(3) Adverse effect of Illumination (i.e.Visible Light (Energy) :
This portion lies in the range of 400 to 750 nm. The danger of ratinal injury lies between
425 to 450 nm due to peak brightness. Eye response to excessive brightness i.e. partial or full lid
closure and shading of the eyes, is a protective human mechanism.
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Main sources of visible light are sun, laser beams, arc welding, highly incandescent or hot
bodies and artificial light sources such as pulsating light, high-intensity lamps, spotlights,
projector bulbs, neon tubes, fluorescent tubes, flash tubes and plasma torch sources.
The visible light is of three types : incident, reflected and transmitted light. Incident light is
that light which strikes the work surface. Reflected light is that light which bounces off surfaces
and reflected onto work surfaces by walls and ceiling. It is measured to determine glare and
shadows. Transmitted light pen
Vision is a photochemical and physiological phenomenon. Exposure to glare can cause
fatigue of eyes, iritis and blepharism. But these effects cannot cause pathological changes.
Poor illumination can cause industrial accidents. Direct glare, reflected glare from the
work and dark shadows lead to visual fatigue. Better lighting provides safe working environment,
better vision and reduces losses in visual performance.
Factors of good lighting are its quantity and quality. The Quantity is the amount of
illumination that produces brightness on the task and surroundings. The Quality refers to
distribution of brightness in environment and includes the colour of light, its diffusion, direction,
degree of glare etc.
Light & Colour :
Improper and insufficient illumination causes eye strain, eye fatigue, headache,
lachrymation, congestion around cornea and miner's nystagmus (chronic effect). Glare or
excessive brightness causes visual discomfort and fatigue, tiredness and irritability. There
should be sufficient and suitable lighting natural or artificial in all work areas.
Adverse health effects of thermal radiation, lonising and non-lonising

radiations.
Ionising & Non-ionising Radiation :
Electromagnetic radiation consists of varying electric and magnetic fields, operating at
right angles to each other. It has both particulate and wavelike aspects. Following table shows the
wavelength and frequency for various electromagnetic radiation. Longwaves have low energy,
short-waves have high. The higher energy wavelengths (short-waves) are more penetrating i.e.
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more damaging. X-rays, Gamma rays and cosmic rays have short wavelengths, 10" cm and less,
and high frequency, 10'6 c/s and above and cause ionising radiation.
Others i.e. electric waves, radio waves, micro waves, visible light, IR, UV and lasers have
longer wavelength and less frequency and cause non-ionising radiation. Lasers are involved in
visible light, IR and UV regions of the spectrum given below :
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Energy Form Frequency c/s Wavelength, cms
Non-ionising radiation :
Electric waves 102 to 104 1012 to 106
Radio waves 104 to 1011 106 to 10-1
Infrared (IR) 1011 to 1014 10-1 to 10-4
Visible light 1015 7x10-5 to 4x10-5
Ultraviolet (UV) 1015 to 1016 10-5 to 10-6
Ionising radiation :
X-rays 1016 to 1018 10-6 to 10-9
Gamma rays 1018 to 1021 10-10
Cosmic rays 1021 on 10-11 on
Types and Limits of Radiation :
(A) Ionising Radiation:

Ionising radiation means electromagnetic or corpuscular radiation capable of producing
ions directly or indirectly in its passage through matter. It is not visible by normal eyes. X-rays,
Alpha, Beta, Gamma, fast neutrons, thermal neutrons and radionuclides are ionising radiation.
Radioactive substance (chemical) must be firmly sealed within metal container to prevent
dispersion to active material into surrounding. Radiation hazard means the danger to health
arising from exposure to ionising radiation which may be external or internal.
Animal and human studies have shown that exposure to ionizing radiation can cause
carcinogenic, teratogenic or mutagenic effects, as well as other sequelae. The NCRP has
formulated exposure limits. Some such limits are given below :
Exposure limits given in rems per year are as under:
Whole body exposure Long term accumulation 5 (Age in year – 18) x 5
Testicles, Ovaries and Red bone marrow 5
Skin, Thyroid, Bone 15 to 30
Hands, Feet and Ankles 75
Forearms 30
All other organs 15
Pregnant woman, total during pregnancy, 1
0.5 in gestation period
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Population
1 Individual 0.5 wholebody
2 Average 5 gonads
International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) has prescribed a dose-
equivalent limit of 0.5 SV (50 rem) to prevent non-stochastic effects.
Radiation dosimetry in health physics tries to know whether individual radiation exposures
are within permissible dose. Various fixed and portable monitors (detectors and survey
instruments) are used for radiation exposure measurement. Some fixed monitors are as
under:Type of Detector For type of Radiation.
Type of Detector For type of Radiation.
Proportional or scintillation
1 Alpha
counter surface barrier diode
Geiger-Mueller tube or
2 Beta
proportional counter
Ionisation chamber, scintillation

3 X and Gamma
counter
Proportional counter, ionsation

4 Fast neutrons
chamber.
5 Proportional counter. Thermal neutrons
Fixed monitors are either area monitoring instruments or contamination monitoring

instruments. Area monitors are used for measurement of air, ganima radiation, neutron radiation
and radioactive effluents. The contamination monitoring instruments include hand and shoe
monitors, portal monitors, clothing monitors and monitors for contaminated wounds. The
dosimeters are to be calibrated for proper use.
Protection Techniques include :
1. Control of exposure time and distance.
2. Shielding.
3. Wearing a film badge to check dose limit.
4. Pre and post employment medical test.
5. Prevention of radiation disease such as skin cancer, ulceration, dermatitis, cataract,
damage to bones and blood etc.
6. Use of remote controlled containers.
7. Continuous monitoring and maintaining safe limits by engineering controls and
PPE.
8. The sealed container should be leakproof.
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Health Physics is a branch of science dealing with improvement of protection against

exposure to ionising radiation (IR). The main principles of health physics were defined in 1977 by
the ICRP. Three general principles of radiation protection are - (1) justification (2) optimisation
and (3) limitation of worker's exposure to radiation.
Medical radiation (x-rays) and nuclear radiation to generate electric power are justified but
nuclear weapons for war are not justified.
Optimisation means to keep the exposure as low as achievable
Limitation means to limit the exposure entering a human body by protecting individual or
society by devices and observing prescribed safe dose limits.
A record for more than 30 years must be maintained even after completion of job on
ionising radiation, of (1) doses absorbed by individual and (2) exposure measurement.
In our present day industry, radiation generating machines and radioactive materials for
testing of materials, process control and research have found wide-spread use. X-ray machines are
widely used in industry, medicine, commerce and research. Industrial X-ray devices include
radiographic and fluoroscopic units used for the determination of defects in materials in packaged
food etc. All such uses are potential sources of exposure. The most widely used naturally
occurring radio-nuclide is Ra. 226 which is used in medicine and industry. In its use in the
medical field, many individuals, besides the patient are potentially exposed to radiation. In
industry, the principle uses of radium are for radiography in luminous compound and in making
static eliminators. Textile and paper trades, printing, photographic processing and telephone and
telegraph companies are the typical industries where the static eliminator may be found. The use
of artificially produced radio-nuclides (radio-isotopes) in medical, biological, agricultural fields,
and scientific research has been increased. Possible exposure from such radio nuclides is involved
with their preparation, handling, application and transportation. Exposures, internal or external,
might also arise through contamination of the environment by wastes originating from 'the use of
these materials.
Applications of ionising radiation in industry are many. It is used mostly in biological and
chemical research, chemical pilot plants and production. It is used for curing, grafting, testing &
evaluation, free radicals, cross .linking, polymerisation, disinfection, sterilisation, pasteurisation
etc. Productwise it is used in semi-conductors, rubber, adhesives, spices, paints and coatings,
membranes, fuels, lubricants, plastic piping, enzymes, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, medical
supplies, foods, flooring, furniture, textile, medical uses, agricultural uses etc.
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Biological Effects and Controls of radiation : Occasional small dose (e.g. X-ray
photograph) does not affect much but small doses for a longer time or more frequent dose or
higher dose may cause biological damage to a human body. Radiation energy passes through a
body. The energy absorbed in a body is called dose. The time between the exposure and the first
symptom of radiation damage is called latent period. The larger the dose or the residence time, the
shorter the latent period.
Human body always generates new cells replacing dead or damaged cells. But when
ionising radiation causes more damage than the body's repair capacity, biological damage takes
place. Injury to individual .is called somatic effect and that being passed into future generations is
called genetic effect. The. biological effect is the destruction of reproduction capacity of a cell or
carcinogenic effect (cancer) which is difficult to cure.
Biological effect of radiation can be reduced by -
1.Shielding the body portion (especially blood forming tissues and intestine).
2.Shielding by a portion between the source and the human body by a high density material
such as lead or concrete wall. Thickness should be increased depending on intensity of
radiation.
3.Less dense (less hazardous) radiation (electromagnetic instead of charged particles).
4.Low dose rate or fractionation of the dose and decreasing the dose level.
5.Diminishing O2 concentration in the tissues.
6.Reducing the exposure time.
7.Increasing the distance from source.
8.Using sealed source of radiation.
Monitoring the environmental exposures by various instruments such as film badge,
thermoluminescence dosimeters (TLD), pocket dosimeter, Geiger-MuUer tubes (having
automatic audible .alarm), ionismg chambers, neutron and proton monitors and keeping them
below the permissible threshold limits. Calibration techniques for instruments is most important.
10. Decontamination facilities.
11. Safe disposal of radioactive wastes.
Medical Surveillance : Exposure to radiation workers may not give any clinical signs.
Therefore, according to ICRP, the medical surveillance of radiation workers should aim at-
1. To assess the health of the workers.
2. To preserve good general health standards by monitoring the work conditions, exposure
levels and the health of the workers and
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3. To provide baseline information in case of accidental exposure or occupational disease.

Functions of such medical service include--
1. Scheduling of medicell and radiotoxicological examinations. Pre-employment and during
and after (post) employment examinations are necessary.
2. Evaluating the fitness of individual workers for specific tasks.
3. Medical examinations and first-aid after radiation accidents, irradiation or contamination
accidents.
4. Keeping of adequate medical records for quite a long time (30 years).
5. Contributing to safety and health training and
6. Helping to solve safety problems in the plant.
Large nuclear installations should have full time and fully equipped medical and health
physics services and facilities - including decontamination facilities and ablutions very near the
workplace. Small units should obtain part-time facilities.
Personal decontamination facilities include a separate ambulance port, monitoring devices,
sink, showers, a disrobing room, clean clothing and pharmaceutical supplies.
Plant medical service should remain in touch with local and other hospitals where
irradicated or contaminated persons can be treated.
Radiological Accidents and Controls : When radioactive irradiation or/and
contamination is likely to exceed the maximum permissible levels, such overexposure is termed as
radiation accidents.
Accidental external irradiation depends on nature of radiation, its distribution in space
(exposed area), its penetration in body (dose level) and its duration. In the exposed area irradiation
may be of whole-body or partial type. Dose level may be massive, substantial or slight. The
biological effect may be irreversible tissue damage, severe but reversible changes or purely
temporary disorders. Kind of radiation may be photon irradiation (x or y- rays), particle
irradiation by electrons, neutrons and protons or mixed photon and particle irradiation.
Accidental radioactive contamination depends on the nature of the radionuclide (its
physical, chemical and radioactive characteristics), local distribution in the body (path of entry
through skin, wounds or inhalation), duration (initial and secondary impact following bodily
intake) and level of contamination (massive, substantial or slight).
Control Measures necessary are -
1. In case of external irradiation, measurement of exposure in the body and the space, should
soon be carried out to decide a course of action.
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Urgent treatment is not essential.

2. In case of radioactive contamination, urgent treatment is essential. Therapy should first be
followed instead of measurement of radioactivity and clinical and biological examinations,
though they should be followed subsequently to assess the level of contamination.
3. If the whole-body irradiation is more than 100 rem, the person should immediately be
transferred to a specialised hospital.
4. Cases of massive whole-body irradiation are difficult to survive, but, they are mostly rare.
5. No immediate treatment is required for slight or partial irradiation. Persons should be
observed for some weeks for subsequent development if any.
6. Therapeutic measures are as under:
1. Cleaning and washing of skin and wounds.
2. Decontamination by surgical excision, but before that a strong chelating agent must
be applied locally as soon as possible.
3. In case of inhalation, emergency medical treatment becomes necessary if the internal
contamination exceeds the maximum 3monthly intake or exceeds (500 x Maximum
permissible atmospheric contamination per hour). The person should be transferred
to a specialised hospital. In serious accidents, the stomach must be washed out and
the contaminant at the intestine should be rendered insoluble.
4. Biological examinations and samplings are necessary. Blood samples must be @
20 cm3 by volume and raw i.e. without any additive. The first urine sample and
next 24-hr samples are necessary. Samples of the first three stools and one 72-hr
after the accident are also necessary.
5. To check respiratory contamination, the person's handkerchief or nasal
samplings by blowing nose into a paper tissue are useful.
6. Decontamination of substances, objects and persons.
A card containing information of possible contaminants, the time of sampling and any
treatment given before the sampling, must be sent alongwith the samples to the radiotoxicological
laboratory as quickly as possible.
Decontamination : The ionising radiation cannot be neutralised or interrupted. Therefore
rapid decontamination is one of the best safety measures to protect man against possible or actual
hazards of direct or indirect radiation. The purpose of decontamination is to reduce its level below
the safe level. Following methods of decontamination are used:
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1. Mechanical decontamination i.e. removal of radioactive layer by scrubbing, shot

blasting, washing by water etc.
2. Physical decontamination i.e. evaporation, dilution, filtration, ultrasonic techniques, or
allowing the half-life time if it is in hours or upto 3 days.
3. Chemical decontamination i.e. treating with acid, alkali, chelating compounds, ion-
exchange resins etc.
4. Biological decontamination of sewage.
5. Decontamination of water, surface and clothing by selecting appropriate material, e.g. 10%
solution of citric acid followed by 0.5% solution of nitric acid to clean stainless steelsurface,
mineral acids to clean glass and porcelain vessels, replacement of concrete blocks etc. 6.
Decontamination of persons by scrubbing the skin with warm water and soap and followed by use
of surfactants and absorbents. I to 3% solution of hydrochloric and citric acid are also useful. Use
of organic solvent is inadvisable. Cleaning for more than 10 min. is also not advisable, as further
cleaning cannot remove contaminant and may damage the epithelium.
Removal of radionuclides from the human body is much more difficult and needs experienced
medical treatment. The choice of a method and reagent depends on the type and character of the
contaminant, path of penetration and time elapsed after contamination. Surgery is the best method
to decontaminate wound. Complexing reagents (viz. DTPA) are generally effective to
decontaminate blood, internal organs and tissues. To decontaminate upper respiratory system,
expectorants and vasoconstrictive preparations are prescribed.
(B) Non-Ionising Radiation :
The main difference between ionising and nonionising radiation is that the former is more
hazardous because of its higher frequency range and shorter wavelength comparing with the later
which has lower frequency range and longer wavelength. More safety measures -
Decontamination, medical and others- are required to prevent and control the ionising radiation
and its damage.
Non-ionising Radiation refers to those regions of the electromagnetic spectrum where the
energies of the emitted photons are insufficient, under ordinary circumstances, to produce
ionisation in the atoms of absorbing molecules. Its lower wave length limit is 100 nm (arbitrary).
It includes ultraviolet, visible light, infrared radiation, microwaves, radiowaves, lasers, power
frequencies and radar waves.
The Spectrum Phenomenon : The sun's energy is transmitted by electromagnetic waves.
If a narrow beam of sunlight is passed through a prism and then projected upon a surface,
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colourful 'spectrum' is visible from red at one end through orange, yellow, green, blue, and indigo
to violet at the other end. If a thermometer is moved slowly from violet to red portion, it shows a
rise in temperature. Beyond red (in dark space) it shows a still higher temperature. This dark
portion (beyond the red) is called infrared (IR), and the dark portion at the other end (beyond the
violet) is called the ultraviolet (UV).
There is no sharp dividing line between IR, visible and UV regions. They differ from each
other in frequency, wavelength or energy level. See the table of spectrum in foregoing para. The
common factor among them is that all electromagnetic waves travel with the same speed and are
originated from moving electric charges.
Physical & Biological Units: The entire electromagnetic spectrum is roughly divided and
studied in two parts:
1. The upper region of shorter wavelength is of more concern to physicists and physical
scientists who describe radiation in terms of wavelength.
2. The lower region of longer wavelength is of more concern to communication scientists and
engineers who describe radiation in terms of frequency.
Both these units are given in the following table
Physical Units of NI Radiation

Unit Symbol Equivalent
Wavelength
angstrom A 10-8 cm
centimetre Cm 1 cm
micrometer m 10-4 cm
nanometer Nm 10-7 cm
Frequency
hertz Hz 1 c/s
kilocycle Kc 1000 c/s
megacycle Mc 106 c/s
Gigacycle Gc 109 c/s
Biological effects of the UV, visible, IR, radio frequency and the extremely low frequency of
power transmission, have been studied. Visible light and heat waves can be easily perceived and dark
goggles can reduce their intensity to a comfortable level. The UV, IR, microwave and lower frequency
radiations cannot be perceived by eyes, but have biological penetration as shown in the following table -
Thermal effects are produced in the skin due to exposure in IR and FM-TV-radio region.
Photochemical effects can be produced in the UV and visible regions.
Now, main divisions of non-ionising radiation are explained below in brief.
(1) Infrared (IR) Radiation :
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The IR region extends from 750 nm to 0.3 cm wavelength of microwaves.

Exposure to infrared radiation is very common in glass industry and near cupolas and
furnaces. Since long-wave infrared radiation is readily absorbed by the surface tissues of the body,
it cannot inflict deep injuries in the 'human body. Over exposure produces some discomfort which
generally gives adequate warning. However, the eyes may suffer injuries or general discomfort to
other parts of the body, there is some evidence that this may result in cataract.
The protective measures against this radiation include the placement of reflective screens
of polished aluminium shield near the source. Those screens will direct the .rays away from the
personnel into unoccupied space or return them to the heat source. They have been found very
effective in many industrial situations. Eyes of the exposed personnel should always be
protected, by suitable glasses, from direct radiation arising from areas that given off intense heat,
even though the temperature is not necessarily high. Infrared radiation be measured by the black-
bulb thermometer and radiometers.
Main industrial IR exposures are from hot furnaces, molten metal or glass and from arc
processes. Use of enclosures, shielding, eye protection and safe distance are main safety measures.
(2) Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation :
The UV region is subdivided as Near - 400 to 300 nm. Far - 300 to 200 nm and vacuum -200 to 4
nm.
The effects of ultraviolet radiation are similar to sunburn. Since there is a considerable
time gap between exposure and development of injury, deep burns, may be endured without
immediate discomfort. This radiation is readily absorbed in human tissue. As a result , superficial
injuries are produced chiefly to the skin and eyes. Higher exposure can cause skin or eye damage.
The skin effect is called dermatological and the eye effect is called ocular.
Some industrial processes, such as welding, produce considerable amount of ultraviolet
radiation. In areas where ultraviolet radiation is quite intense, potentially hazardous chemical
contaminants, such as ozone and oxides of nitrogen, are also produced due to action of this
radiation on air. In the zone where arc-welding is carried out, very high concentrations of ozone
and oxides of nitrogen have been found.
All personnel engaged in welding should invariably wear goggles and face shields.
Besides these, the use of gloves, leggings, overalls and boots is an essential necessity for the
personnel engaged in welding. Further more, opaque shielding should be used around welding
areas to protect other persons. Local exhaust ventilation may also be used as an effective means
for the removal of chemical contaminants produced during the arc welding.
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Ultraviolet meters can be used for the measurement of .this radiation. It has been suggested
that 0.5 microwatt per square centimetre be the permissible limit of ultraviolet radiation for a 7
hours continuous exposure.
The most common exposure to UV radiation is from direct sunlight. Solar irradiation
exhibits intense UV radiation but due to the atmosphere (ozone) shielding of the earth (God's gift),
we are not exposed to the lethal doses. Long time exposure to hottest sunlight (afternoon) may
cause skin cancer. This must be avoided.
Some commercial application of UV radiation are fluorescent lamps, mercury vapour
lamps, germicidal lamps, electric arc welding, chemical processing, etched circuit board
production and UV lasers.
Wavelengths below 320 nm cause skin reddening and skin-burn (erythemal effect). Solar
or UV radiation from artificial sources may cause skin pigmentation (tanning).
Wavelengths between 320 and 230 nm can cause carcinogenic effects.
Main safety measures are shielding of UVR source, use of eye goggles, protective clothing
and absorbing or reflecting skin creams.
(3) Visible Light (Energy) :
shadows. Transmitted light penetrates a transparent or translucent material.

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illumination that produces brightness on the task and surroundings. The Quality refers to
distribution of brightness in environment and includes the colour of light, its diffusion, direction,
(4) Radio and Microwaves :
Within the broad spectrum of radio frequencies, the microwave .region is between 10 to 3 x 105
MHz (megahertz). This form of radiation is propagated from antennas associated with TV transmitters, FM
transmitters and radar transmitters.
Uses of microwave radiation are heating sources like microwave ovens, dryers for food products
and plywood, pasteurisation, ceramics, telecommunications like radio and TV and medical applications
(diathermy devices). Microwave ovens for heating or cooking food are clean, flexible and instantly
controllable. The heating rate is very high and use of any fuel or pollution due to it should be avoided.
Radio or high frequency electrical heaters are used in metalworking plants for hardening cutting
tools, gear-teeth and bearing surfaces and for annealing, soldering and brazing. Use in food industry is for
sterilising vessels and killing bacteria in foods.
In woodworking plants, high frequency heating is used for bonding plywood, laminating and
general gluing. Other uses include moulding plastics, curing and vulcanising rubber, thermosealing and
setting twist in textile materials.
Induction heaters are used for annealing, forging, brazing or soldering conductive materials.
Induction furnaces are used in foundries to melt metal. Dielectric heaters are used for non-conducting,
dielectric materials like rubber, plastics, leather and wood.
The primary effect of microwave energy is thermal. The higher frequency cause lower hazard and
vice versa. Frequencies less than 3000 MHz can cause serious damage. At 70 MHz, maximum SAR
(specific absorption ratio) in human takes place. Exposure of high intensity and more time can cause
localised damage by skin burning, tissue burns, cataracts, adverse effect On reproduction and even death.
frequency) below the safe level, reducing time of exposure, shielding and enclosing microwave source,
reorienting antenna Or emitting device, use of PPE and controlling at source.
Power Frequencies:
The main hazards from high voltage lines and equipment (low frequency) are shocks and current.
Extremely low frequency (ELF) radiation produces electric field and magnetic field. An external electric
field induces electric current in the body.
Protection from ELF is possible by shielding of electric field by any conducting surface. Persons
working in high field strength regions (e.g. high voltage lines) should wear electrically conductive clothing.
Avoiding entry in such region is also advisable.
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ELF magnetic field cannot be shielded. Therefore the only remedy is to keep the magnetic field
below safe levels or to restrict entry of personnel into the magnetic fields.
5.2 Permissible threshold exposure limits - short term and long term effects of
exposures – Preventive and control measures
Threshold Limit Value is abbreviated as TLV. Threshold Limit Value is the maximum
concentration of Toxic material which the workmen can tolerate or withstand for 8 hours in a day
while working in the atmosphere charged with the contaminant.
Short term exposure limit(STEL): It is a concentration of substances which can be tolerated by
workmen for 15 minutes without causing any adverse effect.
Maximum allowable concentration (MAC): It is a concentration which must not be exceeded even
for the short period of time.
Effects of exposures of TLV, STEL & MAC:
Factors influencing the effects of Toxic materials:
1. Absorption-the effects are dependent upon the rate of absorption of toxic substances in the
human body . quicker the absorption, more is the risk to the workmen .
2. Concentration and time of exposure –more the concentration and time of exposure , more
is the amount of toxic substances getting entry into the human body .
3. Personal tolerance level –certain persons can tolerate a particular toxic substances while
others cannot.
4. Susceptibility – susceptibility to toxic substances may vary from person to person .
5. Personal hygiene and behavior- personal hygiene and behavior including proper
maintenance of clothing, cleanliness, tidy habits, etc. plays an important role.
6. The state of matter – the state of the matter of toxic substances (whether solid , liquids, or
gases) plays an important role in connection with the effects of toxic substances on the
human system. As, for example, hydrochloric acid HCl as(liquid)
Harmful effect :
1. Chemicals can cause asphyxia or suffocation.
2. It causes irritation to respiratory tract or other vital organs like liver, kidney ,etc.
3. Some chemicals cause semiconsciosness or unconsciousness.
4. Anesthetics These are either primary or secondary
Control Measures:
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1) Storage – proper storage and handling specially that of materials in bulk or in large quantity
need special care and attention . haphazard storage and handling of hazardous material can
trigger off accidents.
2) Temperature and pressure – many processes or operation in industrial plants are associated with
high temperature and pressure. In many such processes. In many such processes the reactions
being exothermic in nature in which unusual heat is unleashed. This may cause damage to
equipments system and can trigger off fire hazards. Hence thorough control of temperature to
permissible limits is one of the prime consideration. Unusual rise in pressure much above the
stipulated or permissible limit may cause bursting of pipelines, failure of valves associated with
leakage of hazardous substances selection of suitable safety valves, a proper design of all
assemblies, pipeline system, pressure vessel etc. can check these maladies.
3) Operation and processes –Any defect in design or any deviation from the design with respect
to the various operations and processes may lead to serious consequences. Hence a proper
design of the whole operational and process systems coupled with suitable follow up in the
actual practice/ working is warranted. This implies that everything involved ( notable
equipment, workmen, measuring instrument ,work procedures, the managers and the
supervisors) must be functional. The failure of any one of the above components or units
associated with the operations of process may lead to accident.
4) Education and training –all the personnel involved in the industrial operations ( specially the
novices and new entrants ) must be imbued with a sense of safety consciousness. This needs
formal and informal education and training . in industries associated with hazardous chemicals,
proper education and training must be imparted to the personnel regarding use of proper label,
warning signs and colour codes, proper methods of storage and handling etc. a harmonious
relation between the workmen and the manager is necessary to synchronies the various
activities of the person concerned. Clear instructions, manuals or booklets for each hazardous
job have to be supplied to the concerned workmen etc.
5) Information ,data collection and monitoring - information and data collection and their
subsequent analysis play a important role. The identification of hazardous substances or their
Toxicity , the emergency requirements therein as well as proper handling and storage of these
materials etc. are some of the information to be recorded in the safety data sheets. Suitable
monitoring of hazardous substances can further bolster the safety measures and control.
6) Repair and maintenance –regular repair and maintenance as for example in the pipeline system,
valves , pressure gauges etc . helps to minimize accidents. Extreme precautions are to be taken
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while repair and maintenance operation are being carried out , e.g , shutdown during repairs etc.
any laxity , inadvertence or carelessness during repairs may create havoe.
7) Personal protective equipments- all persons exposed to hazardous substances during
manufacturing ,storage ,handling etc. must be provided with personal protective equipment the
use of personal protective equipments.
Common Occupational Diseases as per the Sch. III of the Factory Act.
(1) Occupational Lung Diseases :
Normally dusts cause lung diseases and therefore the types of dusts and their effects are
discussed below.
(A) Types of Dusts and their Effects :
Dust is a disperse system (aerosol) of solid small particles in air or gas whose size
distribution is like a colloid. It originates from mechanical communication of coarser material.
Mining, breaking, crushing, grinding, mixing, polishing and handling are the main dust generating
processes.
Small particles of O.I to 5 u.m size (respirable dust) can remain in the alveolar passages of
which smaller particles (O.I r-lm) behave as colloids or smoke, deposit in lungs or other part and
cause health effect. Particles of larger size (>5 (im) are driven back by the clearance mechanism.
Asbestos fibre of 3 (urn or less in diameter and upto 100 (im length can reach the alveoli, while
the smallest fibres can reach upto pleura and pleural space.
2nd Schedule of the Factories Act prescribes TLV (permissible time-weighted average i.e.
TWA concentration per 8 hours) of cotton, asbestos, coal, cement and silica dusts.
Types of dusts can be classified as under:
1. Quartz and mixtures containing quarts: Coal dust, mineral ores, sand, rock, fluorspar,
quartzite etc. They are found in mining, ceramic industries, refractories, pastering, mixing
and insulating materials. They cause nodular fibrosis and silicosis.
2. Asbestos and mixtures containing asbestos :

3. Metals and metal compounds : Metals like iron, nickel, lead, manganese, aluminium,
beryllium, chromium, cadmium, vanadium and their oxides are extensively used in
metallurgy, metal working, welding, electroplating, furnaces, sintering etc. They can cause
irritation, diffuse fibrosis and different types of lung diseases known as siderosis, bronchial
carcinoma or asthma, tracheobronchitis, aluminium lung etc.
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4. Plant and Animal (organic) dust : Wood, animal hides, skins, hair, feathers, scales, cotton
flax, hemp, sisal, jute, mouldy hay, straw, cereals, bagasse, crushed grain and bran,
enzymes etc. They are found at wood working, agriculture, poultry, textile, grain or sugar
mill etc. and cause irritation, immune reaction, carcinoma, allergic rhinitis, bronchial
asthma, farmer's lung, bagassosis, byssionosis etc.
5. Other dusts : These are chemical dust like carbon dust, soot, graphite, phthalic and maleic
anhydride and arsenic dust etc. and found in mining, metallurgy, rubber, plastic and
chemical industry. They can cause irritation, carcinoma, systemic effect, ulceration,
conjunctivitis, graphite pneumoconiosis etc. Inert dusts are also hazardous.
Following table shows some dusts and lung diseases that may be caused by them.
Dusts Lung Diseases
Quartz (Silica) Silicosis.
Asbestos Asbestosis
Talc Talcosis, mesothelioma, bronchial carcinoma, carcinoma of upper
respiratory tract.
Aluminium and its oxides Aluminum lung, bauxite smelter‘s lung, CNSLD
Beryllium & its oxides Tracheobronchitis, penumonitis, beryllosis
Cdadmium and its oxides Tracheobronchitis, bronchopneumonia, emphysema of the lung.
Chromium, Chromate, Ulceration and perforatin of nasal sputum, bronchial asthma,
Chromoxide carcinoma of nasal cavity, CNSLD.
Hard metals ―Fibrosis, immune reaction.
Iron, Iron oxide Siderosis.
Manganese, Manganic pneumonia, CNSLD.
Manganese oxide
Nickel, Nickel oxide, Nickel salts, Bronchial carcinoma, carcinoma of nasal cavity,
Platinum compounds (salts) Allergic rhinitis, bronchial asthma.
Vanadium pentoxide Tracheobronchitis, bronchial asthma, CNSLD.
Milled or crushe grain and bran Allergic rhinitis, chronic rhinitis, bronchial asthma CNSLD.
Wood (exotic types) Allergic rhinitis, bronchial asthma, carcinoma of the nose and nasal
cavity, CNSLD.
Animal hides, skin, hair, leather Allergic rhinitis, bronchial asthma.
and scales.
Mould hay, straw, cereal, and Farmer‘s lung, bagassosis.
bagassse
Enzymes Allergic rhinitis, bronchial asthma
Cotton, flax, hemp sisal, jute. Byssionosis, CNSLD.
Arsenic, arsenic trioxide, arsenic Ulceration and perforation of nasal septum, trecheobronchitis,
salts. carcinoma of nasal cavity.
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chronic non-specific lung disease. The types of effects are fibrogenic, carcinogenic,
systemic, toxic, allergic, irritant and skin effects.
(B) Dust Control Methods :

To prevent lung diseases, some control measures areas under
1. Know the exposure limits of dusts. Dust below 5 microns size is invisible. Depending on
toxicity, exposure limits vary from 0.1 to 10 mg/ m3 See also 2nd Schedule under the
Factories Act (Table 15 of Chapter-32). Employ effective measures based on this safe limit
and nature of the dust.
2. Elimination of dusty process e.g. improved casting technique to eliminate dusty fettling
process.
3. Substitution by a less toxic or non-toxic dust, e.g. shot-blasting in place of sand blasting,
metal moulds in place of sand moulds and glass fibre or slag wool in place of asbestos
insulation.
4. Segregation and enclosure of the process if dust generation cannot be prevented. Dusty
process should be enclosed in a room and be connected with effective exhaust and dust
collector. - Complete enclosure is the best segregation, e.g. blasting cabinet, fuming
cupboard.
5. Wet methods prevent particles becoming airborne. Powdered material is suspended or
dissolved in a liquid. The correct degree of wetting should be maintained and it should not
be allowed to dry out.
6. Local exhaust ventilation should be applied to collect the dust from the nearest possible
distance. The smaller enclosure gap requires smaller exhaust rate. Suction flow should be
away from the worker's breathing zone. Dust collection, filtration and disposal are the
subsequent steps. Various kinds of air cleaning devices are also available.
(2) Occupational Dermatitis :

An inflammation of the skin produces dermatitis which is the most common skin disease.
The part of body most exposed is affected first, so it starts on hands. With some dusts and fumes,
the first signs may appear around the eyes, neck and face also. The disease can be caused by many
chemicals and apparently harmless substances including all forms of mineral oils (including
diesel, lubricating and fuel oil); chemicals (alkalis, chromate, dichromate and synthetic resin),
solvents (thinners and degreasers such as white spirit, paraffin, trichloroethylene, turpentine,
and petroleum product); tar pitch and other coal products including chemicals in the phenol and
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cresol family; soot; radiation including X-rays and radiant heat; friction particularly when dust or
grit gets between clothing and skin.
Chromate and dichromate used in chromium plating,
dyeing and tanning produces chrome ulcers or holes as well as
dermatitis. In one chemical factory at Vadodara (Gujarat), 43
workers with holes in nasal diaphragm, 3 workers with chrome
ulcer and 23 workers with dermatitis were detected. They were
working with sodium and potassium dichromate. The liquid or
dust from the process gets into cracks or cuts in skin and forms
deep holes. Chromic acid, concentrated potassium dichromate, arsenic trioxide, calcium oxide,
calcium nitrate and calcium carbide are well known ulcerogenic chemicals. Chemical or thermal
burns, blunt injury or infections resulting from bacteria and fungi may result in ulcerous
excavations on the part affected.
Occupationally induced changes in skin colour can be caused by dyes, heavy metals,
explosives, certain chlorinated hydrocarbons, tars and sunlight. The change in skin colour may be
simply a chemical fixation within keratin.
Primary Skin Irritants in industry are organic and inorganic acids and alkalis, some
metal salts, nickel, phenol, trichloroethylene, solvents and acne producers.
Primary Skin Sensitizers are dyes and dye intermediates, photographic developers,
rubber accelerators and anti-oxidants, insecticides, oils, natural and synthetic resins, coal-tar and
its derivatives, explosives, plasticizers and others.
Skin cancer is caused by long periods of contact with a variety of substances including
mineral oils, paraffin, tars, arsenic and several kinds of radiation including X-rays and ultra violet
light. The cancer will usually develop in direct contact with the above substances. Other parts can
be affected.ifthe substance penetrates the clothing.
Dermatitis is a skin disease caused by primary irritants like acids and alkalis, organic
solvents, soaps, detergents, lime, cement, turpentine, synthetic coolants, abrasives, nitropaints,
hardeners, dyes, peroxides, pesticides, weedicides, gum, inks, chlorinated diphenyls, disinfectants
etc. and by sensitizers like formaldehyde, fungicides, azo dyes, chromium, nickel, mercury and
cobalt salts.
Dermatitis can also be caused by physical agents (e.g. heat, cold, moisture, radiation,
friction, pressure etc.) or biological agents (e.g. bacteria, fungus, virus etc.)
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Occupations involved are leather, metal, paint, printing, plastic, rubber, textile,
electroplating, engineering, construction, cleaners, chemical, bakers etc.
For diagnosis it is useful to know the occupational history and to observe many workers, in
identical situations, who develop cutaneous changes. Patch tests are indicative.
Occupational dermatitis is preventable if timely diagnosed and controlled. Preventive measures
are :
1. Engineering measures to control the harmful agents by various methods.
2. Pre-employment or pre-placement medical examination and sorting out the workers
having suspected dermatitis or pre-disposition to skin diseases and keeping them away
from the jobs having skin hazards.
3. Use of .necessary PPE and barrier creams.
4. Personal hygiene. Adequate washing and bathing facility with warm water, soap, nail
cutter and clean towels.
5. Periodical medical examinations of workers and transferring the job of the affected
workers.
(3) Occupational Cancer:
Occupational cancer is a form of delayed toxicity, serious in clinical course and outcome,
due to exposure to chemical or physical agents (carcinogens) in the workplace.Yearly Figures of
ESIC indicate incidence of cancer in our workers:
Carcinogenic substance means a substance or preparation which by inhalation, ingestion or
coetaneous penetration can induce cancer or increase its frequency. It causes anincreased
incidence of benign and/or malignant neoplasm, or a substantial decrease in the latency period
between exposure and onset of neoplasm in human or in experimental specie; as a result of any
exposure which induce tumours at a site other than the site of administration.
It is unknown that how many chemicals are actually carcinogenic to humans and how
many human cancers could be prevented by improving working conditions. There may be mixed
reasons occupational and non- occupational also.
The ACGIH has classified carcinogens in five categories depending on the TLVs of chemical sub
in contact:
1. Confirmed Human Carcinogen
2. Suspected Human Carcinogen
3. Animal Carcinogen
4. Unclassified Human Carcinogen .
5. Unsuspected Human Carcinogen
Courtesy : 2007 TLVs and BEIs, ACGIH.
Some tables are also given below to understand occupation or substance and body part
(site) being affected by cancer.
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Occupation, Substance and Site of Cancer:
Occupation Substance (carcinogen) Site (body part)

Asbestos & products Asbestos Lung, pleura
Metal and Mining Arsenic, Chromium, Uranium, Lung, skin
Benzo (a) pyrene (BAP), Lung
Nickel Lung
Lung
Lung, nasal sinuses
Chemical industry Vinyl chloride Liver
BCME, CMME Lung
Dyes-bendizine, Blader
s-naphthylamine, Bladder
4-aminodiphenyl Paranasal sinuses
Auramine, other aromatic
amines Isopropyl alcohol
Petroleum industry Polycylic hydrocarbons Scrotum
Insecticide, Pesticide Arsenic Lung
Gas industry Benzo (a) pyrene (BAP) Lung
Coal carbonization products, Lung, Bladder
-naphthlamine Scrotum
Gas industry Benzo (a) pyrene (BAP) Coal Lung
carbonization products, Lung, Bladder Scrotum
-naphthylamine
Rubber industry Benzene Lymphatic and Leukaemia
Aromatic amines Bladder
Leather industry Leather dust, benzene Nose, bone marrow
Wood pulp and paper Wood dust Nose (adenocarcinoma)
industry
Roofing, asphalt work, steel BAP Lung
prod.
Others – Diethylstil Diethylstilboestrol Female genital tract, breast
Melphalan Haematolym phopoietic
Mustard gas system
Soots, tars and mineral oils Lung, pharynx
Conjugated oestrogen Skin, lung, bladder, GIT
Cyclophosphamide Uterus
Bladder
Body part and Substance having risk of Cancer :
Body part Substances (carcinogen)

Bone Beryllium (benzene – bone marrow)
Brain Vinyl chloride
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Gastrointestinal tract Asbestos

(GIT)
Heaematolym Benzene, styrene, butadiene and other synthetic rubber, alkilating
phopoietic tissue agent, cyclophosmamide, melphaln, busuphan, vinyl chloride
(leukaemia)
Kidney Lead, coke oven gas, finasetin
Liver Alcohol, vinyl chloride, steroids, eflatoxin, DDT, PCB, trichlor
ethylene, chloroform, aldrin, dieldrin heptachlor, chlordecon, mirex,
CCl4
Liver Alcohol, vinyl chloride, steroids, eflatoxin, DDT, PCB, trichlor
ethylene, chloroform, aldrin, dieldrin heptachlor, chlordecon, mirex,
CCl4
Larynx Tobacco smoking, alcohol, asbestos, chromium, mustard gas.
Lung Tobacco smoking, arsenic, asbestos, iron, chromium, nickel,
vinyl chloride, cadmium, uranium, bischloromethyl ether
(BCME), chloromethyl methyl ether (CMME), benzo(a) pyrene
(BAP), coke oven gas, mustard gas, tar, polyclinic hydrocarbons
(PCH)
Lymphatic tissue Arsentic, benzene
Mouth Alcohol, pan, lime, tobacco, gutkha, textile fibre
Nose Chromium, nickel, wood dust, leather dust, tanning, formaldehyde,
IPA, benzene
Pancrease Benzidine, PBC
Peritoneum Asbestos
Pharynx Tobacco smoking, alcohol, mustard as, textile fibres
Plural cavity Asbestos
Prostate Cadmium
Scrotum Soots, tar –naphthylamine, chloroprin, polyclinic hydrocarbons
(PCH)
Skin Arsenic, cutting oil, mineral oil, soots, tar, cock oven as, PCH
Bladder Tobacco smoking,  or -naphthylamine, benzene, benzidine, 4-
aminodiphenyl, alkilating agent, chlorophosmamide,
auramine, 4-nitrodiphenyl, aromatic amines
Vagina Oestrogen
Female genital tract, Diethylstillboestrol
breast
Central nervous system Vinyl chloride
(CNS)
Uterus Conjugated oestrogen
Buccal cavity Oil mist, solvents, dyes, cadmium, lead
Multiple myeloma Solvents
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Diagnostic methods for assessing cancer should consider detailed occupational history to
know whether in past the worker was exposed to any carcinogen. If worker does not know it,
factory records should be gone through or interrogated with his supervisors. A questionnaire may
be useful in 'collecting such past information. Screening may be useful to some extent.
Preventive measures are
1. Not to use carcinogenic .substances or processes.
2. Research to find safe substitutes should be developed.
3. To eliminate contact of workers from carcinogenic substances by
(1) Employing closed system of work (i.e. no manual handling or direct exposure).
(2) Work environment monitoring, biological monitoring and keeping the exposure far
below the permissible limits.
(3) Using personal protective equipment.
(4) Following safe waste disposal methods.
4. Avoiding personally susceptible workers at the time of recruitment.
5. Rotating workers exposed to risks and thus reducing their exposure time.
6. Advising to stop smoking and to improve personal hygiene.
7. Referring serious cases to a cancer hospital or onco-surgeon.
6.2 Pre-employment, periodic medical examination of workers

73-V. MEDICAL EXAMINATION:-
All the workers in the Factory shall be medically examined once in a year by Certifying Surgeon
appointed or recognized by the Govt.
1).workers employed in a ―hazardous process ―shall be medically examined by a qualified medical
practitioner hereinafter to as factory medical officer in the following manner, namely:-
(a) Once before employed to ascertain fitness of the person to do the particular job.
(b) Once in a period of 6 months, to ascertain the health status of all the workers in respect of
occupational health hazard to which they are exposed, and in cases where in the opinion of the
factory medical officer it is necessary to do so at a shorter interval in respect of any worker.
(c) The details of pre-employment and periodical medical examination carried out as aforesaid
shall be recorded in the health register in form 7.
2).No person shall be employed for the first time without a certificate of fitness in form 6 granted
by the factory medical officer. If the factory medical officer declares a person unfit for being
employed in any process covered under sub-rule (1), such a person shall have the right to the
appeal to the certifying surgeon whose opinion shall be final in this regard.
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(3).Any finding of the factory medical officer revealing any abnormality or unsuitability of any
person employed in the process shall immediately be reported to the certifying surgeon who shall
in turn, examined the concerned worker and communicate his finding to the occupier within 30
days. If the certifying surgeon is of the opinion that the worker so examine is required to the
surgeon is of the opinion that the same process. However the worker so taken away shall be
provided with alternate placement unless he is fully in incapacitate in the opinion of the certifying
surgeon in which case the worker affected shall be suitably rehabilitated.
(4).The worker taken away from employment in any process under sub-rule(2) may be employed
again in the same process under sub-rule(2) may be employed again in the same process only after
obtaining the fitness certificate from the certifying surgeon and making entries to that effect in the
health register.
(5). An inspector may, if he deems it necessary to do so, refer a worker to the certifying surgeon
for medical examination as required under sub-rule (1).the opinion of the certifying surgeon in
such a case shall be final . The fee require for this medical examination shall be paid by the
occupier.
(6). The worker required to undergo medical examination under these rules and for any medical
survey conducted by or on behalf of the central or the state government shall not refuse to undergo
such medical examination.
6.3 Fundamentals of First-Aid-Burns, Fractures, Suffocation, Toxic Ingestion -

Bleeding Wounds and Bandaging, Artificial Respiratory Techniques.
Burns :
1. Act quickly.
2. Put the affected part in cold water.
3. Pour water on burns that cannot be immersed (Cold water relieves pain, reduces fluid loss).
4. Cover with a sterilized dressing.
BURNS AND SCALDS
Causes of Burns and Scalds :
1. Burns are injuries that result from dry heat like fire, flame, a piece of hot metal, the sun,
contact with wire carrying high tension electric current or by lightning or friction. Scalds
are caused by moist heat due to boiling water, steam, oil, hot tar etc.
2. Chemical burns are caused by strong acids (Sulphuric acid. Nitric acid etc.) or by strong
Alkalis (Caustic Soda, Caustic Potash, quick lime or strong Ammonia).
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3. A nuclear burn is caused by the instantaneous flash of intense heat given off by a nuclear
explosion. It is capable of causing superficial burns on the exposed skin of persons several
miles away.
Degrees or Depth of Burns :
The degrees of burns indicate the degree of damage to the tissues. There are five degrees of
burns:
First Degree : When the skin is reddened
Second Degree : When there are blisters on the skin, and
Third Degree : When there is destruction of deeper tissues and of charring.
Fourth Degree : Steam blebs
Fifth Degree : Carbonization
Percentage of Burn :
The danger from burns depends on the area i.e. percentage of the body part of the burns rather
thanthe degree. Superficial burns over a large area of the body are more dangerous than the
complete carrying of a part of the limb. It must be noted that in the same person, different parts of
the body may show different degrees of burns. Any burn of over 30% irrespective of deep degree -
should be hospitalised as priority. More than 50% burns are more serious.
Above figure shows the percentage (extent) of burns. It follows the rule of 9. For more
area, add the percentage appropriately. For example, burns of both hands and both legs indicate
9+18 = 27% burns.
Helping a person whose clothes have caught fire :
The First Aider should know how to deal with a person whose clothes have caught fire.
1. Put out the flames by whatever means available. Most of the causes of burns occur in
homes and drinking water is readily available to quench the flames, water also cool the
burnt area causing less damage to occur.
2. Do not allow the person to run about. This only fans the fire and makes the flames spread.
3. Hold a rug, blanket, coat or table cover in front of you, while approaching a man whose
clothing have caught fire.
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4. Lay him down quickly on the ground and wrap tightly with any thick piece of cloth, rug or
coat. Smother the flame by gently rolling the causality or by gentle pats over the covering.
5. If the clothes in front of the body have caught fire, lay him on his back and vice versa, till
suitable material is brought to smother the flame.
Rescuing Persons from Fire:
5. When there is fire in a room in which the
doors and windows are closed, do not open
the windows and door to let in air. The rush
of air will increase the fire and it will burn
more intensely.
First Aid of minor Burns and Scalds:
In the case of minor burns:
1. Clean the area gently with clean water.
2. Submerge the burned area in cold water.
3. Apply a solution of salt and water (one
teaspoonful to a pint of water) in out of the way
places.
4. Cover with dry dressing.
5. Do not apply cotton wool direct to the burnt.
6. Do not apply any greasy substance.
7. Give warm drinks for example sweetened tea or coffee.
First Aid of Serious Burns and Scalds :
Immediate attention that required in serious burns are:
First Aid of Chemical Burns :
1. Wash off the chemical with a large quantity of water for 15 minutes by using a shower or
hose if available as quickly as possible. This flooding with water will wash away most of
the irritant.
2. Cut out contaminated clothing.
3. Do not touch.
4. Treat as for burns.
Burns of the Eye :
Acid Burns:
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1. First aid for acid burns of the eye should be given as quickly
as possible by thoroughly washing the face, eyelids and the
eye for at least fifteen minutes by water.
2. If the casualty is lying down, turn his head to the side, hold
the eyelids open and pour water from the inner corner of the
eye outward. Make sure that the chemical does not enter into
the other eye. Cover the eye with a dry, clean protective
dressing (do not use cotton) and bandage.
3. Neutralising agents or ointments should not be used.
4. Caution the victim against rubbing his eye.
5. Get medical help immediately (preferably an eye specialist).
Alkali Burns:
Alkali burns of the eye can be caused by drain cleaner or other cleaning solution. An eye
that first appears to have only a slight surface injury may develop deep inflammation and tissue
destruction and the sight may be lost.
1. Flood the eye thoroughly with water for 15 minutes.
2. If the casualty is lying down, turn his head to the side. Hold the lids open and pour water
from the inner corner outward. Remove any loose particles of dry chemicals floating on
the eye by lifting them off gently with a sterile gauze or a clean handkerchief.
3. Do not irritate with soda solution.
4. Mobilise the eye by covering with a dry pad or protective clothing. Seek immediate
medical aid.
Fractures :
It may be open or closed. Open fractures in which not only the bone but also the skin are
damaged are most dangerous. Germs can get into die wound formed by the break in the skin and
cause suppuration gas gangrene or tetanus. In closed fractures the outer coverings (skin and
mucous membranes) are intact and prevent the entry of germs.
The signs of fractures of the long tubular bones include pain, haemorrhage, distortion of
the injured part of the arm or leg, abnormal mobility in a place where there should be none,
crackling, swelling, deformity and inability to make any movement.
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The fragments of the bone may be displaced to a varying degree in length, width, or at an angle to
each other causing some deformation of the limb.
First Aid ; The limb affected must be immobilised. This is especially important during
transportation of the patient. The bone fragments should be tied so that they cannot move. The
rules for immobilising fractures should be observed. If they are not observed, grave complications
can develoi menacing the patient's life.
Treatment:
1. Immobilise the fractured limb with splint like wooden stick, hardboard or umbrella
2. Make a padding of cotton or hanky on the splints.
3. Do not tighten the splint too tight or loose
4. Elevate the injured limb.
5. Use natural splints, like if a leg is fractured the other leg can be used as natural
splint.
Spine Fracture:
Falling from height can cause spine fracture
Treatment:
Move the patient on a hard surface like table or bench etc.
1. Do not allow to sit, stand or walk
2. Tarn the patient by log rolling
3. Shift the patient to hospital.
Backbone (Spinal) Fracture:
1. Transport on a rigid frame. This frame may be improvised by using available boards or a
door.
2. The rigid frame may be placed on a stretcher for transportation.
3. If a firm frame cannot be improvised, transport patient on abdomen on a stretcher made of
canvas or blanket.
4. In neck fracture cases it is much better to get a doctor to the scene because danger to the
life is great.
5. Immediate hospitalization is necessary.
Suffocation :
1. Remove the patient from the source of danger.
2. Make a rapid examination to ensure that the air passages are free and to clean them if
necessary.
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3. Restore natural breathing by artificial respiration, if breathing has ceased.
Toxic Ingestion:
Poisoning by Swallowing (Mouth route):
Sometimes acids, alkalis, disinfectants etc., are swallowed by mistake. They burn the lips,
tongue, throat, food passage and stomach and cause great pain. Other swallowed poisons cause
vomiting, pain and later on diarrhoea. Poisonous fungi, berries,' metallic poisons and stale food
belong to the later group. Some swallowed poisons affect the nervous system. To this group
belong (a) alcoholic drink (methylated spirit, wine, whisky etc.) when taken in large quantities,
and (b) tablets for sleeping, tranquillisers and pain killing drugs (Aspirin or Largectil). All these
victims must be considered as seriously ill. The symptoms are either delirium or fits or coma
(unconsciousness). Some poisons act on nervous system (belladonna, strychnine).
Poisoning by Gases (Nose route) :

Fumes or gases from charcoal, stoves, household gas, motor exhausts, chemicals and
smoke from explosions etc.; cause choking (asphyxia) which may result in unconsciousness in
addition to difficulty in breathing.
Poisoning by Injection (Skin route) :
Poisons get into the body through injection, bites of poisonous snakes and rabid dogs or
stings by scorpions and insects. Danger to life is again by choking and coma.
General First Aid in Poisoning:
1. Poisoning is a serious matter. Patient must be removed to a hospital/or a doctor be sent for,
at once with a note of the findings and, if possible, the name of the poison.
2. Preserve packets or bottles which you suspect contained the poison and also any vomits,
sputum etc.,. for the doctor to deal with.
3. If poison is' not known :
Make a quick assessment of the likely route of exposure by examining the eyes, mouth,
nose and skin of the victim for signs of the chemical itself or damage it has caused such as
swelling, redness, bleeding, burns, discharge of fluid or mucous or pallor. Drooling,
difficulty in swallowing, a distended, painful, hard, or rigid abdomen all indicates possible
ingestion of a corrosive or caustic substance. If respiration is rapid, shallow, noisy or
laboured, suspect inhalation. If the face has been splashed with chemical, eye contact is
likely.
4. Poisoning by inhalation:
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Remove victim from exposure while protecting yourself from exposure.

If breathing has stopped, administer artificial respiration using a bag-valve mask. Do not
use mouth to mouth resuscitation. Instead, use chest pressure-arm lift technique. Maintain
an open airway.
Arrange for transport of the victim to a medical facility.
5. Poisoning by Ingestion
Do not induce vomiting if he has abdominal pain or burns in mouth. If no such problem,
then induce vomiting by syrup of ipecac. Lastly give I or 2 cups of water to drink.
6. Poisoning by skin contact:
Remove the victim from the contaminated area: Be careful to protect your lungs, skin and
eyes while doing so. Remove the victim's clothing, shoes and jewelry from the affected
areas, cutting them off if necessary. Do this under a shower or while flushing with water.
Continue to flush with water until all traces of the chemical are gone and any feeling of
soapiness has disappeared also. Rinse for at least 15 minutes cover the victim with a
blanket or dry clothing. Inform and refer the victim immediately to .a physician for his
advice.
In case of inflammation, burns, blisters or pain-
Loosely apply a dry sterile dressing if available or use a clean dry cloth for it. Inform and
refer the victim immediately to a physician for his advice.
If the victim is in a state of shock -
Lay him down on his side and cover him with a blanket. Elevate his feet. Inform and refer
the victim immediately to a physician for his advice. Do not break open blisters or remove
skin. If clothing is stuck to the skin after flushing with water, do not remove it.
Do not rub or apply pressure to the affected skin
Do not apply any oily substance to the affected skin.
Do not use hot water.
7. Poisoning by eye contact:
Remove the victim from the contaminated area. Be careful to protect your lungs, skin and
eves while doing so. Act quickly. Flush the victim's eyes with clean tepid water for at least
15 minutes. Has the victim lie or sit down and tilt his head back Hold his eyelids open and
149
pour water slowly over the eyeballs starting at the inner corners by the nose and letting the
water run out of the corners.
The victim may be in great pain and want to keep his eyes closed or rub them but you must
rinse the chemical out of the eyes in order to prevent possible damage.
Ask victim to look up, down and side to side as you rinse.
Transport victim to the medical facility as soon as possible. Even if there is no pain and
vision is good, a physician should examine the eyes since delayed damage may occur.
If eyes are painful,
1. Cover loosely with gauze or a clean, dry cloth.

2. Maintain verbal and physical contact with the victim.
8. If unconscious - (a) Do not induce vomiting (b) Make the casualty lie on his back on a
hard, flat bed without any pillow and turn the head to one side. As there is no pressure on
the stomach and the gullet is horizontal the vomited matter will not get into the voice box
and the tongue will not close the air passage. This is also the best posture for giving
artificial respiration, if needed (c) Sometimes when there is excess of vomiting the three-
quarterprone posture (i.e. the casualty is made to lie on his side with one leg stretched, the
other bent at knee and thigh) will make things easier for the casualty (d) If breathing is
very slow or stopped, start artificial respiration and keep it up till the doctor comes, (e)
Maintain open airways (f) Do not use mouth to mouth re$uscitation (g) Do not give any
thing by mouth (h) In case of signs of shock, elevate-his feet, 20-30 cm and cover him with
a blanket (i) Arrange for sending to medical facility.
9. If conscious - (a) Aid vomiting by tickling the back of throat or make him drink tepid
water mixed with 2 tablespoons of common salt for a tumbler of water (b) Even if
conscious, when the poison is a corrosive do not induce vomiting. Signs of corrosives:
Lips, mouth and skin show grey white or yellow, patches which are to be looked for :acids,
alkalis etc., cause such burns.
First Aid: Factories which use certain poisons shall have the respective antidotes ready and
displayed in an easily available place. The personnel should be taught about the use of
antidotes - so that anyone can render assistance in case of emergency. For antidotes see
Part-10.6.
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The poison must be diluted by giving large quantities of cold water (chilled, if possible) This will
dilute the irritant and delay absorption and will replace fluid lost by vomiting. Tender
coconut water will be even better as this will be a food and also a diuretic.
Soothing drinks should be given. Milk, egg beaten and mixed with water or sojee
congee are good for the purpose.
Alcohol Poisoning :
Alcohol taken in considerable (toxic) quantities may cause fatal poisoning,. A fatal dose of
ethyl alcohol is 8 g per I kg body weight. Alcohol affects the heart, blood vessels, gastro intestinal
tract, liver, kidneys and mainly the brain. In a case of severe intoxication, sleep is followed by
unconscious state. • Vomiting and involuntary urination are frequent symptoms. The respiratory
centre is drastically inhibited, which is manifested by irregular breathing. Death ensues when the
respiratory centre becomes paralysed.
First aid : Fresh air should be provided (a window open or the victim taken outside) and
vomiting induced by 'minor lavageas'. If the patient is still conscious, he should be given hot
strong coffee. A respiratory arrest is managed by artificial respiration.
Poisoning with Acids and Alkalis :
In poisoning with concentrated acids and alkalis, a grave condition rapidly develops, in the
first place, to extensive burns in the mouth, throat, oesophagus, stomach and often the larynx.
Later, the absorbed toxins affect the vital organs (e.g. liver, kidneys, lungs, or heart).
Concentrated acids and alkalis are able to destroy .tissues. The mucous membranes, being less
resistant than the skin, are destroyed and necrosis occurs more rapidly involving deeper layers.
Burns and scabs form on the mucous membrane of the mouth and lips. In a bum due to
sulphuric acid, the scabs are black, in a burn due to nitric acid they are greyish-yellow, in one due
to hydrochloric acid they are yellowish-green and in one due to acetic acid greyish-white.
Alkalis more easily penetrate the skin and affect deeper layers. The burnt surface is loose,
decomposed and whitish in colour.
As soon as an acid or alkali is swallowed the patient feels strong pain in the mouth, behind
the breast bone and in the epigastrium. When laid down he tosses in bed from unbearable pain.
There is almost always tormenting vomiting often with admixtures of blood. Painful shock rapidly
develops. The larynx may swell and asphyxia develops. When an acid or alkali is taken in great
amount, cardiac weakness and collapse rapidly develop.
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Poisoning with ammonium hydroxide takes a grave course. The pain syndromes is
attended by asphyxia because the airways are also affected.
The person -who is rendering first aid must find out at once which chemical caused the
poisoning because the treatment varies according to the type of poison.
If the poisoning was caused by concentrated acids and the symptoms of oesophageal or
gastric perforation are absent, the stomach should be leveraged through a thick stomach tube using
for it 610 litres of warm water mixed with magnesium oxide (20 g per litre of liquid) or lime
water. Sodium carbonate is contraindicated for a gastric lavage. "Minor lavage " i.e. drinking 4-5
glasses of water and then inducing vomiting, will not alleviate the patient's condition and
sometimes may even promote absorption of the poison.
If a stomach tube is unavailable, the patient may be given milk, oil, egg, white,
mucilaginous decoctions, or smoothing substances. In poisoning with carbolic acid (Phenol,
Lysol) milk, oil or fat should not be taken. Magnesium oxide mixed with water or lime water
should be given in this case, as in poisoning by all other acids. Cold compresses or ice should be
put on the epigastric region to lessen pain.
When the poisoning is due to concentrated alkalis, the stomach should be immediately
lavaged with 6 10 litres of tepid water or a I per cent citric or acetic acid solution within four hours
of the poisoning. When a stomach tube is unavailable and the patient's grave condition (swelling
of the larynx) prevents a stomach lavage, mucilaginous solutions are given, 23 per cent citric or
acetic acid solution (I tablespoonful every 5 minutes), or lemon juice. Rinsing of the mouth or
administration of sodium hydrochloride solution is contraindicated.
The patient should be immediately admitted to a medical institution where he will be given
the necessary urgent medical help.
It should be kept in mind that when a perforation of the oesophagus or stomach is

suspected, they being manifested by severe pain in the stomach and unbearable pain behind the
breast bone, drinking and moreover, lavage of the stomach are not permitted.
Poisoning with Toxic Chemicals :
The latent course of the disease is 15-60 minutes, after which the symptoms of the
affection of the nervous system appear (e.g. enhanced salivation, discharge of sputum and
perspiration). Breathing accelerates and becomes noisy, as rail heard at a distance. The patient
becomes restless and excited. Cramp appears in the legs and the intestine undergoes increased
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peristalsis which is followed by muscular paralysis and paralysis of the respiratory muscles. The
respiratory arrest that follows, causes asphyxia and death.
In accidents connected with the inhalation of the toxic chemicals the victim must be
immediately hospitalised. If possible, he should be given 6-8 drops of a 0.1 per cent atropine
solution or 1-2 tablets of belladonna. When respiration is arrested, artificial respiration should be
carried out. When the poisoning is caused by toxins getting into the gastro-intestinal tract, the
stomach should be washed with water mixed with suspension of activated carbon Saline
purgatives should also be prescribed. The toxic substances should be removed from the skin and
mucous membranes with running water.
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning :
Carbon monoxide poisoning may occur in the chemical industry where it is used for synthesizing
certain organic compounds (acetone, methyl alcohol, phenol
etc.), in poorly ventilated garages, in furnaces or in stuffy,
freshly painted premises. It may also happen in households
when the stove shutters are closed too early in premises with
stove heating.
The early symptoms are headache, heaviness in the
head, nausea, dizziness, noise in the ears and palpitation.
Later muscular weakness and vomiting occur. If the victim
remains in the poisonous atmosphere, the weakness
intensifies, somnolence, clouding of consciousness and
dyspnoea develop. The skin turns pale and sometimes bright
red spots appear on the body. In further exposure to carbon monoxide the patient's respiration
becomes shallow, convulsions develop and paralysis of the respiratory centre terminates in death.
First Aid : The victim must be immediately removed from the poisonous surrounding,
better into the open air in warm weather. If his breathing is weak and shallow or arrested,
artificial respiration should be continued until adequate natural breathing or the true signs of
biological death appear. Rubbing should be carried out and hot water bottles applied to the legs. A
brief whiff of ammonium hydroxide is beneficial A patient with severe carbon monoxide
poisoning must be immediately hospitalized in order to prevent possible grave complications in
the lungs and nervous system whichmay develop later.
Antidotes for some common Chemicals :
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Antidotes are therapeutic agents used to counteract the toxic effects of specific xenobiotics.
These are heterogenous group of substances consisting of pharmaceuticals, biological agents
and immunoglobulin fragments. Different mechanisms of action are involved Some specifically
act at the receptor sites while others exert their effect by changing the metabolism of the poison
counteracting the toxic injury or just forming the inert complex with the poison.
Antidotes acting at receptor sites: Drug intoxications are mostly treated with these
antidotes. However, Atropine is a specific antidote for organophosphate or carbamate pesticide
poisoning. Similarly physostigmine for Dhatura and neostigmine for Curare poisonings are useful.
Others include, naloxone for opioid, flumazenil for benzodiazepines and physostigmine for
atropine poisoning.
Antidotes changing the metabolism of the poison: These antidotes either interfere with the
metabolism of the toxic agent thereby reducing the toxicity or strengthen the detoxifying capacity
of the body. Antidotes included in this group are ethanol, 4-methyl pyrazole, acetylcysteine,
sodium thiosulphate, folinic acid and pyridoxine.
Antidotes binding with the poison and forming less toxic complexes: In this category,
poison may be adsorbed or chelated by the antidote. Activated charcoal effectively adsorbs a large
variety of drugs and toxins, thereby decreasing their bioavailability and enhancing elimination.
Role of multiple doses of activated charcoal as gastrointestinal dialyzer is being recognised in the
treatment of poisoning, due to drugs. On the other hand, chelating agents like BAL, penicillamine
and DMSA form complexes with heavy metals, thereby preventing or reversing the binding of
metallic cations to body ligands.
Antidotes counteracting the toxic injury: The agents in this group reverse a chemically
induced damage or functional disturbance and restore physiological conditions. Amyl nitrite,
sodium nitrite, sodium thiosulphate, methylene blue, dantrolene, benzyl penicillin, glucagon,
oximes, etc. are common examples.
In general, antidotes should be given in adequate doses as early as possible in cases of
poisoning. Some antidotes cause serious adverse reactions. Hence, both the risk and the benefits of
the antidotal therapy must, therefore, be carefully evaluated and the patient must be monitored
regularly. At times the half-life of some antidotes like naloxone, atropine is much shorter than the
toxin, in which cases the antidotal therapy must be continued till the symptoms of the poisoning
subside.
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Bleeding Wounds and Bandaging

Wounds :
1. Stop the bleeding by any one of the following methods :
(1) Direct pressure.
(2) Direct finger pressure into the wound in case of larger bleeding wound.
(3) Tourniquet (seldom needed) use only as a last resort.
2. Avoid touching the wound with hands or unsterile material.
3. Clear the wound with running water and surrounding area with soap or spirit with
clear gauze washing away from the wound. Apply ready-made adhesive gauze bandage or sterile
gauze and roller bandage as needed.
4. Keep the patient quiet; raising the extremity if it is the bleeding part. Give no
stimulants.
5. Never apply antiseptic ointment, lotion or iodine or germicide to the wound.
6. Elevate injured part above the patient's heart level.
7. Try and use rubber gloves.
Abdominal wounds:
1. No time must be lost in sending the patient, to the hospital.
2. Keep the patient flat.
3. Give nothing by mouth.
4. Maintain warmth.
5. If. intestines protrude from the wound do not attempt to touch or replace them.
6. Apply sterile dressing and binder as for wounds.
7. Provide careful and immediate transportation to the hospital.
Eye-Wounds:
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1. Removal may be attempted if foreign body is not embedded.
2. Do not apply- oil or ointment.
3. If there is a foreign body embedded in the eye ball, send the patient immediately to
the doctor after applying pad and loose bandage.
ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION
Treatment when not breathing:
1. Loosen all clothing at waist, chest and neck.
2. Tilt the head backwards, while supporting the back of neck with your palm. This will lift
the tongue to its normal position. Thus the air passage will be cleared and the casualty may
begin to breath after a gasp.
3. If breathing does not begin after the above treatment, help movements of chest and lungs
four or five times. This will be usually enough to start breathing. If breathing does not
start even now, mouth to mouth (-to-nose) breathing should be begun.
Mouth-to-Mouth breathing:
1. Place the casualty on his back. Hold his head tilted back.
2. Take a deep breath with mouth open widely.
3. Keep nostrils of casually pinched.
4. Cover the mouth of the casualty with your mouth smugly.
5. Watching the chest, blow into his lungs, until the chest bellows up. Withdraw your mouth.
Note the chest falls back (It is hygienic to cover the mouth of casualty with your
handkerchief or some clean cloth).
6. Repeat the above 15 to 20 times a minute.
7. If casualty is young (baby or child) the operations are as above, but your open mouth
should cover both the mouth and nose of the casualty and blow gently.
8. If the chest does not rise (as in 5 above) look for an obstruction.
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- Turn the casualty to a side and thump his back. This will make the obstructing
material come to the front of throat. Open the mouth and remove it with your finger
covered with a piece of the cloth.
- If a child, hold it up by the feet and thump the back.
9. Use mouth-to-nose respiration if mouth to-mouth is not possible, but now the casualty's
mouth should be closed by the First Aider's thumb.
10. If heart is working, continue artificial respiration until normal breathing occurs. Send for
Ambulance.
11. If the heart is not working, you will notice:
- The face is blue or pale.

- Pupils are dilated.
- Heart beats and pulse at the root of neck (carotid) are not felt.
Then treat as follows: (a) Place the casualty flat on his back on a hard surface (bench, table
etc.) (b) Give a smart hit with the edge of your hand on the lower and left angle of the sternum.
This usually stimulates the heart to work. (c) In case the heart does not work, persist the striking
for 10-15 seconds at the rate of one stroke a second. Feel for the pulse at the root of neck all the
time. If the pulse becomes regular and continuous, stop beating, all the while artificial respiration
has to go on.
Even if the casualty is breathing, but the breathing is not normal, it is wise to start artificial
respiration. Do not begin thumping the heart or compression until you are sure that the heart has
stopped beating.
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External Heart Compression :

(If there are two trained persons) :
1. This should go on along with artificial respiration. Therefore ask the First Aider giving
mouth-to-mouth breathing to sit to the right of the casualty and place yourself on the left
side.
2. Feel and mark the lower part of the sternum.
3. Place the heel of your hand on the marked part (make sure that the palm and fingers are not
in contact with the chest).
4. Place the heel of the other hand over it.
5. With your right arm, press the sternum backwards, towards the spine. (It can be
pressed back 1 to 1.5 inches in adults).
6. Adults should be given about 60 pressures a minute. For children from two to ten years 3
pressures with one hand (heel) will be enough, but pressure should be 80 to 90 times a
minute. For babies up to two years, 2 pressures with two fingers is good enough if applied
100 times per " minute.
7. Press firmly but carefully. Carelessness (over pressure) may cause injury to ribs and
deeper tissues.
8. If the treatment is effective (a) Colour will become normal (b) Pupil will contract as
improvement beings; and (c) Carotid pulse begins with each pressure.
9. When pulse is not restored, continue compression till the patient reaches hospital.
10. Inflation of lungs to heart pressure should be as 2.15. If there is only one First Aider, he
has to be very smart and active. Finish 15 heart compression, rush to head-side, give two
inflation to the lungs, and get back to the heart and give 15 compression. Repeat these. If
there are two First Aiders, No. 1 makes 5 heart compression and then No. 2 gives two
lungs inflation. These are repeated. At the same time No. 1 can watch the pupils and No.
2 can feel the carotid pulse.
CHAPTER - 4
4.1First aid and Ambulance aid
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Prevention is better that cure but when prevention is not possible and an injury does take place,
cure is the only prevention of further injury and this cure is primarily to be provided by the First
Aid.
First aid can be defined as an immediate treatment given to the victim of an accident or sudden
illness, before medical help is obtained. It is a combination of simple but quite expedient, active
measures to save the victim‘s life and prevent possible complications. It needs to be immediate in
severe accidents complicated by bleeding, shock and loss of consciousness.
Ambulance Aid-
The ambulance room shall be in charge of a qualified medical practitioner assisted by at least one
qualified nurse and such subordinate staff as the chief inspector may direct.
There shall be display in the ambulance room a notice giving the name, address and telephone
number of the medical practitioner in charge. The name of the nearest hospital and its telephone
number.
The ambulance room shall be used only for the purpose of first-aid treatment. It shall have a floor
area of at least 24 square meters and smooth, walls as per F.A and shall be adequately ventilation
and light , drinking water , room shall contain at least:-
Sink , table , stretcher ,buckets, hot water bags, wooden splints , woolen blankets, forceps,
bottle of spirit , sponges, towels, trays, toilet, thermometers, teaspoon, measuring glasses, wash
bottle, chairs, electric hand torch , one cupboard with require first aid medicine and instruments.
4.2fire incidents and range of casualties
Year
Plant & Place Death Serious Injuries
Coal dust explosion,
1942 1572 -
china
Ship explosion,
1944 231 476
Bombay
Ship fire/ explosion,
1947 576 2000
Texas, USA
Truck explosion,
1956 1100 -
Columbia
Mine explosion,
1975 431 -
Chasnala, India
1984 Petrol line fire, Brazil 500 -
1984 LPG fire, Mexico 500 7000
Fire in a toy factory,
1993 211 -
Thailand
Huge fire in oil
1994 132 -
refinery, Cairo, Egypt
Fire in a dance hall,
1994 233 16
Beijing, China
Fire in a moving train,
1995 375 -
Moscow, Russia
1995 Fire due to short 368 -
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circuit, Sirsa, Haryana

A leaking gas pipeline
1995 exploded, Taegu, 109 160
South Korea
Gas fire in pilgrims‘
1997 tents, Mecca, Saudi 343 -
Arabia
Fire following
1997 explosion in a refinery, 60 -
Vishakhapatnam, AP
Fire while mopping up
petrol spillage from a
1997 burst pipeline in 500 -
southern Nigeria
Egypt.
Gas explosion in a coal
1999 35 8
mine, Beijing, China
Fire Christmas party
(discotheque) in
2000 309 -
iqoyang city in China
on 26-12-2000
4.3Wounds-
A wound is an injury or an abnormal break in the continuity of the skin or other tissues. In an
external wound there is a danger that germs will enter the wound and cause an infection. If the
wound is deep severe bleeding may occur or there may be serious damage to the structures within
the body such as heart, lungs or brain.
 Types of wounds -
Wounds may be open or closed in the opened or closed. In the open wound skin is
broken and blood escapes out in a closed wounds skin is not broken.
 Other types of wounds
1) Abrasism /Graze –
Cause – friction or pressure of rough object.
Features – A superficial injury involing the other layers of the skin.
It is painful but bleeds slightly or oozing.
2) Bruise – cause- blunt force e.g. ston stic etc. features- It is red due to infiltration of
blood in to tissues skin over it in intact. It becomes blue, black, green, yellow and
finally disappears with time.
3) Lacerations – cause – blunt force e.g. Fall from roof, fall in house,fall on rough
surface or rough spicks.
They are much have difficult to treat and need medical attention stop bleeding
by applying pressure only remove large and loose pieces of it to the experts . This
sort of injury particularly call for tetanus protection
Features- The skin and underlying tissues are torn. It has irregular and abrasions.
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4) In used wounds – cause – A weapon with sharp cutting edge e.g. knife razor, glass,
etc. features - The edges of the wound are clean cut. It bleeds more than laceration.
If less than one cm long will probably heal well. If you stop bleeding pull edges
together and apply adhesive dressing. Do not fiddle about with design fectant wash
your hands clean the area around the wound ensuring that no water enters into the
open wound. Dry it carefully then apply the dressing
 Wounds on first aid –
1) Place the victim in a sloping position.
2) Apply pressure to control bleeding
3) Treat shock
 How to manage an infected wounds
Any wound that has begun to heal after 24 hour, it get infected. It contains bacteria, dirt
and may contain a florin body. The infection may spread elsewhere in the body and cause
further damage.
Feature of an infected wounds are as follows.
1) Pain and soreness in the wound
2) Swelling and redness around the wound clean the wound with sterile swabs soaked in
an antiseptic solution.
 Bleeding –
Introduction-
The human body contains approximately 5 lit of blood. A healthy adult can lose up to
half a litre of blood without any ill effect is loss of more than this can be threating to life.
Bleeding is an escape of blood from in other words vessels bleeding is a flow of
blood from an artory vein or a capillary.
Effect of bleeding or hemorrhage-
There are four different types of hemorrhage of bleeding
1. Arterial bleeding –
i. The bleed is bright red in color
ii. It spurts at each contraction of heart
iii. Flow is pulse tile
2. Veinous bleeding –
Bleeding from the veins which carries blood to heart
(i) Bleed is dark red in color
(ii) If close not spurt
(iii) Strady how of blood.
2) Capillary bleeding – i) blood is red in color
ii) If dose no spurt
iii) Slow but even how
3) External and Internal bleeding –
Bleeding may occur externally due to an injury to the body or internally from an
Injury in which blood escape in tissue spacesor.
 The body cavity
First aid management
161
Aim- 1) control of bleeding as soon as possible

2) Keep the wound clean and dress it to minimum blood loss to prevent infection.
 Management – i) control the bleding ii) place the person in such a position that he/she
will be least affected by the loss of bleeding due to gravity. Iii) maintain airway clear iv)
prevent the loss of body heat by balting blanket unclear and over the person. V) keep him
/her at rest as movement will increase the heart action which will cause the blood to flow
faster and will interfere clot formation.
 Burns –
Burns is defined as tissue damage caused by burn of open flame not object molten metal
or electricity Injury or mark, cause by fire heat or acid , small steam is called burn.
 Burns are classified according to the area and depth of the injury as follows.
i) First degree- The outer skin is reddened and welted or slightly swollen.
ii) Second degree- The under skin is affected and blisters are formed.
iii) Third degree- The skin is destroyed and tissues underneath are damaged.
The objective in the treatment of burns and scalds are to relieve pain by excluding air,
prevent contamination and treed for shock.
 Scald we heat such as steam hot water hot. Oil etc. produces scalds. The scald is
superficial but often extensive. Blisters and red areas on the surface.
Assessment of burns: The dangers from burn depend upon the area of burn rather than
the degree. Superficial burns over large area are more dangerous than the complete
charging of a part any burn more than 30% should be hospitalized, calculation for the
percentage of the burn is to be done in following manner – The skin area involved in
burn case is more important than the depth. Even a superficial burn involving more than
5% of the body surface is serious. It more than 15% the patient may suffer from shock.
By following the rule of nine the percentage of skin area is to be calculated.
Rule of nine – 1) head and neck -9%
2)check -9% 3)Abdomen- 9% 4)Genital area -1% 5)front of each leg 9% 6) back of each leg
9% 7) each hand 9 % 8) Back – 18 %
* General action –
1) Remove the source or burning or scalding
2) Cool the affected area at once
3) Treat shock if present.
4) Get medical help if the person is severely ill.
Do not -1) Do not put cotton wool or any other fluty dressing on the burn.
2) put, grease oily creams or butter on the wound
Leare blisters airline as if bursts then you what to do-
1) Place the part under running cold water for several minutes or until pain is released.
2) Do not pull off any clothing around the burnt area unless the burn has affected only a
small confined area never palmary adherent charred cloth from this is an expert job
3) Once the area has been cooled you can gently remove clothing from the affected area
around the scald this can be done for chemical burns also with excess of case so that
you will not get any harm from the chemical soaked cloths.
4) Decides whether the person needs medical attention.
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5) If you cannot put the burnt area under water from a container andapply soaking to wets.
It the scald or burn is small i.e.- less that 2.5cm across shallow, easily covered
by – dressing and the person is well then there is no need of medical attention.
 The medical attention is needed if –
1) The victim is a child
2) The burn is large and specially it involves the areas of the body that more affect face
eye palm or fingers or such parts which can‘t be easily covered by dressings
3) Caused by a chemical, electricity or molten metal.
Be prepared to treat shock and call an ambulance or doctor it the victim has 10% more
burns or scalds of his body.
 First aid treatment for burns that you can treat.
1) Dry the area carefully
2) Remove burning or burnt cloths
3) Bandage the area lightly to hold the dressing in place.
4) Apply a dry dressing (can‘t of cotton wool) preferably no adhesive burns dressing
from your first aid box.
5) If burn is of chemical nature due to acid naturalize the part with mild alkaline
(preferably 2% soda bicarb solution) and if it is due to alkaling neutralism the part
with mild acid 2% boric acid solution.
 Burns scalds and accident caused by electricity-
Burns scalds are dangers Rous because not only they can cause death but
delayed effects like scarring or deformities can quite dressing hence promit and corvette
treatment of burns and scolds are essential.
 Burns –
 Burns are injuries that result from dry heat like fire contact with hot metals chemicals
electricity and redaction.
 Scalds –
Scalds are the injuries that results from most heat like boiling hot water steam, oil
hot tar and hot liquids.
The injuries in both burns and scalds are the same.
 Aims: - The aims of first aid are as follows.

1) To save life by removing any danger immediately treating life.
2) To prevent further injury and deterioration of patients condition.
3) To releave pain.
4) To make medical case available at the earliest.
The Steps to be taken as ----
1) Assessment of the situation observes what has happened quickly and calmly.
Look danger to yourself and the victim never put yourself at higher risk.
2) One should inform the senousness of the problem to the relatives of the victim.
3) One should inform police about the serious accident.
4) Loosen clothing around the neck andwaist to aid breathing
5) Treat shock.
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6) Releave pain
7) Avoid handling the casualty (victim) unnecessarily.
8) Arrange for safe removed of the casualty (victim) to the hospital.
 Qualities of a person giving first aid
1) One should be a good observe and should be able to note the cause and effect of the injury
2) She/he should be able to act quickly.
3) In case these are multiple injuries one should have for ability to judge the injuries to be
managed first.
4) Self confident and able to judge which injuries need to be taken first.
5) Able to reassure the opprehensive victim and his/her anxious or nervous relative by
demonstrating competence sympathy and providing reassurance.
6) Able to lead and control the crowd and take help from on lookers.
Structure and function of human body
The human body is an amazing combination of different systems which are well coordinated for
smooth functioning as a unit
All the systems are equally important for health and no particular system can be called as more
important than other system.
A first aider need to have knowledge of structure and function of various systems so as to be
able to clearly understand sickness and efficiency of injury on the body.
The human body can be compare to well oiled machine which is required to perform various
functions as essential. Every first aider should be familiar with the various systems of body and
their functioning so that they can understand andtreat any type of abnormality in emergency.
Human body is made up of bones muscles, blood and every part and organs of the body is
performing similar functioning forms a system of the body. So the function of human body is
carried out by different system the body.
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THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF HUMAN BODY
We all now that the smallest functioning unit of every human being is cell. A group of cells
together forms tissue various tissues together form organ. There may be a number of organ in a
system for a specific purpose
Part of organs involved in different system, some of the system are as follows-
Term Meaning
Midline ---------- It divides the body into right and left halves with
A vertical line.
Lateral ------------- Anything away form the middle is said to be
Lateral.
Superior ---------------- Towards the head end
Inferior ---------------- Towards the foot end
Posterior --------------- Back of the body
Anterior ------------ front of the body
Proximal ------------- To words the root of the limb
Disted ------------ To words the end of the limb
1) Skeltal system – It deals with bones and their fanctions

2) Circulatory System – It deals with circulation of blood in the body with different type of
blood vessels.
3) Respiratory system – It deals with breathing and function of the respiratory organs
4) Urinary system – It deals with formation of urine and removed from body
5) Digestive system – It deals with digestion of food
6) Muscular system – It deals with different type of muscles of the body
 Skeletal system
The skeletal system consists of 206 bones joined together by ligaments and cartilageand
muscles. The various parts are as follows –
The human body consists of head trunk and limbs. The frame work of the body is as follows—
The human bodies consist of head trunk and limbs. The frame work of the body is as follows –
All bones like long bones, short bones, irregular shaped bones and bone marrow.
I) Skull- A bony frame work of the head under the skin. The seven bones of the skill and14
bones of the face are firmly united and incapable of movement. The bones of lover jaw
mandible however can be moved up and down as well as side to side.
165
Skull is made up of many that bones joined together so that no movement is allowed in between
the bones. It holds the brain. Eyes are located in bony cavities on the front of the skull.
The nose is made up of small bones attached to the skull.
II) Spine – Back bone or the vertebral column. It consist of 33 small bones called as vertebrae
there are 7 vertebrae, in the neck are called cervical vertebrae 12 in back are called as
thorasic vertebrae, and 5 vertibrae joined together in the lumber region 5 in sacrum and 4
in the coay.
These are small bones with central cavities and joined end to end forming a central canal
that- contains the spinal cord.
iii) Thorax – it is made up of the thoracic vertebrae behind, sternum in front and12 ribs
on the side‘s . It pockets the hard and lungs. There are twelve ribs on each side attached
to the thorasic vertebrae at back- except the lowest four the ribs are attached to breast
bone in a front.
iv) Scapulae or breast bone also known as sternum – It is a flat bone of the thorasic
sternum there are two flat trangular bones on the back that connect the upper limbs to the
thorax. Upper limbs – hands each upper limbs consist of 19 bones long bone in the arm
called as hummer us two long bones called radius ulna in the forearm and small bones in
the wrist and remaining small bones in the hand (paw).
v) Lower limbs – (legs)
Each lower limb consists of a long bone called femur in thigh, two long
bone called tibia and fibula in the leg and many small bones in the ankle andfoot.
vi) Collar bone or clavical – It extends from sternum ie-breast bone to the shoulder
vii) Shoulder blade or scapula –It is a thin flat bone forming the part of shoulder girdler.
viii) Hip bone or In nominate bone –there are two Hip bone attached to the sacrum each
hip bone is made up of three (3) bones illium ischium and pelvic bone.
The main functions of the skeletan system are:-
1) Supporting frame work for soft tissue of the body.

2) Protecting vital, organs like brain, heart lungs and abdominal organs.
3) Permitting movement by functioning as levev‘s at the joints.
4) Formation of blood cells.
4.4 Unconsciousness-
Any disturbance with the normal functioning of the brain and nerves is called
unconsciousness. It may be not only due to some desease or injury to the brain but also of
other organs in the body.
166
Various types of unconsciousness are as follows:-

1) Stupor – It is a state of semi consciousness in which person response only two
external stimuli or loud noise, pupils of the eyes contract in respect of light.
2) Coma- It is a state of complete loss of consciousness the person don‘t respond to even
painful stimal eye movements are absent of
Causes of unconsciousness
1) Acute fever
2) Diabetes or overdose of insulin
3) Heat stroke or exhaustion
4) Sever loss of body fluids.
No breathing
Ventilate two times (pinch nostrils and feel for movement of air, take adequate breath and place
your mouth around the casually to make a light seal and blow in to his lungs.
1) Check for pulselesseness- Feel for neck pulse present – continue to ventilate once in every 5
seconds. No pulse – locate the lower margin of the rib cage. Run the fingers up to the notch
where the ribs meet the breast bone.
Place the middle finger on this notch with index finger next to it.
Place the hed of the other hand next of the index finger on the long axis of the breast bone.
Remove the first hand from the notch and place on top of the other hand with fingers interfaced
with elbows locked arms straightened position your shoulders directly over your hands and
perform external chest compression. Depress 4 to 5 cm for adults 2.5 to 4 cm for children from 1
to 14 years old check carotid pulse after 4 cycles and every five minutes then on.
 First aid against electric shock
Remove of contact with live conductor. The first action to be taken during electric shock
is to remove the contact between the person and live conductor without touching the
person/conductor with bare hands. Rubber glows/rope/walking stick/Dry cloth /dry
paper/insulating rod/Bamboo pole/Rubber soled shoes any available insulating rods may
be used for pushing the person away from away conductor.
Simultaneously nearest circuit breakers should be opened from local control to with off the
supply to the particular conductor. These actions must be taken with a fraction of second. For this
the personnel should be trained and rehearsals should be conducted at site.
 First principles of action after electric shock -
Assume that the person is alive and will regain normal state with your fast aid. Have
confidence in yourself and in God.
If breathing is weak or breathing has stopped, try to restore it by artificial respiration and or
external cardiac massage promptly
- Stop bleeding it any.

- Lower the head of the person under physical
- Keep crowd, keep the area well ventilated.
- Avoid rapid movement of patient, movement should be slow.
- Loosen the light cloths of the patient and keep him warm with cloth sheet /worm cover
particularly in winter.
- Do not give water to drink to an unconscious patient.
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- Arrange medical help at the earliest

- Assure the patient that he will regain normal state.
- Avoid excitement panic, commotion
- Keep calm and alert
- Get ambulance and take the patient to hospital while conducting artificial respiration and or
heart massage.
 Secondary actions - Notify about the accident to the head of the organization, head of the
safety department, police, insurance companies and relatives of the patient.
 Dressings and bandages
The first rule in any treatment majority for the wounds is cleanliness prevention of
infection is the only ossurance that the wound will heal well. In wounds caused by
accident where dirt and dust is spread around for example –road accidents, earthquakes,
traincollsons etc. there are greater chances of infection wounds caused by metals,burns or
heat insed. Cuts acquired through glass, such injuries are generally clean wounds.
 Dressings-
A dressing is a material or fabric piece ,applied to a wound or to anjured part and
primarily used for three purpose –
1) To control bleeding.
2) To protect a wound from further infection.
3) To prevent or less infection.
 Types of dressing –
1) Prepared sterile dressing-
This is the ideal for all wounds and consists of sterilized piece gauze or lint to which sometimes a
pad or roller band age is stitched. This dressing is enclose and sealed in a protective covering.
Before using a sterile dressing hands must be thoroughly washed with a disinfedant preferaloly
chorohexidtine 7.5% or with soap water.
2) Gauge or lint – It a sterile dressing is not available cover the wound with piece of clean
gauze
3) Emergency dressing – It a prepared sterile dressing is not immediately available soft
savimaterial, cotton, bed sheet, table cover, sanitary pads, the inside folding of clean
handkerchief or freshly laundries towel.
The great care that must be taken in handling and applying dressing is to avoid touching with
the naked fingers any part of the wound or any part of dressing which will be in contact with the
wounds.
Dressings must be covered with an adequate pad of cotton wool which must extend well beyond
the dressing and kept in place with a bandage.
Note - A bleeding wound needs a pressure pad dressing.
 Bandages
Objectives of bandaging
1) To retain or fix dressings and splints in position and to immoloise fractures knots should
never be tied over feature.
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2) To afford support to an injured part or form slings.
*To prevent infection

* To control bleeding
* To reduce or prevent swelling.
* To assist in lifting and carrying casualties sings and symptoms of tight bandages.
*Skin distal to bandaging may become bluish.
*Numbness and tingling.
Treatment immediate loosening of the bandage.
1.5 Heat and cold injuries and its first aid
HEAT STROKE AND HEAT EXHAUSTION/ HEAT INJURIES
Heat stroke proper is an entirely different reaction in the human body than Heat
Exhaustion. It is serious and often fatal condition. Hot, still, humid atmosphere and
inadequate drinking of water favours development of Heat Stroke. Alcohol consumption
and constipation also favour its onset.
Casualty shows mental excitement, restlessness, vomiting muscular cramps and high
temperature in the range of 104 ºf or above. If temperature reaches 106 º f patients may
become unconscious.
HEAT EXHAUSTION
Heat exhaustion occurs among the workers in stuffy atmosphere or in overheated, poorly
ventilated room. There may be feeling of giddiness or fainting. Prevention by wearing loose
clothing, drinking large quantities or water is possible.
Heatstroke and heat exhaustion can occur when the body becomes overheated. Heatstroke is
the more serious of the two conditions. A person suffering heatstroke feels hot but cannot sweat.
The skin becomes hot, dry, and red. The body temperature rises so high that it can cause brain
damage if not lowered quickly. Undress the victim, and apply cold, wet towels to the entire body.
Fanning also helps cool the body. Get medical attention as quickly as possible.
A person suffering heat exhaustion also called heat prostration, displays many of the symptoms
of shock. Such symptoms include headache, nausea, and feeling faint. The skin is cold, grey, and
wet with perspiration. In most cases, the body temperature remains about normal. Treat the victim
as if he or she were in shock. Place the victim on his or her back, with the legs raised slightly. If
the victim has trouble breathing in the position, place the person in a half-sitting, half-lying
position. Take the victim to a hospital, keeping him or her as cool as possible.
First aid treatment of heat stroke
- call a doctor.
- Commence active treatment before temperature reaches 104º F.
- Strip the patient naked and wrap him up completely in cold water socked beed sheet.
- Fan vigorously and when temperature of body comes down to 102ºF cooling process should be
stopped.
- Later on, patient should be dried and covered with light blanket.
- Water can be given to drink to gain normal condition.
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FROSTBITE/COLD INJURIES
Frostbite may occur when the skin is exposed to extreme cold. It most frequently affects the
skin of the cheeks, chin, ear, fingers, nose, or toes.
Frostbitten skin appears whitish and feels numb. It should be handled gently.
First Aid
1) Warm the affected area with the heat of your hand or cover it with a heavy cloth until you
can get the victim indoors.
2) If warm water is not available, wrap the frostbitten area in blankets. Obtain medical
assistance as quickly as possible.
3) If a victim of frostbite must be moved, protect the person from additional exposure.
4.6 Fractures and joint Injuries –
Bone injuries are the injuries which are resacted of fractured directly at the point a blow is applied,
an indirect force may cause the bone to break away from the spot of application of
force.(transmission of force from one part to another) e.g. fracture of clavicle after a fall on the out
stretched hand violent contraction of a group of muscles may pull pieces of bone away from the
point where the muscles are attached e.g. fracture of patella by powerful contraction of quadriceps
muscles wrenching of a joint can cause its ligament to pull so hard at the bones forming the joint
that one of the bone may fracture e.g. fracture of lower leg bone at the ankle after stumbling.
Pathological fractures are called when the bone may be the seat of number of disease which
weaken it and make it liable to break even with very minor injuries.
 How to distinguish whether there is a fracture

i. There may is usually pain over the fractured bone.
ii. There may be swelling or brushing
iii. There is loss or severe restrictions of use of the affected area.
iv. Bones may pake through the skin.
Types of fractures
1) Simple (closed) fractures – In this type the skin surface is infect.
2) Compound (open) fracture- In this type this skin surface over the fracture is broken and
fracture communicates with outside. There is a risk extensive blood loss and infection.
3) Complicated closed or open fracture – In this type there is injury to never and blood
vessels in addition to fracture.
 Fracture of skull –
The skull is a closed box made up of many bones which are united immovable joints. It
protest the brain it can be fractured by a direct blow e.g. falling from a height instead of
landing on feet direct blow usually fracture the skull and also cause injury to the
vertebral column.
Fracture of skull is a sereous injury because it may be associated with brain damage.
The brain can be bruised or there may be bleeding outside the brain and bematoma
compresses the brain. The fracture may be lineor depressed or complicated.
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 Fracture of arms –
It is caused by a direct blow but it is much more common especially inelderly persons.
It is a stable injury hence the victim may walk around for same time before reporting to a
doctor for treatment. It is difficult fracture to treat as the muscles produce overlapping of
ends that are broken and angulations.
 Fracture of hand and fingers –
The hand is made up of many small bones with movable joints which may be injured by
direct or indirect trauma. Crash injuries because multiple fractures are hand fracture of
the knuckle between the little fingers and the hand may occur due to misplaced punch.
There may be server bleeding and swelling sprains and dislocation may affect any
fingers. The thumb is particularly prom to dislocation caused by fall on to the hand.
 Fracture of bones of the foot –
This is due to direct crashing by heavy objects. The condition is diagnosed by following
features -1) there is pain in the foot increasing by movement
2) Loss of movement
3) There is an inability to walk properly.
4) Swelling and brushing are seen at the site of the fracture.
5) Deformity may present e.g. irregularity or bony crash of that foot.
 Fracture of leg bone-
One of the leg bones (tibia) is quite stardy and usually requires a heavy blow to fracture
it. The other (fibula) in thiner and can be broken by twisting force as during twisting of
ankle. Since the weight bearing is done by tibia a fracture of fibula does not cause much
problems the victim. The condition is diagnosed by following fractures-
1) There is pain in leg.
2) Swelling and brushing have been at the site of fracture.
3) Angulations or twisting of leg may be present at the site of fracture.
 Injuries to muscles and joints-

Muscles are of two types voluntary and involuntary Injury occurs to the voluntary or
skeletal muscles. These may be due to overstitching or tearing due to violent and sudden
movements. Muscle injuries are of following types:-
1) Strain- There is partial tearing or the muscles often and the junction of the muscles
and its tandem.
2) Rupture – There is complete tearing of the muscles in it fleshy by or taken.
3) Deep bruising – It occurs when there is serve injury to a large bulk of muscles.
 The condition is diagnosed by the following features-
1) There is severe and sharp pain over the site of injury to the muscle.
2) The victim is unable to move the part on making an attempt of moving it there is
sharp pain locally.
3) The muscles may be swollen and stiff.
 Types of joints-
A joint is a junction of two or more bones
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1) Movable joints – Two or more bones are held together by means of ligament muscles
and tendons. The movement is possible both the bones. There are different kinds of
moveable joint as follows- i) ball and socket joint
ii) Tilling joint and joint with limited movements.
 Sprain – Sprain is an injury to the regiments and joints capsule, it is due to a sudden
movement or twisting of the part involving joint. Ankle is the most commonly sprained
joint.
 Dislocation – This is more severe injury than sprain, this occurs when the strong force
act directly on a joint pulling a bone into and abnormal position, it can occur as result of
sudden muscular contraction too.
 Strain – strain involving muscles are common in a back first aid calls for rest andmiled
head to relive pain. Seek medical attention is needed.
 First aid for fractures or broken bones, general principles of treatment of fractures:-
1) Careless handling will increase the pain and shock. It may increase the bone
displacement and turn simple fracture to a more serious compound one, hence the
victim should be handled very carefully.
2) If fracture is compound and severe, bleeding must be controlled at once. Don‘t
attempt of replace the protruded bone. Cover the bone wound with a large sterile
dressing and handset firmly.
 The fracture may then be splinted. Splinting of fractures-
i) always the splint the fracture before moving the patient. Select sprints that are long
enough wide enough and strong enough to hold the fracture and to firmly immobilize the
joints.
ii) Improvise splints from material at hand strips of wood straight branches of trees,
shovels, trap iron called up magazines etc. Remember, you can always splint a
broken leg to the sound leg or an arm to the side of the body.
iii) Pad the splints wherever necessary, using cotton wool, old wags or even grass or
moss.
iv) Tie the splints firmly using folded triangular bandage roller bandages or strips of
sheeting or rope.
There must be no movement.
 Poisoning- Anything which when taken into the body affects it adversely is called
poisoning. Poison can be tablets taken in excess, of which the commonest are pain
killers, sleeping tablets, fruits and plants e.g. mush rooms and beries, chemicals e.g.
Weed killer, domestic cleaning fluids and turpentine taken in excess cause poisoning
bites such as snake bite, dog bite also cause poisoning. Gases like coal gas, or industrial
waste gas which can be absorved by the lungs through breathing and cause poisoning.
Agricultural pesticials can be absorbed through skin as well as mouth and breath also
because poisoning. Everybody in fire service should have the knowledge of poisoning as
with knowledge we can save the person affected with poison.
For necessary treatment as can send that person in hospital.
Poisoning is of various types, so it is elder classified in main two types.
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1) Accident of poisoning
2) Suicide poisoning – In suicide-
Poisoning there is a sub type – homicide poisoning
Poison contained material entered in the body through by smelling or though
mouth, it mix in blood and this blood get circulated to the whole body and the person
suffers with poisoning. In this case the brain systems i.e. the nervous system get
failure and the person become – uneasy unconscious with adverse effects like
vomiting and drowsiness.
1) Accidental poisoning –
Toxic gas leakage in the factory /industry, Gas container leakage on road, snake bite, dog
bite etc. is accidental poisoning.
2) Suicide poisoning –
In this case a person commits to take poisonous material to end up his /her own
life,and suffer from all adverse effects of poisoning.
* swallowed poisoning –
Usually for a child it is difficult to know how much to swallowed to unless you know
how much the contains was filled with when it was placed. Any swallowed poison must
be treated seriously. Get medical help as soon as possible. Ask someone to help hone a
doctors /ambulance for take the person to hospital by car or other means at once.
 Do not delay because children can go down very quickly even though they seen all right
at first.
 While awaiting medical help –
i) Remove excess poison from mouth, keeping pills, hems of container for the
doctor.
* If the person is conscious and has swallowed a corrosive substance gets him to drink water
or milk to preserve the lining of mouth and to dilute the stomach contents. Remove any soaked
clothing you will know if the poison is corrosive by chemical burning and white discoloration it
leaves on the mouth lips and clothes.
* Never make a person vomit if he has taken petrol, turpentine or any corrosive chemical such as
strong acids and alkalies.The substance will already have done plenty of damage while going
down to stomach and can only do more on its way up. Give this people milk or water to drink as
this help to protect the stomach lining and to some extend prevent absorption of the chemical.
Drugs are among the commonest causes of accidental poisoning in children. Aspirin and other
painkiller iron tablets anti depressant sleeping are the drugs which it is taken in excess, lead to
serious illness all even death in children. The drugs should be kept preferably in a proper medicine
cabinet. Many medicines come in foil strips with each tablet sealed safety away from children.
 Agricultural poisons absolved through skin. There are so many chemicals used today in
Agricultural that is difficult to generalize about them. The disturbing thing is that many
of them are not available for domestic market and so can present as hazardous even if
you live in city as the symptoms are so variable, it do not make scene to say. If you ever
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get any strange feelings after using pesticides ,weed killers or fertilizers, do not neglect
them.
Early stage the symptoms can quickly change to serious once so do not delay to visit a
doctor.
Some of these poisons affects breathing, some other nerve conduction and many are
absorbed through the skin or lungs through breathing.
*what to do?
1) Stop the person using the chemical
2) Remove him gently from the area.
3) Remove contaminated clothing.
4) Take him to hospital if these are adverse effects.
 Poisoning by gas or smoke (fumes)
Although the industrial gases and vapours‘ of various kinds are encountered by
those working with them. The gases most of us come across are domestic gas, carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide. It possible to be killed by gas because if a person is
teapped in air tight room the gas displaces the oxygen and the person suffocates.
If an appliance is burning improperly poisonous carbon mono oxide may be
produced which is harmful for human being.
Something happens with smoke also but smoke has the additional disadvantage of
actually damaging of the lungs.
If you find someone in gas and smoke filled room -1) Go quickly holding your
breath and lift the victim to self safer place. Ii) If the person is over came by exhaust
fumes in a closed rage open doors, switch of the engine and proceed as above.
A house contains many substances such as belch insecticide paint, strippers that
are highly dangerous to children. If a child or anybody swallows one of the above
substances, get medical help quickly. The rocctes through with the substances inter in the
body are swallowing breathing and injection.
 First aid management –A-if the person is unconscious –do not induce vomiting
*lie him on his back on hard and flat bed.
*Turn the head to one side
*No pillow
*If excessive, vomiting put to lie on his side one leg streehed and another bent at knee on
thigh
*If breathing is slow or stopped, give artificial respiration.
B- If the person conscious –
* Include vomiting
*Plenty of cold water to drink which will delay the absorption and replace the fluid loss.
*milk is also good for the purpose
* Common poisons are –
1) Aspirin- first aid – Induce vomiting-adding sodium-bi-carbonate one table spoon to a tumbler
of water strong tea, or coffee.
2) Mercury – first aid – give white of the egg in water then milk then induce vomiting.
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3) phosphorus- first aid – Induce vomiting then large quantity of water tender coconut do not give
oils as the dissolves phosphorus.
4) Acids – first aid –do not induce vomiting give cauter or soeto bicaeb to drink.
5) Petrol, phenol and other disinfectants- first aid- do not induce vomiting mug saph 4 tea slporn
in a lite of water.
* Alcohol poisoning –
The alcohol poisoning the casually will have the following signs:-
1) Breath will smell alcohol.
2) Vomiting
3) Eyes blood red.
4) Partly conscious or already unconscious.
First aid –maintain the oper airway take to hospital.
 Industrial poisoning –
In industry some people may come in contact with dangerous chemicals or gases at their
work places, those are grouped as
a) Irritants- e.g. Ammonia, nitrous fumes etc.
b) Asphyxiates- e.g. carbon dioxide
c) Toxic gases- carbon monoxide hydrogencynide
d) Toxic vapours- Those given off volatile chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride or
trichloroethylene.
If the casualty is trapped in an enclosed space never attempt to reissue, unless you
are fully equipped with a practiced in using of breathing apparatus and life lines.
First aid- Take the patient to open air.
*Transport to hospital /medical center
* If required start ABC resuscitation.
* Bite –
*Frost bite-
Frost bite may occur when the skin is exposed to extreme cold. It most frequently affects the skin
of cheeks, chin, ear, fingers nose and toes.
Frost bitten skin appears whitish and feds numb it should be handled gently, never massage frost
bitten skin and do not rub with it in cold water. Warm the affected area with the help of your hand
or cover it with a heavy cloth until you can get the victim incurs. Treat the effected skin by
soaking it in lake warm water. The temperatures of this water should be between 39 ºCand 41º
C,keep the temperature in this range by adding more warm water as needed never use water later
them 40 degree C. If warm water is not available wrap the frost bitten area with blankets, obtain
the medical assistance as quickly as possible .If a victim of frost bite must be moved protect the
person from additional exposure.
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Never treat frost bite with heat from a fire or stove or with heating pad, Hot water bottle or heat
lump. Such treatment may produce temperature that can damage frost bitten tissue. If frost bite
blisters occur do not break them bandage them to prevent infection.
4.7Snake bite-
The treatment of snake bite depends on whether or not the snake is poisonous. If the snake is
nonpoisonous the bite should be washed thoroughly with soap and water. A person bitten by a
poisonous snake, bite cause deep during pain along with swelling and discoloration within minutes
the victim may begin to feel numb and have difficulty in breathing, call doctor, take the victim to
hospital if the possible, kill the snake and bring it along for identification.
Keep the victim still and quite because activity increase spread of poison, place the victim so that
the bite is below the level of the heart, if the bite is on an arm or leg tie the band above the wound
between it and the heart. The band should be loose enough for you to slip your figure under it.
Rebase the band go seconds every 10 minutes to prevent damage from lack of circulation.
Treatment of snake bite should always help prompt
 Arrange for medical help immediately in the meanwhile arrest blood circulation in the
snake bitten limb by using constrictive bandage between shoulder and elbow between
hip and knee joint as the case may be till the pulse is not felt beyond the constrictive
bandage. The constrictive bandage should be kept for 20 minutes then release for one
minute for or until skin become pink and again tightened. Repeat the procedure till the
arrival of doctor
 Immediately after the constrictive bandage is applied, wash the wound with the solution
of potassium permanganate in order to remove the venom which may have dried on the
skin.
 Make a deep cut with sharp knife or razor blade at the bitten site in order to bleed the
bitten site.
 Assure the patient and keep him warm by means of blanket, patient should be absolutely
still If he able to swallow, give him to strong coffee or tea heating stops give the artificial
respiration by mouth to mouth method, or Nilson method.
4.10 Stretcher and casualty handling –
Shifting and carrying victim -
After accidental injury victim needs to be shifted and carried to first aid and to hospital. While
shifting the victim care should be taken to see that pains to victim should be bearable and wound
is not get aggravated. Other considerations are available equipment and manpower how much long
is to be shifted and probable obstacles on the route, considering such problems some of the
method to shift victim are as follows-
1) When assistance is not available andvictim can‘t not stand on his legs, let the victim lie on
floor, lift it heat little about the floor and insert both of your hand through his armpits, lift his
shoulder along with head of the floor and pull him out side, put his hands on his chest while
pulling out, so that they will not be dragged on floor.
2) When the victim is conscious and can stand you as a first aider should stand closely, decide the
victim put his arm on your shoulders for support, hold his free hand and allow him to take
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support of your and allow him to take support of your body while walking. If one of leg is
injured them you may tie his injured leg to your leg, this will reduce stress on his injured leg if
travelling distance is long walking, stick may be provided to victim as support
3) If helper is available and victim can stand, let victim stand between you and helper hold your
right hand left hand, let the helper also do likewise your and helper right hand will be free
now, hold each other wrists with free hands this will make a seat allow the victim to rest on
this seat putting his arm around your shoulders as support.
4) If helper is available but victim can‘t stand or victim is unable to assist while carrying –let the
victim on floor between you and helper, sit on your knees beside the victim and taking victim
in between while taking seating position, see that you both can stand easily, insert you lift
hand and allow the helper his right hand below the victim near to his shoulders If possible, try
to hold each other‘s wrist now, insert your free hand below victim‘s knees grip firmly in wrist
and lift above marginally taking support of victims thighs and wresting his back on other
hands, lift him gently the position A victim will be like seating on the chair while walking on
the route, use outer soles.
5) To shift outside the factory premises requires stretcher and ambulance. In case ambulance is
not available private vehicle is necessary to carrying in private vehicle may cause pains to
victim and complicate injury if it is from the bone fracture. It is convenient to shift victim from
factory to hospital on stretcher by ambulance, victim can be easily shifted to ambulance and
hospital bed without causing pain to him.
6) More persons are regarding to shift and carry victim via stretcher this is specific method to lift
and place victim from to strand stretcher. Keep stretcher on the floor beside the victim with
help of four persons gently lift the victim marginally above the floor taking care that his hand
or legs are closed to the body and not hanging. Then one person should slide stretcher below
victim over it place victim gently.
7) Prior to shift victim difficulties and obstacles on journey from accident place to ambulance or
other destination should be considered, this can be many such as distance may long equipment
stair cases on the routs, narrow lanes etc. It will be convenient to have more helpers on journey
avoid haste. If someone from group fells tired over strained, he should inform other to keep
operation in a control.
8) While climbing up the staircase victims head should be at front and at back while coming
down. However if the victim is very seriously injured. His head should be at front so that all
members caring him can watch the face watch his face.
9) So far as possible it necessary that the stretcher should be parallel to the ground for this, while
coming down the stair case stretcher needs to be raised from victim head side.
10) In many instance victim trapped at accident place is unconscious, in such occasions
atmosphere around like to be hazards contaminated by smoke obnoxious gases etc. person
attempting rescue operation likely to be get affected personal protective equipments such self
contained breathing apparatus is needed to rescue the victim, if such apparatus is not available
special care needs to be taken by rescue team or otherwise there can be danger to their life.
 Insect bite and stings –
Insect bite and stings can cause a immediate skin reaction. The bite from fire ants and
the stings from bees and other bomets are usually painful, bites caused by mosquito‘s flies
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and mites are likely to cause itching than pain symptoms – The nonemergency symptoms
very according to the type of insect and the individual. Most people have localized pain
redness swelling or itching you may feel burning numbers and tingling.
 First aid –
For emergencies ( severe reaction )
1) Check the persons air way and breathing. If necessary call 911 and begin rescue
breathing.
2) Reassure the person Try to keep him/her calm.
3) Remove nearby rings and constructing items because affected area may swell.
4) Use the person emergency kit if they have it.
5) If appropriate treat the person for of signs sek remain with the person until medical
help arrives.
 General steps for most bites and stings –
1) Remove the stinger if still present by scraping the back of a credit card or other straight
edged object across the stinger. Do not use tweezers- These may squeeze the renon sac
and increase the amount of venom released.
2) Wash the site toughly with soap and water
3) Place ice wrapped in a wash cloth on the site of the sting for 10 minutes. Repeat those
processes.
4) If necessary take an antihistamine, or apply creams that reduce itching.
5) Over the next several days. Watch for signs of infection.
6)
4.11Types if bandages –
i. Triangular bandage
ii. Roller bandage
iii. Adhesive bandage and dressing
I. Triangular Bandage -
This is most useful multipurpose bandage for first aider. It is made by cutting a piece of linen of
fiber not less than 38 inches square, diagonally in to two pieces. The bandage may be applied.
 As a whole cloth – This can be spread out to its full extent e.g. Chest bandage.
 As a board bandage – This can be done by bringing the point down to the center of the
base and then folding the bandage again in the same devotion.
 A triangular bandage secures dressings or pads in place.
 A narrow bandage – This is made by folding the broad bandage one again the same
direction.
To secure the ends of the bandage a reef knot must be used.
To make a reef knot, take the ends of the bandage one in each hand.
II. Roller bandage-
Roller bandages are made up of various materials like canton or leman with loose mash
and are of various lengths and widths according to the use which they are put. They are
used in hospitals and first aid boxes use of roller bandage.
1) To keep dressing in position.
2) To apply pressure to control bleeding.
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3) To support a painful part.
Part bandaged width of bandage
Fingers 1‘‘ (2.5 cm)
Hand 2‘‘ (5 cm)
Hand and arm 2‘‘ to 21/2‘‘
Leg 3‘‘ to 3 ½
Trunk 4 ‗‘to 6‘‘
Basic of application
1) Face the casualty.
2) Apply each layer of the bandage so that it covers two third of the preceding one.
3) Secure the bandage by a safety pin or other suitable method such as adhesion
Strapping.
Methods of application
1) Simple spiral
2) Figure of eight
3) Spice
Bandaging special body parts

i. Hand bandage
ii. Elbow bandage
iii. Finger bandage
iv. Shoulder etc.
4.9The respiratory System
The respiratory is concerned with breathing for exchange of carbon dioxide from the body with
the oxygen in the air. Air is a mixture of gases containing 21% oxygen. The aim of breathing is to
transfer oxygen from the air to the lungs where it is exchanged for carbon dioxide is in blood,
oxygen is essential for liften.
The oxygen is circulated to body while the carbon dioxide is expelled out by expiration breathing
is an automatic function.
1) Inspiration - breathing in
2) Expiration – breathing out
The respiratory system is composed of the parts – lungs, respiratory track which consist of nose,
pharynx, larynx, trachea orwindpipe, bronchi and branchiols. The brancholes finally break in to
small sac alveoli which are surrounded by pulmonary capillaries, Gassous exchange between
inspired air in the alvidi and the impure blood in the capillaries occure at this level the hungs are
covered by a sae called pleures. Inside the sac is smooth andfilled with a thin layer of fluid to
allow.
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Expantion of lungs without friction when the thorax expand the lungs expands and air is drawn
into alveoli which is known as inspiration with collapsingof thorax to the original size the air is
thrown out is called as expiration.The normal respiratory rate is 16-20 per min. in adult .It is more
rapid children being 40 per min. in a new born baby and30 to 32 per min. at the age of 5 years.
The ratio of respiratory system is
A) Take or inhale air atmosphere to the body
B) Take or observed oxygen from normal air
C) Remove CO2 from the body.
 Method of artificial respiration
The important methods of artificial respiration are –
1) Schafer‘s prone pressure method
2) Silvestre‘s method (Arm lift, chest pressure method )
3) Nielson‘s Arm- lift back pressure method
4) Mouth to mouth method.
Duration of these processes is 12 to 15 minutes. When the patent begins to breathe on
his own then operation should be sychrorixed with natural breathing and continued
till be breath strongly on his own.
 Schafer‘s method is recommended also for fractures and drowning cases.
 Silvestre‘s method is recommended when person cannot be laid on stomach with chest
touching the ground due to burn injury.
1) Schafer‘s prone method – lay the vichm on his belly kneed over the vichim‘s back
andplace the palms of your hand on victim‘s thin portion of the back with fingers
spreading on the ribs and the two thumbs parallel to the spine and almost touching each
other. You should assure with arms held.
Strought lean forward and apply pressure on the body of the victim for about three
seconds. Now reduce the pressure gradually and come back to original position for about
two seconds repeat this process for about 12 to 15 times till such times the victim starts
breathing this method of respiration expand‘s and contracts the lungs of the victim so as
to help him to starts normal breathing this great patients on the part of the person helping
the victim.
2) Silvestre‘s method –
This method is used when the patient has get burns or injuries on the chest or on from
side so that he cannot be laid with his chest down the victim is laid on his back with a
pillow or rolled coat under his shoulders. His cloths are loosened his arms are
grasped above the wrist and drown first upward and then taken over his head until
they are horizontal as position I and II. Remain in position II for about 2to 3 seconds.
The patients‘ hands are then brought back to the chest and pressure is applied in the
downward direction by kneeling over the victim hands. The cycle is repeated after
about two Seconds.
3) Nielson‘s Arm lifts back pressure method –
The subjects lies prom with both arms folded and hands resting one on another under
his head. The arms are grasped above the elbow and lifted until firm resistance is
made. This induces active inspiration. Then they are let down and pressure applied on
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the back to cause active expiration. The movement in this method follows the
sequence given below.
*Position I- place the victim prone i.e.- face down with his arm folded with one palm
on the other and head resting on a cheek over the palms kneel on one or both knee at
victims head. place four hand on victims back beyond the line of armpit with your
fingers spread of up words and down words the thumbs just touching one other.
*Position II- Then gently rock forward keeping arms straight until they are nearly
vertical the thus steadily pressing the victim‘s back. This complete expiration.
*Position III – Synchronizing the above movement rock back wards releasing
pressure and slide your hands downwards along victims arms and group his upper
arms just above the elbows continue to rock backwards.
*Position IV - As you rock back gently raise and pull victim arms towards you until
you feel tension in his shoulders. This expands his chest as results in respiration to
complete the cycle lowers the victim‘s arms and move your hand‘s up for initial
position.
This method is considered to be the best being most effective easy to teach and
perform.
*Holger - Nelson method of artificial respiration.
i) place the victim face down prone position, bend his elbow and place the hands one
upon the other turn his face to one side placing the check upon the hand.
ii) knee on either the right or left knee at the head of victim facing him place the knee at
the side of victim head close to the forearm place the opposite foot near the elbow. It is
more comfortable, kneel on both knees, one on either side of the victims head place your
hands that upon the victims back in such a way that the heels of the hands lie just below a
line running between armpits with the tips of the thumbs just touching spread the fingers
downwards and outwards.
iii)Rock forward until the arm are – approximately vertical and allow the weight of upper
part of your body to exert slow steady even pressure downwards upon the hands. This
forces air out of the lungs your elbow should be kept straight and the pressure exerted
almost directly down-wards on the back.
iv) Release the pressure avoiding a final thrust and commence to rock slowly backwards
place your hands upon the victim‘s arms just about above his elbows.
v) Draw his arms upwards and towards you apply just enough lift to feel resistance and
tension at victim‘s shoulders. Do not bend your elbows and as you rock backward the
victim‘s arms will be drown towards you. Then drop the arms to the ground. This
completes the full cycle the arm lift expands the chest by pulling on the chest muscles
arching the back and releasing the weight on the chest.
vi) The cycle should be repeated 12 times per minutes at steady and uniform rate the
compression and expansion phase should occupy about equal time the release period
being of minimum duration.
vii) Relief operator- In changing operator the relief operator kneels beside the operator as
indicated by the feet and knee position and takes over so as not to interrupt the rhythm of
pressure and release.
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4) Mouth to Mouth method-

In this method the patient is laid on his back with his head slightly sloping down. A
pillow or rolled coat under his shoulders will help to maintain proper position. The
head is tilled look. So that the lower jaw as shown in position I.
Open the mouth of the patient take a deep breath and place your mouth
making air tight contact. Pinch the patient nose with thumb and four fingersand blow
into patient mouth until his chest rises remove your mouth to enable him to exhale.
The first 8 to 10 breath should be as rapid as victim will respond their after rate
should be slowed down to about 12 to 15 times a minutes. Some time air is trapped in
patients‘ stomach which can be released by applying pressure gently on the stomach
when the victim is exhaling.
5) Silvestre – broach method –
a) If there is abstraction to breathing remove it with your finger or with a cloth
wrapped round your fingers, if it is in mouth.
b) Lay casually on his back, put something under his shoulder to raise them and
allow his head to tall backwards. The head should be it possible be a little lower
than the trunk remember that speed is essential.
c) Kneel at the casualties head and grasp his arms at the wrist. Then cross them firmly
over the lower chest this movement should force air out of is a lung. Press with the hands cross
on the lower part of chest and maintain pressure for two seconds.
d) Release the pressure and pull his arms with a sweeping movement upwards and down
words about his head and backwards as for as possible. This movement should cause air to be
drawn into his lungs. Retain the arms in this position for three seconds. This will keep an equal
amount of time at every cycle. Repeat this movement rhythematically about twelve times per
minute checking the mouth frequently for obstraction. Each cycle three for takes five seconds
chest pressure and 3 seconds for arm lift.
e) With the casually on his back there is a danger A aspiration vomit mucus or blood re-
entering the system. This risk can be reducicd by keeping the head externded and little lower
than the trunk
f) If on assistant is available he can press the casualty‘s lower jaw so that the chin is
jutting out. The assistant should also ensure that the mouth is kept as clean as possible turning
the head to one side if necessary.
g) When natural breathing begins your movement should be adopted to correspond to it.
*If burns are present cover with dry sterite dressing
* handle the casually gently do not allow people to crowd around and block fresh air.
*Arrange to remove the injured to care of a doctor or hospital as early as possible.
Even after apperant recovery the casually should be seen by a doctor to ensure that all is well
as casualty suffering from electrical injuries are liable to reoccur even when effect have
seemed to be mild.
Use of artificial resuscitator –
Mechanical means of artificial respiration have been developed and recommended
for use. Artificial resuscitator (umbbag) consist of a rubber balloon a special value and a
mouth piece and a tabbing. The mouth piece is capped on the mouth of the patient for artificial
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respiration. The balloon is deflated to pump air in chest of the patient during in handling.
There after the balloon is released to get in handling. There after the balloon is released to get
inflow. The atmospheric air entering via the value. The patient exhales through his nose, the
balloon is deflated again. The process is repeated till normal breathing is restored.
*Cardio pulmonary resuscitation-
It both respiration and circulation have stopped then
1)First give 5 to 6 quick breath by mouth to mouth method and check carotid pulse. If pulse is
left continue mouth to mouth respiration only.
2) If carotid pulse is not felt after 5 to 6 mouth to mouth breaths compress chest 15 times
as described in external cardiac massage and then give quick mouth to mouth breaths till
medical help is available. If any assistance is available, one person should give one quick
mouth to mouth breath while other 5 chest compressions immediately after it maintain this 1 to
5 rhythm till medical assistance is available.
*Take the following actions for cardio pulmonary resuscitation-

Assessment- Check surrounding beware of danger e.g. - electricity, fire, smoke etc. check for
unresponsiveness. Top, gently shake shoulders and shout is you ok.
A) Action – Remove casualty from danger and ensure your personal safety.
B) Conscious- checks injuries.
C) Unresponsive- call out ―Help ―position the victim open air way by lifting chin and
placing other hand on for head.
2) Check for breathing-
Look listen and fell for sign of breathing look for chest movement listen and feel the movement
of air through mouth and nose
Digestive system
The system is concerned with digestion of food. Parts of digestive system are mouth, esophagus.
(Food pipe) stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, spleen and gall bladder tongue.
Our digestive systems consist of the digestive track and various glands that secrete digestive juices
in to the track. The track includes now pharynx,oesoprhags stomach, small intestine , large
intestine rectum and anus.
There accessory glands include culinary glands gallbladder and pancreas.
Teeth are used to tear the food into pieces and chew it, at the same time saliva is produced from
the salivary glands dry food is mixed with the saliva to moisten it. Ptllene in the saliva digest
carbohydrates in mouth itself, the food. The food reaches the stomach through the esophagus.
There it mixes rennin , pepsin and hydrochloric acid which are the digestive juices then it passes
in to small intestine time where mixes pancreatic juice and bile which digest the food further
Product if digestions are absorbed in small intestine time and undigested and waste products
passes to the large intestine. Water is absorbed from it and the resiclue thrown out through the
rectum and anus.
The muscular system
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It consists of different types of muscles of the body. All musclesof the body. All muscles of the
body. All muscles are divided into three types.
1) Stricted or skeleted muscles- These are attached some part of skeleton across the joints
between bones. Their contraction and relaxation produce voluntary movements.
2) Smooth muscles- These are small and delicate. They are found in walls of bowds, respiratory
‗track and blood vessels. They are known as involuntary because one does not have direct
control over their activity.
3) Cardiac muscles- These muscles are soft and its fibers show some striations under a
microscope but it is involuntary in nature. These muscles forms heart.
Urinary system
It consist of two kidneys, two ureters a urinary bladder and urethra. It involved in
removal of chemical liquid waste from the blood and helps to balance water and self
level s of the blood by excreting urine.
When it fills to about 200 to 250 ml. one gets a sensation of full bladder of then expels
the urine by voluntary contraction of the bladder muscles.
 The Joints-
Various part of human body is joined to one another by ligaments. The joints may be movable or
immovable. The movement between the bones may be only in one place as in hinge joints at knees
and elbow in all places as in the ball and socket joint at the shoulder or there may be a small
degree of movements in the wrist joint.
Nervous System
The brain is the master organ, it receives information from organs of special sense such as
eyes, ears, nose, tongue, skin. It controls movement interprets sensation regulate body activities
and generate memory and thoughts central nervous system consist brain and spinal chord along
with nerves. It is divided in to central and peripheral. The brain is situated in the hallow cavity of
the cranial bones. It comprises of two hemispheres. Each hemisphere has gray matter side it and
white matter in side.
Circulatory System
It consist of heart arteries, veinsand blood. The hart is hallowing muscular organs made of special
type of muscles. It is situated between the two lungs in the thoracic cavity more towards left side
of the chest. It measures 12cm in length and9 cm in health and 6cm in thickness. It weighs about
280 gm. It has four chambers upper two are known as right and left auricles and lower two are
known as eight and lift ventricles.
The heart contracts and relaxes continuously to work as a pump.
Its primary function is to purify and circulate the blood in the body and to help in distributing the
nutrients and oxygen to the body, and waste materials away from the site of production to the
organs of excretion.
Our blood vessels are of three types.
1) Arteries – They are the strongest of the blood vessels, owing to the presence of elastic tissue
in their walls. They are red in color and carry pure blood away from the heart i.e. to the body
parts. They branch to form arterial and finally capillaries.
2) Capillaries-
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They are the result of final branching of the arteries. They are made up of a thin layer of
endothelial cells through which fluid and gases can pass to and from the tissue, cells of the body.
3) Veins-
These are not strong as arteries due to lack of elastic tissue in their walls. They are formed by
joining capillaries. They are bluish in color. They carry impure blood back to the heart.
Blood coming from the digestive system also contains nuttiness nutrients obtained by digestion of
food. Blood is circulated in a continuously repeated cycles by the contraction of the heart.
Heart rate in a normal adult of rest is 72 times per minute. Each to time the heart muscles
contracts. Blood is forced out of the right ventricle into the pulmonary arteries for perfusion of the
lungs and from the left ventricle in to the aorta to perfuse the various part of the body. During
relaxation of the heart de oxygenated blood collects in the right auricle from the left auricle from
the pulmonary veins, then it passes to the ventricle of the respective sides. Blueness (cyanosis)
arises when the blood is low in oxygen. Normal human body contains 5 litre of blood.
 Asphyxia Fire incidence cause of injuries of with asphyxia or heartthing distress is the most
serious one and may lead to death almost immediately.
Incidents casually handling by fire man must three for involve detection and treatment of
asphyxia with top priority after rescue or at time even during rescue operation.
It is deficiency of oxygen an increase in corbondioxide in the blood and tissues. It occurs due to a
failure of exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air and pulmonary capillaries.
 Definition of Asphyxia – The pathological manifestation which become apparent in an
intact animal due to continuous in proper duration of blood for sometime are collectivity
called asphyxia.
Asphyxia maybe- 1) General such as by solution of tracheas, neucmothorax ect.
2) Local as by ligature of blood vessels. Supplying a particular locality.
* Essential condition Asphyxia -
i) There must be both CO2 excess as well as O2 lack.
ii) Animal must be infact.
iii) The improper duration must be continued.
*How Asphyxia causes death-
The phenomenon of asphyxia has been divided into the stages, each stage showing characteristic
features. The white phenomenon from the onset to death taken only 5 minutes.
*Causes of asphyxia-
Airway obstruction due to
1) Foreign body in the air way causing choking
2) Spasm of respiratory mussels as in teeanus.
3) Draining .
4) Suffocation under bed.
5) Suffocation due to a plastic bag over the head.
6) Strangulation hanging or throttling.
7) Bronehospasm e.g. Bronchial- asthma.
8) Electrical shock.
Lack of oxygen in the air inspired due to high altitudes with low atmosphere pressure fire
inhalation of make Gas lack- inhalation of gas e.g.- coal gas, automobile fumes etc.
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*Effects of Asphyxia – first stage-

i) Respiratory rate increases.
ii) Breaths become shorter and noisy.
iii) Chest movement of breathing are reversed.
iv) The chest wall gets sucked instead of moving out when the victim breathe in.
v) Neck veins get distended.
vi) The face, lips, nails, fingers, and toes turn blue.
 Second stage-
i)Consciousness is lost
ii)Frothing occurs at the mouth and nose.
i) Convulgence may occur.
ii) Urine and feces are passed involuntity.
iii)Death may occure if not treated in time.
 Asphysia- first Aid
1) Remove the cause if possible.
2) Place the victim on his back.
3) Clear the air way and provide warmth.
4) Loosen his coller.
5) Put a finger in the mouth and throat and remove body If present.
6) Remove deture if present.
7) Hold an angle of the jaw forward and tilt the head back words this open‘s the air
ways.
8) Give artificial ventilation and external cardiac mussage, if required.
9) Send him to hospital after he settles down.
First Aid Kits

A collection of supplies and equipment used to apply first aid is known as a first aid kit and it is
very necessary for an individual or organization to keep these kinds of medical kits especially to
industries where accidents can happen. A wide range of contents can be put together inside a first
aid kit depending on the type and use. It can be assembled in any type of container like fabric
pouches, durable plastic boxes, and wall mounted cabinets to keep it clean, safe, and sterile.
First Aid Kits complies with ISO standards which includes the a) green background with white
cross (ISO first aid symbol), b) white background with green cross(alternative ISO first aid
symbol), c) white background with Red Cross(symbol of Red Cross), and d) star of life.
The content of a first aid box is intended to treat minor injuries such as bandages, adhesives,
gauze, disinfectant, and regular strength pain medication. There are also specialized first aid kits
which focus on the risks according to the specialization or field of work.
Types of First Aid Kits

• Home First Aid Kits – the basic content of a medical kit used or stored at home: antiseptic hand
cleanser, alcohol wipes, tweezers, medical adhesive tape, insect bite swabs, bandage scissors,
triangular bandages, elastic bandages, and instant cold packs.
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• Sports First Aid Kits – focus on orthopedic injuries where it contains compression wraps and
cold packs and usually comes with small or big pack depending on the size of the group.
• Office First Aid Kits – most first aid at work consists of drugs intended to cure adults and is
easily restocked after each use.
• First Responder Kits – refer to all levels of emergency medical response which typically consists
of belt packs with flashlights and shears, blood pressure cuffs, and stethoscopes.
• Military First Aid Kits – include tactical and military first aid kits that are easily deployed
especially in a very difficult situation. These usually have tourniquets, clothing agents, and other
wound dressing specifically applied on severe wounds.
• Camping First Aid Kits – materials included in the wilderness first aid kits depends on how deep
you are planning to go.
• Medical First Aid Kits – include items specializing in medical field such as first aid equipments
that used to tackle heart attacks and automatic external defibrillator applicable for both kids and
adults.
Contain
1. Adhesive Bandages: It is never a good idea to leave cuts and scrapes uncovered. So go ahead
and buy a few adhesive bandages since they come in all colours, sizes and shapes. You might
want to pick the larger ones for bigger cuts, and smaller ones for shaving cuts and smaller scrapes.
Also, find colourful ones that your kid will want to wear proudly instead of ripping off. Also, talk
to your vet if you have pets and get bandages meant for dogs or cats (whatever the case may be).
2. Antiseptic Creams And Lotions: Before you put on that bandage, you will need to thoroughly
clean a wound. While soap and water work fine, it is advisable to use a good antiseptic lotion to
thoroughly rinse out any debris or particles in the wound that could infect it. Also, if the wound is
large and could get pus formation, you will need to use an antiseptic regularly while you dress up
the wound. So buy Dettol or Savlon to kill all germs and bacteria that can thrive in an open
wound.
3. Muscle Creams And Sprays:Having a sprain or a backache is one of the most common
ailments people complain of, second only to headaches. To ensure that your aching muscles get
instant relief, do stock up on muscle creams and gels. A spray is a more effective option,
especially when you want to couple it with a heating pad. However, you should use them in
moderation as the ingredients do get absorbed directly in to your bloodstream through the skin.
4. A Pair Of Tweezers:A fine-tipped pair of tweezers can come in handy in so many ways.
Remove foreign objects lodged in the skin like splinters. Or easily remove your dog‘s ticks using
them. Make sure you sterilise the tweezers by cleaning them with an antiseptic lotion.
5. Sterile Gauze And Tape
For bigger injuries, especially those that are bleeding profusely, you will need sterile gauze and
medical tape to create a larger bandage. Where a band-aid seems to be too small to cover the
wound, use these two. Create padding with sterile gauze, apply a little antiseptic cream, and cover
the wound. Then secure in place with the tape. These also work especially well on kids and pets
since they cannot remove this as easily.
6. Pain Relievers: What‘s more common than a headache or backache? Having a few pain
relievers like Crocin and Combiflam in your first-aid box is a must. Even if the pain is persistent
and needs to be checked by a doctor, you can still pop a painkiller to help you bear with the trip
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down to the clinic and the long wait before you get the turn to meet with your doctor. If you have
kids, keep some mild pain relievers at hand. And if you have pets, make sure you talk to your vet
about the best painkiller for dogs and cats. Remember, while most human medicines work on
dogs, some of them can be poisonous to their system.
7. Antihistamines: With all the changing weather and increased pollution, which household
doesn‘t have people who develop allergic reactions easily? From sneezing to breaking out in a
rash, antihistamine will take care of all allergies. While sinus and dust allergies might not need
medical attention, a food allergy might need a trip to the doctor. In any case, the allergy
medication will provide a little relief while you rush the patient to the emergency.
8. Fungal Medicines: If you live in a hot, humid climate for any part of the year, you‘ll be well
aware of the risk of fungal infections. These infections can erupt anytime, anywhere. From your
genitals to your feet, your face and hands, these fungal infections can be itchy and embarrassing.
So make sure you have an anti-fungal cream at home to provide relief from the persistent itch.
You can get these in the form of gels, creams, powders and even pills.
9. Nail Clippers: Yes, these also find themselves on the list of top 10 things to keep in a first-aid
box. You may think that cutting your nails and shaping them can pose no emergency, but what
about a painful ingrown toenail? And not to mention painful hangnails that can actually get
infected if chewed on or ripped out. So make sure you have nail clippers in your first-aid box to
clip nails and hangnails and keep the nails clean. You might not realise this but dirty nails are the
biggest cause for fungal infections, bacterial growths and warts.
10. Thermometer And Fever Medication: Any first-aid box is incomplete without a good
thermometer. And make sure you buy the right kind. No longer do doctors recommend a mercury
thermometer. Get yourself a digital thermometer, and if you have kids and pets, we recommend
you get an ear-canal thermometer. Fevers are common, so do keep Crocin or basic paracetamol to
ensure that you can regulate normal body temperature while your doctor diagnoses the cause. He
may further recommend antibiotics or other medication, but popping an antipyretic will help you
while you wait for the diagnosis.
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CHAPTER – 5
Ergonomics, Definition, Aims and Scope, Man-machine (Job), Environment System,
Constituents of Ergonomics, Application ofErgonomics in industry for Safety, Health and
Environment.
The term 'ergonomics' is derived from the Greek word 'ergo' meaning work and strength
and 'nomos' meaning rule or law. It simply means "fitting the job to the worker (and not the
worker to the job)". The object of ergonomics is "to achieve the best mutual adjustment of man
and his work to improve his convenience, efficiency and well being". Ergonomic approach
includes designing of machines, tools, controls, equipment, process, layout, housekeeping etc. to
increase efficiency of both - man and the machine. Application of ergonomics reduces accidents
and improves health and efficiency.
Ergonomics is also defined as 'the study of human characteristics for the appropriate
design of the living and work environment'. It is human centered, transdisciplinary and application
oriented. It can be applied to jobs, equipment, working place, tools, utensils or any complicated
working system (e.g. multi-person socio-technical system).
Successful application is measured by improved efficiency, safety, productivity and
acceptance of the ergonomic design.
Constituents of Ergonomics wrt man, machine & Environment
Human factors (HF) was the old discipline concerned with how humans react with their
worktasks and environment aiming to make the relationship safer, healthier and more efficient.
The new-name of this discipline is Ergonomics. Previously known 'Human Engineer' or
"Engineering Psychologist" is now known as "Ergonomist or Ergonomicist (in great Britain). The
term Ergonomics is biotechnological and covers the same scope and complexity of interests that
human factors embraces. Therefore, human factors are the main constituents of ergonomics. For
main division of factors affecting work including human factors see Part-5 of Chapter-3.. In a
schematic diagram they are shown below :
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Work Performance or Man at Work
Ergonomics studies the ‗human factors‘ and designs the system or suggests
application or modification of the existing system to make the work more suitable or convenient to
the man at work. Thus in this context, or its procedural aspect, all human factors - physiological
and psychological contribute in constituting the science.
But from discipline point of view, main constituents of ergonomics are anatomy,
physiology, psychology and engineering. Schematic diagram of disciplines (work areas)
constituting the ergonomics is also shown ssbelow:
Application of Ergonomics for Safety and Health:
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Application of ergonomics can solve the problems of stress and strain due to work load,
high or low temperature, more or low illumination or glare, noise, vibration, radiation, awkward
work positions and orthopaedic problems due to them. The field of application is very wide which
includes following as some of the areas :-
1. Hand tools.
2. Design of Controls.
3. Design of work.
4. Design of information displays.
5. Man/machine information exchange.
6. Limitations of the sense organs.
7. Age, fatigue, vigilance and accidents.
8. Problems of body size and posture.
9. Effects of climate.
10. Human energy, optimising its efficient use.
11. 'Work tolerance.
12. Anatomy of function.
13. Physiologic measurements.
14. Application of skeletal-muscular forces (e.g. manual handling and lifting.)
Ergonomics is also utilised at design stage where it is called. "System Ergonomics" in
contrast to "Classical Ergonomics" which is applied to solve the ergonomic problems as and
when they occur once a design has been put in use. System ergonomics is a higher level of
practice involving a knowledge of (1) Different tasks the machines can perform. (2) The relative
cost. (3) A variety of tasks and satisfactory work for personnel.
In designing work, ergonomics can be applied for the design of systems, work places,
environments, interfaces and work situations. Some examples are as under:'
Sr. No. Type of Design Examples.
1 Systems Man-machine relationship, procedure.
2 Workplace Posture, seat and control design, bench position, displays.
Required lighting, heating, ventilation, noise, vibration

3 Environmental
etc.
4 Interface Exchange of information between man and machine /

environment, scales, pointers, letters, numbers, their size,
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shapes, position, forces etc.
Hours of work, rest pauses, shift work, inter personal and

5. Work situation
organisational aspects of work.
Following are some of the examples of application of ergonomics (human engineering) to

matters of health and safety :
1. Stresses of excessive heat, light, humidity, noise, vibration etc., their safe limits, type of
worker e.g. age, sex, fitness etc., and task to be performed - all should be considered
and suitable environmental conditions should be designed to fit appropriately to the
worker and his task.
2. Surrounding space, seat design, bench design and positioning of displays, controls,
materials, tools, equipment, instruments etc. should fit the human body so that he can work
without excessive effort within the range of healthy posture.
3. Interface display and control design should consider effective information between the
man and the machine or environment in type and size of numbers, letters, pointers, shapes
and discrimination, identification etc.
4. Working hours, rest pauses, shift work, interpersonal and management problems should be
studied and resolved to maintain health and safety of work people.
5. It should be aimed to do work with a minimal use of energy and materials and without
waste resulting from mistakes. Human errors should be minimised for safety and health.
6. Design and production of automotive vehicles, communication equipment, farm
machinery, military service, aerospace systems, computers and electronic equipment can
be made safe and most suitable to the operators.
7. Highway signs, typewriters, data processing systems, machine tools, kitchen stoves, street
and highway design, rapid-transit facilities, health facilities, housing , pollution control,
education, law enforcement, postal service, airports etc. are newer areas where ergonomic
design can give good results and reduce accidents.
8. Deciding allocation of functions between men and machines. Functions' of perceiving,
responding to emergency situations, some ' typical judgements etc. are better done by men
than by machines. Functions of heavy lifting, computing, auto regulation, handling large
amount of information etc. are better performed by machines than by men. These are to be
considered at an early stage of design.
9. Task analysis to decide selection standards, workloads, training requirement, manpower
requirement, equipment design can be carried out.
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10. Factors of control design, e.g. control display ratio, safeguards against accidental
activation, control coding etc. are part of ergonomic design.
11. Workplace dimensions, location of controls and displays, seat and penal design, the design
of doors and access for easy entry and exit and protective devices for emergency situations
need to be well designed.
12. For good maintenance easy and simple maintenance manuals, tools and test equipment,
better location of units for easy access, faultfinding techniques etc. are to be designed
properly.
13. Allowance for local weather conditions, ventilation in cramped premises, providing stool
to put container to avoid frequent bending, elementary checklists are ergonomic aspects.
14. Manual material handling has a large scope of ergonomic considerations. Process flow, job
design, layout, selection of equipment, machine, tools, space requirement, control design,
visibility, colour and signs, allowing push and pull instead of lift and lower, avoiding
severe bending, lifting and lowering between knuckle (hip) height and shoulder height,
avoiding excessive weight, avoiding sharp edges, corners, pinch points, training for safe
lifting practice and lifting rules (dos and don'ts), personnel selection etc. must be well
considered.
15. Wrong design of hand tools can create bending of wrist, pressure points between the hand
and the handle, sustained exertions, vibrations etc. Therefore handtools should be designed
in such a way that they eliminate or minimise these hazards. Oblique angle of the handle,
proper shape, diameter and length of the handle, rounding off all edges and sharp corners,
minimising noise and vibration etc. are useful criteria.
16. Office, other work places and workstation design call for specific criteria. Ideal, practical
and detail planning, work process, equipment, workplace layout, final enclosure, mock-up,
trial and redesign, clearance for the operator's body, sufficient head room, visual field,
auditory information, standing or sitting position (both have advantages and
disadvantages), work space dimensions, body position to operate computer, healthy work
postures, eye height, elbow height, knee height, seat design to reduce physiological and
biomechanical stresses by providing wide range of adjustments and postures to suit the
individual (seat height adjustable between 15 to 20 inch, deep 15 to 17 inch, wide 18 inch
or more and backrest to support back and neck and opportunity to change body posture
frequently) etc. are some important criteria:
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17. Controls - continuous or detent - should be designed by considering consistency of

movement, control actuation force, multidimensional operation, operator-control
orientation, control-effect relationship, time lag, arrangement and grouping, coding and
prevention of accidental activation etc.
18. Light signals provide useful safety and functional indications as mentioned below : See
also Part 7.3 of Chapter-9.
19. Displays provide necessary information to the operator. They may be visual (lights, scales,
counters), auditory (bells, horns), tactile (shaped knobs. Braille writing) or audio-visual
(buzzer with light, TV display). Selection depends on type of information to be provided
and to whom provided.
20. Labeling permits rapid and accurate performance of controls, displays and other items that
should be identified, read, manipulated or located. Label characteristics are: accuracy,
timeof response or recognition, distance, illumination, nature of function and consistency.
Their visibility, legibility, location, orientation, abbreviation, brevity and standardization
are necessary. Legal notices must be displayed.
From above varieties of examples it is evident that ergonomics has wide applicability to
many functions in addition to health and safety.
8.1.2 Ergonomics of Rehabilitation (RTW)
Rehabilitation Psychology
"Rehabilitation psychologists work with people who have suffered physical deprivation or loss at
birth or during later development as a result of damage or deterioration of function (e.g., resulting
from a stroke). They help people overcome both the psychological and situational barriers to
effective functioning in the world. Rehabilitation psychologists work in hospitals, rehabilitation
centers, medical schools, and in government rehabilitation agencies" (as stated on the APA
website).
RTW Stratigy:
We will endeavor to keep you advised of your employee‘s medical status and work with you to
coordinate a safe and appropriate return to work strategy.
1. Provide medical attention
2. Take care of any necessary follow-up and return to work status.
3. Report Claim to Insurance Co. within 24 hours of the occurrence.
4. Inform medical provider a pre-injury, as well as a modified duty job description.
5. Communicate with the injured worker on a regular basis to:
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- Keep the employee connected to the business and motivated to Return to Work
- Secure updated medical information and Return to Work instructions.
- Discuss Return to Work options and availability.
6. Establish a Target Return to Work Date.
A Target Return to Work Date is the anticipated date an injured worker will be able to safely
return to work, in either a modified or full duty capacity, as determined by a physician. The date(s)
should be flexible and take into consideration the individual needs of the employee as well as the
employer‘s ability to accommodate any medical restrictions placed upon the employee. They
should be established early in the rehabilitation process and communicated to the involved parties
and followed up upon at least five (5) days prior to the anticipated RTW date.
The following terms help define these considerations and may help
you in formulating a job description for rehabiliting employee:
Work Environment means the design of the physical surroundings the employee will work in as
well as the equipment, machinery and supplies that the employee will be expected to use to
perform the work.
Work Position refers to the amount of time an employee spends in any one position vs. the ability
to change positions. Consideration is given to the amount of time the employee spends sitting,
bending over, squatting, kneeling, standing, and walking during the work period.
Work Breaks means the amount of time elapsed between specific job tasks or operations that
allows for a change in position or a temporary relaxation of body movement.
Task Variety means the extent to which variation can be introduced into job tasks/assignments.
Related terms include:
Reorganize Tasks: Alternate tasks within a job to minimize repetition
Job Enlargement: Increase the scope of the job /assignment to increase the variety of work
Job Rotation: People move from one task to another according to a schedule
What to Do In Event of an Accident or Injury:
Employee Factors focus upon the employee as an individual in assessing what the employee is
capable of, and willing to do, if (s)he is not able to perform traditional job duties. These factors
include the employee‘s physical size and strength, personal health and hygiene, ability to learn and
adapt to change, motivational forces, as well as sense of attachment to the employer and co-
workers.
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Load Characteristics is a term applied to materials-handling tasks. The characteristics include

frequency, weight, stability, starting height, distance, and availability of handgrips.
Work Pace means the amount of time required to complete a specific task or job. The expected
work pace within a business should take into consideration the reasonable goals, work quotas and
schedules.
Rest Breaks means the frequency and duration of that period of time when the employee is not
performing his or her work. The employee should leave the workstation, stretch/exercise or
otherwise cease work activity.
Adjustment Period means the amount of time an employee needs to be ―physically, mentally and
psychologically ready to perform his/her pre-injury job. The adjustment period will vary
depending upon the person and the requirements of the job.
In developing a return to work program, the employee, employer and medical provider need to be
in agreement as to the employee‘s pre-injury job description and the nature of the employment that
the employer can reasonably make available to the employee. According to the US Department of
Labor2, the nature of a person‘s employment can be classified by the following categories:
Sedentary Work – Exerting up to 10 pounds of force occasionally and/or a negligible amount of
force frequently or constantly to lift, carry, push, pull or otherwise move objects, including the
human body. Sedentary work involves sitting most of the time, but may involve walking or
standing for brief periods of time. Jobs are sedentary if walking and standing are required only
occasionally and all other sedentary criteria are met.
Light Work – Exerting up to 20 pounds of force occasionally and/or up to 10 pounds of force
frequently, and/or negligible amount of force constantly to move objects. Physical demand
requirements are in excess of those for sedentary work. Light work usually requires walking or
standing to a significant degree. However, if the use of the arm and/or leg controls require exertion
of forces greater than that for sedentary work, and the worker sits most of the time, the job is rated
light work.
Medium Work – Exerting up to 50 pounds of force occasionally, and/or up to 20 pounds of force

frequently, and/or up to 10 pounds of force constantly to move objects.
Heavy Work – Exerting up to 100 pounds of force occasionally, and/or up to 50 pounds of force
frequently, and/or up to 20 pounds of force constantly to move objects.
Very Heavy Work – Exerting in excess of 100 pounds of force occasionally, and/or in excess of
50 pounds of force frequently, and/or in excess of 20 pounds of force constantly to move objects.
The Principle objectives of an Ergonomics Program should be to:
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 Reduce the number or occupational injuries and illnesses experienced

 Reduce employee absenteeism and turnover
 Improve the productivity of the work force
 Improve the quality of work produced
 Ensure governmental regulatory compliance
 Accommodate disabled workers under the ADA
 Function in cooperation with a WC cost containment strategies
The basic components used in the development of an ergonomic plan are as

follows:
Workstation Analysis – A safety and health review that identifies jobs and work stations that
may contain musculoskeletal hazards, the risk factors that pose those hazards, and the causes of
the risk factors.
Hazard Prevention and Control – Eliminating or minimizing the hazards identified in the
workplace analysis by changing the jobs, workstations, tools or environment to fit the worker.
Medical Management – Effective use of available health care resources to prevent or manage
work-related musculoskeletal disorders.
Training & Education – A method to give both workers and managers an understanding of the
potential risk of injuries, their causes, symptoms, prevention and treatment.
Understanding Ergonomics
Guidelines: OSHA will develop industry-or-task-specific guidelines for a number of industries
based on current incidence rates and available information about effective and feasible solutions.
The objective of the guidelines is to reduce and prevent workplace injuries. These voluntary
guidelines are tools to assist employers in recognizing and controlling hazards. Employers in other
industries for which guidelines have not been developed may find useful information in these
guidelines for implementing their own ergonomic programs.
Enforcement: OSHA will address ergonomic hazards in its national emphasis program,
notifications, and inspections of employers in the Site Specific Targeting program, and will offer
assistance to those employers in this group who have a high percentage of MSDs.
Outreach and Assistance: OSHA will develop a complete and comprehensive set of compliance
assistance tools, including Internet-based training and information, to support understanding of
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guidelines and how to proactively define and address ergonomic problems. The new ergonomics
plan includes a specialized focus to help Hispanic and other immigrant workers, many of whom
work in industries with high ergonomic hazard rates.
Research: While there is a large body of research available on ergonomics, there are many areas
where additional research is necessary, including gaps identified by the National Academy of
Science (NAS). OSHA will serve as a catalyst to encourage researchers to design studies in areas
where additional information would be helpful.
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has published a document
entitled ―Elements of Ergonomics Program – a Primer based on Workplace Evaluations of
Musculoskeletal Disorders.‖ The primer recommends a seven-step approach to combating these
disorders in the workplace. The steps are as follows:
 One: Look for signs of potential problems in the workplace, such as frequent reports of aches
and pains, jobs that require repetitive movements or forceful exertions.
 Two: Showing management commitment in addressing the possible problems and
encouraging a team approach,
 involving the labor force, in the resolution of the problems.
 Three: Providing education and training to expand the team‘s ability to evaluate potential
injuries
 Four: Gathering data to identify jobs or work conditions that are most problematic, using
sources such as OSHA logs, other injury and illness logs, medical records and job analyses.
 Five: Identify effective administrative controls and standard operating procedures for tasks
that pose a risk of injury. Monitor and evaluate these approaches once they have been
implemented to see if they are reducing or eliminating the risk.
 Six: Establish health care management protocols that emphasize the early detection and
treatment of symptoms to prevent impairment and /or disability.
 Seven: Minimize risk factors for injury when planning new work processes and operations.
The presumption is that it is less expensive to build good design into a workplace he to
redesign or retrofit it later.
HOW TO BUILD A RETURN TO WORK PROGRAM
1. Assign a specific individual (i.e. Human resources professional or Safety Officer) to oversee and
manage the program.
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2. Draft a policy statement and step by step procedures to be followed after an injury has been
reported. You may use your own or make use the sample provided:
3. Make certain the elements of the program comply with any other company personnel guidelines,
policies or procedures. It must also be consistent with any applicable collective bargaining
agreements.
4. Develop and/or utilize job descriptions that include a position description and job (task) analysis
that conforms to the US Dept. of Labor standards. It is suggested you prepare these documents in
advance of an injury but may be created as a need arises. The attached Job Description Forms are
intended to assist you in this process.
5. In the event of a loss, review the position description and prepare a detailed analysis of the
elements which could be assigned within the injured worker‘s restrictions.
6. Build business relationships with local medical providers who are interested in understanding the
nature of your business, will work with you to provide treatment for employees immediately after
an injury occurs, and who will help you in determining an injured worker's ability to return to
work. Invite them to meet with you at your facility; the more they know about your operation, the
easier it will be for them to assist you in getting your injured workers back to work quickly.
7. Communicate the appropriate information to your workforce regarding your temporary
alternative/transitional work program. Introduce the program through the medium best for your
workforce (i.e. Team meetings, workplace postings, payroll stuffer, etc.) If applicable, incorporate
the material into your employee handbook.
8. Once the injured worker has returned to work, maintain an open channel of communication with
him/her and the involved medical provider(s) regarding the rehabilitation plan and progress
towards returning to full capacity employment.
Ergonomics of Automation & Assy.

A little over 300 years ago-in 1689 to be precise-King Charles XI of Sweden decreed that a
weapons factory be built in the town of Huskvarna. A few decades later, some of the artisans
working there switched from crafting firearms to making a peaceful precision product-sewing
machines. The resulting company, now Viking Sewing Machines AB, has been hard at it ever
since.
Today, the company is not only one of the world‘s oldest manufacturers, but also one of the most
advanced. Gone are the days when sewing machines were assembled meticulously by hand.
Instead, the company uses automation and flexible manufacturing whenever possible to increase
throughput and efficiency, as well as the quality of its products.
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A few years ago, the company implemented a complete Dynamic Assembly System (DAS) from
automation equipment manufacturer FlexLink (Allentown, PA), and the system has been going
strong ever since. Comprised of both software and hardware, the DAS system assembles, tests,
transports and packages Viking Sewing Machines‘ Designer 1 model, a computer-controlled
machine that can do everything from buttonholes to embroidery. In addition to regulating
production flow, the mixed-mode, pallet-based system also enhances operator health and safety
through the implementation of various ergonomic features. The manual portion of the assembly
line includes seven workstations, with six additional workstations providing spare assembly
capacity. The system is flexible and easy to adjust in response to product or capacity changes.
Processing times for the different stations range from 6 to 9 minutes. Before packaging, every
sewing machine undergoes a 12-minute automated functional test. When they reach the end of the
line, the pallets automatically return to the starting point, where they are prepped for another
sewing machine.
―The assembly work follows a computerized route handled by a computer, and the actual route
can be followed on the screen,‖ says Viking Sewing Machines production engineer Olof Dahlin.
―If there is no station available, the pallet will circulate on the line until an assembly station
becomes available. On our old production lines, you had to follow a sequential flow, taking the
stations in order, without any possibility of changing assembly steps or the defined role at each
workstation.‖
Dahlin adds that the line is also much easier on employees than in the past. ―Ergonomic adaptation
of each workstation is very important for us,‖ he says, adding that a physiotherapist has inspected,
tested and approved the entire line
Ergonomics of Visual Fatigue

Displays and Light Signals.
These are useful to provide, necessary information to operator. They may be dial gauges,
pointers, digital, audio, visual, analog etc. Bell, horn and warning notices are also displays which
give information. Colored signals have some meaning as under
1. Red - Stop position
2. Flashing Red - Emergency condition.
3. Green - 'On' position or 'yes' indication to proceed..
4. Yellow - Wait, delay or be in readiness position. It also indicates caution or
rechecking.
5. White - No right or no wrong, transitory condition.
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Displays should have clear meaning. They should be easy to understand and visible,
properly illuminated, also visible when power fails, coded and labeled according to function.
Numerical display indicates time, temperature, pressure, flow, humidity, pH, speed etc.
Moving pointer on a fixed scale 'have many shapes - circular, curved, horizontal straight or
vertical straight. Numbers or figures should not be obstructed by pointer.
Displays should be located in viewing area and perpendicular to the line of sight.
Labels should be provided where extra information is necessary.
Anthropometry and fundamental of bio-mechanics : Basic and applied aspects
:Anthropometric measurements and their usefulness in industry.
Introduction to Anthropometry.
Anthropometry and biomechanics are branches of ergonomics dealing with physical
dimensions and properties of. the human body.
Anthropometry means measuring the human body. Height, breadth, depth and various
distances of the body parts are measured. Curvatures and circumferences are also measured.
Measurements are taken in stand-erect or seated position.
Body dimensions are measured by anthropometers, calipers, taps and a scale. Such
dimensions are useful in designing work spaces, tools, equipment, seating arrangement, vehicles
and workstations so that' they can best fit to the users.
Fundamentals of Biomechanics
Biomechanics means: study of the motion and causes of motion of living things
Introduction to Biomechanics of Human Movement
Biomechanics has been defined as the study of the movement (kinesiology). A core science in the
academic discipline of kinesiology is biomechanics. Biomechanics in kinesiology is the study of
motion and its causes in human movement. Mechanics is a branch of physics that is concerned
with the description of motion and how forces create motion. Forces acting on living things can
create motion, be a healthy stimulus for growth and development, or overload tissues, causing
injury. Biomechanics provides conceptual and mathematical tools that are necessary for
understanding how living things move and how kinesiology professionals might improve
movement.
Since kinesiology majors are pursuing careers focused on improving human movement, Today
people refer to professional athletes or painters because people earn a living with these jobs,
People need help in improving human movement and this help requires knowledge of ―why‖ and
―how‖ the human body moves. Biomechanics is an important science for solving human
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movement problems. However, Bio-mechanics is but one of many sport and human movement
science tools in a kinesiology. Integrate biomechanical knowledge into the qualitative analysis.
WHY STUDY BIOMECHANICS? 1. Improving Performance
2. Preventing and Treating Injury
Application
A) Sport Medicine
B) Athletics (Exercise, game)
C) Scholarly Societies
Kinds of Sources: Where you can find it..?
Computer Searches
Biomechanics Textbooks
NINE FUNDAMENTALS OF BIOMECHANICS
Biomechanists measure all kinds of linear and angular mechanical variables to document and find
the causes of human motion. This section proposes nine such principles of biomechanics and
demonstrates how they relate to scientific laws. These biomechanical tools must be combined with
other tools from your kinesiology toolbox to solve movement problems. Because these principles
are the application rules for kinesiology professionals, they have usually been given less-scientific
names so that we can communicate effectively with our clients.
Principles and Laws
The nine principles of biomechanics that follow take the form of general principles related to
human movement. It is important to realize that principles for application are not the same as
scientific laws. Science is a systematic method for testing hypotheses with experimental evidence
for the purpose of improving our understanding of reality. Science uses a process, know as the
scientific method, for testing a theory about a phenomenon with measurements, then reevaluating
the theory based on the data. Ultimately, science is interested in finding the truth, facts, or laws of
nature that provide the best understanding of reality. When experimentation shows data always
consistent with a theory, then the theory becomes a law. Scientists must always be open to new
data and theories that may provide a more accurate description or improved understanding of a
phenomenon. True scientific revolutions that throw out long-held and major theories are not as
common as most people think. Though news reporters often herald scientific ―breakthroughs,‖
they are usually Exaggerating the importance of a small step in what is a very slow process of
weighing a great deal of evidence. Technology is the term usually used to refer to the tools and
methods of applying scientific knowledge to solve problems or perform tasks. Remember that in
chapter 1 we noted the belief of some scholars that studying academic disciplines and doing
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theoretical research are worthy enterprises without any need to show any practical application of
knowledge. Even in ―applied‖ fields like kinesiology, there is a long history of a theory-to-
practice, or a science-to-profession gap (Harris, 1993). Why does this gap exist? It might exist
because some scholars are hesitant to propose application based on what is often less-than-
conclusivedata, or they might be concerned about receiving less recognition for applied
scholarship. Practitioners contribute to this gap as well by refusing to recognize the theoretical
nature of science, by not reading widely to compile the necessary evidence for practice, and by
demanding simple ―how-to‖ rules of human movements when these simple answers often do not
exist. This text is based on the philosophy that the best use of the science of biomechanics is in its
translation to principles for improving human movement. These principles are general rules for the
applicationof biomechanics that are useful for most all human movements. Some of the principles
are based on major laws of mechanics, many of which are hundreds of years old. For example,
Newton's Laws of Motion are still used at NASA because they accurately model the motion of
spacecraft, even though there are more recent advancements in theoretical physics that are only an
improvement in very extreme conditions (high-energy or near the speed of light). Unfortunately,
the human body is a much more complicated system than the space shuttle, and biomechanists
have not had hundreds of years to make progress on theories of human movement. For these
reasons, these nine principles of application should be viewed as general rules that currently fit
what we currently know about the biomechanics of human movement.
Nine Principles for Application of Biomechanics
The nine principles of biomechanics proposed in this text were selected because they constitute
the minimum number or core principles that can be applied to all human movements and because
they provide a simple paradigm or structure to apply biomechanical knowledge. The names of the
principles are put in the common language of application; however, each can be directly linked to
the concepts and laws of biomechanics. Special attention has been paid to make application of
these principles both friendly and consistent with the specialized terminology of mechanics. As
kinesiology professionals you will know the names of the biomechanical laws and theories behind
these principles.
1. The first principle in biomechanics isthe Force–Motion principle. Force–motion says that
Unbalanced forces are acting on our bodies or objects when we either create or modify movement.
In quiet standing the force of gravity is balanced by ground reaction forces under our feet , so to
move from this position a person creates larger horizontal and vertical forces with their legs. This
simple illustration of the body is our first example of what in mechanics is called a free-body
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diagram. A free-body diagram is a simplified model of any system or object drawn with the
significant forces acting on the object. The complexity and detail of the free-body diagram
depends on the purpose of the analysis. Inspection of should make it qualitatively obvious that the
addition of the two vertical forces illustrated would cancel each other out, keeping the person
essentially motionless in the vertical direction. The Force–Motion principle here correctly predicts
no change in motion, since there is no unbalanced force acting on the person. Later on in the text
we will use free-body diagrams to actually calculate the effect of forces and torques on the motion
of the human body, and we will study the effects of forces acting over time to change the motion
of the human body. We will also come to see later that this principle is based on Newton's three
laws of motion. An important thing to notice in this principle is the sequence of events. Forces
must act first, before changes in motion can occur. Detailed study of kinematics will illustrate
when the motion occurred relative to the acceleration and force causing it. Suppose a person is
running on a sidewalk and a small child darts directly in the runner's path to grab a bouncing ball.
In order to avoid the child, the runner must change the state of motion. The Force–Motion
principle tells the kinesiology professional that the runner's sideward movement (a change in
direction and speed) had to be created by large forces applied by the leg to the ground. The force
applied by the leg comes first and the sideward motion to avoid the collision was the result.
Substantial changes in motion do not instantly occur but are created over time, which leads us to
the next principle of Force–Time.
2. principle of Force–Time.
It is not only the amount of force that can increase the motion of an object; the amount of time
over which force can be applied also affects the resulting motion. A person using a longer
approach in bowling has more time to apply forces to increase ball speed. Increasing the time to
apply force is also an important technique in slowing down objects (catching) and landing safely.
The impulse–momentum relationship, the original language of Newton's second law, is the
mathematical explanation of this important principle.
3. Another important principle to understand in the modification of motion is Inertia.
Inertia can be defined as the property of all objects to resist changes in their state of motion.
Newton's first law of motion outlines the principle of inertia. The Newtonian view of inertia as a
fundamental property of motion was a major conceptual leap, rejecting the old Aristotelian view
that constant application of force was required for motion. The linear and angular measures of
inertia are mass (m) and moment of inertia (I). We will see that inertia can be viewed as a
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resistance to motion in the traditional sense, but this property can also be used to an advantage
when modifying motion or transferring energy from one body segment
to another.
4. The next principle involves the Range of Motion the body uses in movement.
Range of Motion is the overall motion used in a movement and can be specified by linear or
angular motion of the body segments. The purpose of some movements might require that some
body segments limit range of motion, hile others requiring maximum speed or force might require
larger ranges of motion. Increasing the range of motion in a movement can be an effective way to
increase speed or to gradually slow down from a high speed. A baseball pitcher taking a longer
stride is increasing the range of motion of the weight shift. Since moving through a range of
motion takes time, this principle is related to the force–time principle.
5. The next biomechanical principle is Balance. Balance is a person's ability to control their
body position relative to some base of support. Stability and mobility of body postures are
inversely related, andseveral biomechanical factors are involved in manipulating a person's
stability and mobility. A handstand is a difficult gymnastic skill not only because of the
muscular strength required, but also because of the small base of support in the anterior
and posterior directions. Athletes in the starting blocks for sprints choose body postures
with less stability in favor of increased mobility in the direction of the race. How the
muscle actions and body segment motions are timed in a human movement is usually
referred to as coordination.
6. The Coordination Continuum principle
Says that determining the optimal timing of muscle actions or segmental motions depends on the
goal of the movement. If high forces are the goal of the movement, more simultaneous muscle
actions and joints rotations are usually observed, while low-force and high-speed movements tend
to have more sequential muscle and joint actions . These two strategies can be viewed as a
continuum, with the coordination of most motor skills falling somewhere between these two
strategies.
7. The principle of Segmental Interaction
Says that the forces acting in a system of linked rigid bodies can be transferred through the links
and joints. Muscles normally act in short bursts to produce torques that are precisely coordinated
to complement the effects of torques created by forces at the joints. A wide variety of terms have
been used to describe this phenomenon (transfer, summation, sequential) because there are many
ways to study human movement. This variety of approaches has also created a confusing array of
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terminology classifying movements as either open or closed (kinematic or kinetic) chains. We will
see that the exact mechanism of this principle of biomechanics is not entirely clear, and common
classification of movements as open or closed chains is not clear or useful in analyzing movement
(Blackard, Jensen, & Ebben, 1999; di Fabio, 1999; Dillman, Murray, & Hintermeister, 1994).
8. The biomechanical principle of Optimal Projection says that for most human movements
involving projectiles there is an optimal range of projection angles for a specific goal.
Biomechanical research shows that optimal angles of projection provide the right
compromise between vertical velocity and horizontal velocity within the typical
conditions encountered in many sports. For example, in throwing most sport projectiles for
horizontal distance, the typical air resistance and heights of release combine to make it
beneficial for an athlete to use projection angles below 45 degrees. This research makes it
easier for coaches to determine if athletes are optimizing their performance.
9. The last principle involves the Spin or rotations imparted to projectiles, and particularly
sport balls.
Spin is desirable on thrown and struck balls because it stabilizes flight and creates a fluid force
called lift. This lift force is used to create a curve or to counter gravity, which affects the trajectory
and bounce of the ball. A volleyball player performing a jump serve should strike above the center
of the ball to impart topspin to the ball. The topspin creates a downward lift force, making the ball
dive steeply and making it difficult for the opponent to pass. The spin put on a pass in American
football stabilizes the orientation of the ball, which ensures aerodynamically efficient flight. The
natural application of these biomechanical principles is in qualitative analysis of human
movement.
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
The examples that illustrate the application of the principles of biomechanics in the solution of
human movement problems in this book will be based on qualitative analyses. Research has
shown that general principles of biomechanics provide a useful structure for qualitative analysis of
human movement Quantitative biomechanical analysis can also be used, but most kinesiology
professionals will primarily be using qualitative analyses of movement rather than quantitative
biomechanical analyses. There are several models of qualitative analysis of human movement.
Traditionally, kinesiology professionals have used a simple error detection and correction
approach to qualitative analysis. Here the analyst relies on a mental image of the correct technique
to identify ―errors‖ in the performance and provide a correction. This approach has several
negative consequences and is too simplistic a model for professional judgments. The application
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of the principles of biomechanics is illustrated in the present book using a more comprehensive
vision of qualitative analysis than the simple error detection/correction of the past. This text uses
the Knudson and Morrison . This model provides a simple fourtask structure: preparation,
observation, evaluation/diagnosis, and intervention. This model of qualitative analysis is equally
relevant to athletic or clinical applications of biomechanics to improving human movement. In the
preparation task of qualitative analysis the professional gathers relevant kinesiology knowledge
about the activity, the performer, and then selects an observational strategy. In the observation task
the analyst executes the observational strategy
Interdisciplinary Issue:
The Vertical Jump
Now that the principles are out of the bag, let's use them to look at a common sport movement, the
vertical jump. Imagine an athlete is doing a standing vertical jump test. Which principles of
biomechanics would be
of most interest to scholars from motor development, motor learning, exercise physiology, or sport
psychology studying the vertical jump test? What combinations of the sport sciences are most
relevant to the concept of skill in vertical jumping? What sports science provides the most relevant
information to the physical terminants of jumping ability? How could someone determine if the
success of elite jumpers is more strongly related to genetics (nature/physical) than coaching ? How
could a strength coach integrate jump training studies with biomechanical studies of jumping
techniques? to gather all relevant sensory information about the performance of the movement.
The third task of qualitative analysis has two difficult components: evaluation and then diagnosis
of performance. In evaluation the analyst identifies strengths and weaknesses of performance.
Diagnosis involves the prioritizing of the potential interventions to separate causes of poor
performance from minor or symptomatic weaknesses. Intervention is the last task of qualitative
analysis. In this task the professional executes some action on behalf of the performer. Often in
live qualitative analysis, the analyst will return immediately to the observation task to monitor the
intervention and the mover's progress.
SUMMARY
Most biomechanical research has been based on rigid-body models of the skeletal system.
Kinematics involves the description of the motion, while kinetics focuses on the forces that
created the motion. There are many biomechanical variables and they can be classified as either
scalars or vectors. Despite the precision of quantitative biomechanics, most kinesiology
professionals apply biomechanics at a qualitative or conceptual level. The nine principles of
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biomechanicsthat can be used to apply biomechanicsknowledge in professional practice are

Force–Motion, Force–Time, Inertia, Range of Motion, Balance, Coordination Continuum,
Segmental Interaction, Optimal Projection, and Spin. These nine principles can be applied using a
comprehensive model qualitative analysis.
Application: Quantitative Analysis
An athletic trainer is planning a qualitative analysis of the lower-extremity muscular function of

an athlete finishing up an anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) rehabilitation program. The trainer has
run the athlete through the rehabilitation program, but wants a more functional evaluation of the
athlete's ability and readiness for play. The athlete will be doing several drills, including multiple
one-legged hops and squats, shuttle runs, landings, jumps, and lateral cutting movements. For the
preparation task of qualitative analysis, give examples of research or biomechanical principles that
you think would be relevant to analyzing the athlete's ability to prevent damage to the ACL. Is
there a task of qualitative analysis that more heavily relies on biomechanics than other sport
sciences?
Ergonomic Design of Work Station : Concept of workstation and its design.

Improving safety and productivity through work station design. Technical and
Engineering control measures. Economics consideration.
Work Station Design:
Introduction to Anthropometry.
Anthropometry and biomechanics are branches of ergonomics dealing with physical dimensions
and properties of. the human body.
Anthropometry means measuring the human body. Height, breadth, depth and various distances of
the body parts are measured. Curvatures and circumferences are also measured. Measurements are
taken in stand-erect or seated position.
Body dimensions are measured by anthropometers, calipers, taps and a scale. Such dimensions
are useful in designing work spaces, tools, equipment, seating arrangement, vehicles and
workstations so that' they can best fit to the users.
Concept of Percentiles.
Percentile indicates which percentage of a known population is fitted by a design range. Suppose
work seat height is to be designed most convenient to majority of men and women, its range
should fit to the women in 5th percentile to the man in is 95th percentile. This means much
deviation will not be required in this range of seat height (say lowest 35.5 cm to its highest setting
at 48.8 cm). Then addition of 2 cm for heal height may be required. 50th percentile corresponds to
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a single fixed seat height of 41 cm for a mixed malefemale population, but, this will be too high
for about 50 % of the people and too low for the rest. Thus designing for the average fits nobody.
5th, 50th and 95th percentiles measurements for human height, depth, breadth, head, hand and
foot dimensions are available for ergonomic design purpose.
Health problems related to wrong postures, back pain etc.
Sitting or standing in the same posture for a long time exert
muscle tension and spinal compression. Therefore this should
be avoided by providing rest periods, physical activities or
exercises.
Computer operators keep the head in a fixed position for a
long time and therefore suffer pain and tension in the neck
area. Intensity, frequency and long hours of muscle
contractions cause severe discomfort, pain and other
musculoskeletal disorders that last for long periods.
Lumber spine suffers more force while sitting on a stool without backrest than in standing at ease.
Leaning back over the backrest and arms hanging down reduces compression force. Straight
upright backrests do not support the body and high disk forces may occur. When it is declined
back and upper body weight is rested on backrest, internal forces are also declined. Relaxed
leaning on a declined backrest is the least stressful sitting posture.
Ergonomic Office Furniture and Utility Tools.
Workstation consists of furniture, equipment, work material and overall environment. Persons do
job there. Work posture includes movement of body parts and work activities include visual,
auditory, vocal and motor types. Their combined effect is performance output and persons' well
being.
Work space design, good lighting and ventilation, attractive and comfortable work situation are
basic requirement. Office furniture and utility tools like controls, displays, switches, trays, bins,
office equipments and instruments also play an important role.
General system components include computers, keyboards, tables, chairs and cupboards. But
operator is the most important component in this system, because work output depends on him and
he utilizes other components of the system. He should be most comfortable. His body dimensions
are useful in designing workstation dimensions as under -
1. Dimensions should be slightly adjustable according to individual's requirement.
2. Visual tasks - monitor, key board, papers, books etc. - should be at eye height.
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3. Keyboard, mouse, notepad, pen and hand controls should be convenient to elbow height
and forearm length.
4. Leg room height depends on knee height, and thigh thickness and its depth depend on foot
length.
5. Thigh width and lower leg length (Popliteal height) decide the width and height of the seat
pan.
6. Functional reach decides height of shelves and other furniture.
7. Furniture should provide user freedom to extend legs or hands, to lean foreword or
backward, to rotate left or right and to take any posture.
8. Ergonomic chairs with large backrest are most comfortable as they provide support to back
and neck. Seat height must be fully adjustable, (height 35 to 50 cm, depth 35 to 45 cm and width
45 cm). Seat surface should not generate any pressure to the seated person.
9. Armrests are useful in reducing compression load on the spinal column.
10. Visual targets should riot be spaced apart in direction or distance from the eye. They
should be easily viewable in the front.
11. All components of workstation should fit each other and each should fit the operators.
Flexibility for individual requirement is also necessary.
Machine Controls and Displays:

Location & Sequence of Operation.
Controls are mostly hand or foot operated. They transmit inputs to machine, vehicle or
equipment. They are selected on basis of their functional utility and located in easy reach so that
operator's body parts are not overstressed.
Controls are of 'continuous' type (e.g. crank, knob wheel etc) or 'detent type (e.g. key lock
or switch, bar knob, thumbwheel & different switches) where step wise operation is required.
Controls having sequential relations should be arranged in functional groups with their
associated displays and in operational sequence.
If sequential operation follows fixed pattern like car gear handle, they should be arranged
to facilitate operation i.e. top to bottom or left to right. Sufficient spacing s required for
movement.
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Controls should be located as per operator's requirement i.e. easy operation. Time lag
between control input and system response should be minimum and consistent with safe and
efficient operation.
Knobs are provided where little force is required and when fine adjustment is necessary.
Hand wheels are used for two hand control. Then knurling (corrugation) should be
provided for good grasping.
When levers are used for fine or frequent adjustment (e.g. car gear lever) limb support are
useful. e.g. elbow support for large hand movement, forearm support for small movement and
wrist support for finger movement.
When several levers are located side by side, the lever handles should be coded. Levers
should be labeled for their direction of motion and function. For joystick controls (three
dimensional steering), elastic resistance is added for smooth displacement.
Natural Expectation of Control Movement.
Control movement should match with natural expectation e.g. foreword motion for front
driving, backward motion for reversed driving, clockwise motion for right direction and
anticlockwise for left direction, forward motion for boom descend and viceversa. In electrical
switches, downward indicates 'on' and upward indicates 'off position. This is natural expectation.
In key lock switches (e.g. car ignition switch), key's vertical position indicates 'off
position, turning clockwise indicates 'start' position and key should not come out without turning
the switch i.e. without stopping the vehicle or machine. The 'on' and 'off positions should be
labeled.
Preventing Accidental Activation.
Controls should be so designed and located that they will not move or change their
position accidentally. They should not come out accidentally or by slight touch from 'off to 'on'
position and start the vehicle or machine [Section 24(3) of the factories Act]. Such inadvertent
operation can cause 'accident to person, machine or system. To prevent such accidental activation,
following measures are useful
1. Cover or guard the control.
2. Provide interlock so that extra movement is required to change the position.
3. Provide resistance by spring action or viscous friction so that extra effort is
required for actuation.
4. Provide rotary action for operation.
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5. Provide recess, slot, shield etc to contain controls within it and finger is required to
insert inside. e.g. push button or switch in recess or guard on foot pedal of a power press.
6. Provide 'on' and 'off .button separately and with different colour.
7. Provide' Dead man control' which will keep the system working till the control is
pressed and will stop the system when the control is released, e.g. petrol nozzle trigger (knob) or
drill machine push button.
Foot controls.
Foot controls have specific use and where powerful braking force is required or when leg
is only convenient limb, viz. brake pedal or acceleration control lever in car or brake pedal for
power press, press brake, metal shear and other machines.
Displays and Light Signals.
These are useful to provide, necessary information to operator. They may be dial gauges,
pointers, digital, audio, visual, analog etc. Bell, horn and warning notices are also displays which
give information. Colored signals have some meaning as under
1. Red - Stop position
2. Flashing Red - Emergency condition.
3. Green - 'On' position or 'yes' indication to proceed..
4. Yellow - Wait, delay or be in readiness position. It also indicates
caution or rechecking.
5. White - No right or no wrong, transitory condition.
Displays should have clear meaning. They should be easy to understand and
visible, properly illuminated, also visible when power fails, coded and labeled according to
function.
Numerical display indicates time, temperature, pressure, flow, humidity, pH, speed etc.
Moving pointer on a fixed scale 'have many shapes - circular, curved, horizontal straight or
vertical straight. Numbers or figures should not be obstructed by pointer.
It discloses the soundness, thickness or physical property of the material or nature of
discontinuities without impairing the material and by exposing its one side only. Ultrasonic waves
i.e. vibrations are created by an electronic generator and passed through a material due to its
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elastic properties. Vibrations above the human hearing range (20000 Hz) are called ultrasonic
vibrations. An ultrasonic testing unit uses vibrations of about 5x10666 Hz (5 megahertz).
Electrical energy is applied to a piezoelectric crystal also called transducer which causes
material displacement within the specimen. The transducer converts electrical energy into
mechanical and vice versa. Thus transducer can transmits or receives the energy. Transmission of
energy can be pulsed or continuous. Steel, water and oil can transmit ultrasound very well but air
is a poor transmitter because of its low particle density. Velocity of sound in steel, water and air
are 5.9, 1.48 and 0.33 km/sec respectively. Therefore water, oil (grease) or steel is used as a
couplant between the transducer and the test specimen. The pulses (waves) return back (reflect)
from discontinuities in their path or from any boundary (end) that they strike. The received
reflections are displayed on a cathode ray tube (CRT). The quality of the material is measured in
terms of energy lost by a sound beam as it travels through the material.
Normally two methods are used. In 'Contact testing' method the transducer is coupled to
the material through a thin layer of couplant. In ‗Immersion testing' method, both the material and
the transducer are immersed in a tank of couplant (usually water). Immersion technique is
commonly used to inspect tubing; pipe and butt welds.
There are two types of test systems - Pulse - echo reflection and Through transmission as
shown in A third system known as 'Resonant frequency' is rarely used because its functions of
'thickness measurement' and 'bond or lamination inspection' are also performed by the pulse-echo
system.
Physiology of respiration, cardiac cycle, muscle contraction, nerve conduction
system. Permissible limits of load for manual lifting and carrying. Criteria for
fixation limits
Physiology is the science of dealing with functioning of living organisms or their parts. Human
physiology is study of the normal functioning of cells, tissues and organs of the human body
Physiology of Respiration:
Respiration is aerobic or anaerobic. Aerobic Respiration is the process by which living organisms
or their components, take oxygen from the atmosphere to oxidise their food to obtain energy.
Anaerobic Respiration is the process by which organisms or their components, obtain energy from
chemically combined oxygen when they do no have access to free oxygen. Many organisms can
respire anaerobically for a short time only, but certain bacteria depend entirely on anaerobic
respiration.
Respiratory Quotient (RQ) is the ratio of the volume of carbon dioxide expired by an organism or
tissue to the volume of oxygen consumed by it over the same period.
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Respiratory pigment is a substance formed in blood cells or blood plasma that is capable of
combining loosely and reversibly with oxygen, e.g. hemoglobin.
Physiology of Cardiac Cycle or Cardiovascular system (CVS) :

It comprises a closed canalicular network made up of arteries, capillaries, veins and a central
pumping organ - the heart. Following a cardiac contraction the blood is distributed to the arteries
and then to the capillary areas, returning through the veins back to the heart. The arteries and
veins are simple transit vessels whereas the capillaries have an important functional significance
since they are involved in the vital exchange of substances between the blood and the inter-cellular
spaces, resulting in important modifications in the blood's chemical composition and physical
properties.
Cardiac work is the quantity of energy that the heart transmits to the volume of blood to propel it
through the vessels. This energy is produced by the oxidation of organic substances such as
glucose, glycogen, lactic acid etc., partially converted to mechanical energy during myocardial
contraction.
The heart has four chambers - left and right atria and left and right ventricles. There are two
separate circulation of blood in these four compartments. The lesser or pulmonary circulation
starts at RV and finishes at LA. The greater or systemic circulation starts from LV and finishes at
RA. The four cardiac chambers are separated by a system of valves. The two phases in the cardiac
cycle are diastole and systole. The cycle occurs around 75 times per minute but it may vary
depending on age and physiological condition.
The myocardial fibre (strained muscle cell of special structure) has four basic properties to
control cardiac function i.e. rthythmicity, conductivity, irritability and contractility.
The stroke volume has an effect on the arterial wall, the tension of which varies depending on
blood pressure. Blood pressure is directly proportional to the volume of blood injected per minute
(minute volume Vm) and peripheral resistance.
During effort coronary flow increases considerably whereas myocardial oxygen extraction
remains largely the same as at rest. Aortic pressure plays a major role in regulating coronary
circulation' - when it increases, it raises the flow and vice versa.
In a normal subject, an average of 90% of the contractile work is used in the propagation of
systolic wave, 25-45% of this work is stored in the elastic components, only 10% on average, is
not returned and is probably released during the period of isometric relaxation.
Cardiac insufficiency can be defined as the inability of myocardial function to ensure an output
that meets the body's requirements. The patient in a state of cardiac insufficiency is not capable to
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increase his cardiac work to the same degree. The result is a reduction in contractility. The
defective heart does not fully utilise the energy obtained from glucose degradation. The result is a
reduction in cardiac output. The predominant symptom is dyspnoea, which results from the
increase in respiratory work. Due to reduced cardiac output, fatigue, gastrointestinal disorders and
renal dysfunction take place. This affects the normal functioning of the various organs.
Physiology of Muscle Contraction
There are about 200 skeletal muscles in the body. Many consist of bundles of muscles, each of
which is wrapped - as is the total muscle - in connective tissue in which nerves and blood vessels
are embedded. The tissues combine to form tendons that connect the ends of the muscle to bones.
The only active action a muscle can do is to contract. It is done by filaments. Elongation is
brought about by external forces.
This is a complex phenomenon involving many internal human reactions. Muscle fibres (cells) are
controlled by a single motor nerve fibre. This is known as the motor unit. An impulse started in a
motor nerve cell (motoneuron) propagates along the nerve fibre and transmitted to the motor
endplate where acetyl chlorine is released. This reverses the resting membrane potential. The
neuromuscular transmission transduces electrical signals, (nerve impulses) to chemical signals and
then back to electrical signals (muscle action potentials). This initiates the mechanical-chemical
mechanisms and causes the muscle to react. In the activated muscle, the contractile components
(myofibrils), shorten and stretch the elastic components (connective tissue, tendon). When no
movement, the contraction is called isometric (static) and when muscle is activated to vary its
length, the contraction is called isotonic (dynamic). In the latter case external work can be given
by the following equation
Work or energy = force x distance
(Nm or Joule, J) = (Newton) x (metre)
Power = Work per unit time
1 watt (W)
or 1 J/sec = 6.12 kilopond meter per minute
9.81 W = 1 kpm per second
1 HP=736 W=75 kpm/sec - 4500 kpm/min

Physiology of nerve conduction system:
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A nerve cord which starts from the brain ends in nerve fibers at different locations of body like
hand fingers Legs & Toes. This Nerve Cord go through the vertebral column & branches in to the
nerve fiber. This nerve fibers give sensation of touch & environment after stimulation from brain.
In case of
1. Damage of vertebrae or
2. Slip Disc due to continuous wrong posture over-weight or bending,
The orientation of nerve cord can be disturbed resulting in to the pack pain & numbness in body
part.
Permissible limits of load for manual lifting and carrying. Criteria for fixation
limits:
Factories Act 1948 under MF Rules talks about permissible load for manual lifting
manual transport of loads means any transport in which the weight of the load is wholly borne by
one worker including lifting and putting of the load ;
Regular manual transport of load means any activity which is continuously or intermittently
devoted to the manual transport of load.
No person, unaided by another person, or mechanical aid, allowed to lift, put down, carry or move
any load of material, article, tool or appliance exceeding the maximum limit in weight, as set out
in the following.
SCHEDULE
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Persons Maximum weight of
Material, article, tool or appliances kgs.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(a) Adult male... 55.00
(b) Adult female.. 30.00
(c) Young person ( male 15-18 years) 30.00
(d) Young person ( female 15-18 years) 20.00
(e) Young person ( male 14-15 years) 16.00
(f) Young person ( female 14-15 years) 14.00
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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2) No woman or young person shall be engaged in conjunction with others, in lifting, carrying
or moving any material, article, tool or appliance, if the weight thereof exceeds the
maximum weight fixed by the schedule to sub-rule (2), multiplied by the number of the
persons engaged.
3) Taking into account all conditions in which the work is to be performed, no worker shall be
required or permitted to engage in the manual transport of load which, by reason of its
weight, is likely to jeopardize his health or safety.
4) Wherever reasonably practicable, suitable mechanical devices shall be used for the manual
transport of loads.
7.1.2: Physiology and Ergonomics at Work : Working posture : Its effect on

cardio-vascular and musculo-skeletal system and implications on health &
Control measures
Nutrition and its importance in manual work. Nutritional requirements and

nutritional of diet.
Physiological effects of working posture on cardio-vascular system in Hot Environment are :
(1) Cardiovascular stress
(2) Heart rate
(3) Cardiac cost
(4) Blood pressure
(5). O2 uptake and (6) Sweat loss
Physiological effects of repeated work cycles in Hot Environment are :

(1) Heart rate
(2) Recovery time
(3) Cardiac cost and
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(4) Sweat loss.

Psychic factors affecting muscular (service) functions are attitude and motivation.
Environmental factors that affect are heat, cold, noise, vibration, gas pressure, altitude, air
pollution.
Physiological effects of working posture on musculo-Skeletal System:
Muscle system consists of about 200 skeletal .muscles in the body. They are in the form of
bundles of muscles and wrapped on each other. They are connected with tissue carrying nerves
and blood vessels inside. The tissues combine to form tendons which connect the ends of the
muscle to bones. The sheaths of the connective tissues provide mechanical properties to the
muscle.
A muscle has only action to contract. Elongation is by external
force. Filaments of muscle sliding along each other provide
automatic contraction after elongation. Signal to contract comes
from brain by the neuromuscular system. Signals coming to
motor units of the muscle can be observed by electromyogram
(EMG).
Lever system is consisted of links (bones) joined in their
articulations and powered by muscles bridging the joints. As elbow angle changes, lever arm (LA)
also changes with the muscle force (MF).
Safe use of these muscle and lever system of human body is most desirable to prevent
injury, damage or pain to the body. Excessive load causes excessive stress in muscle which may
result in strain, stretch or pain. Therefore excessive weight limits are legally prescribed.
Some safety measures are as under:
1. While handling material, force exerted by hands should be transmitted through the whole
body parts including feet to the floor. In this chain of forces, weak link is spinal column,
particularly at the low back. This limits the capability of a person to work. Therefore task
should not be too heavy.
2. Tasks, equipment and system should be designed to provide ease and efficiency of
manual handling.
3. Layout of material transfer and facilities should be convenient and comfortable to the
people.
4. Job design should be safe, efficient and agreeable for the worker.
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5. Selection of tools, machines, equipment should be proper. Sufficient space for movement,
visibility, lighting, colour coding and control design are important.
6. Select persons capable of performing the job. The job should be designed to fit the worker.
7. Give training for safe lifting practices.
Nutrition: Nutritional requirements and the Diets for Exercise, Work and
Physical Fitness.
Nutrition, Diets, Physical Fitness and their Relationship :
Among factors modifying physiological functions, nutrition or diet is an important factor,
because it has direct relationship with calorific value which is essential to compensate energy
expenditure (Kcal/min) on heavy or continuous physical (muscular) work.
As workload increases, calorie requirement increases. Insufficient calorie intake reduces

work output or maximum aerobic power which can quickly be restored by improvement in diet. A
well fed worker can store more energy in his fat and is able to work easily at required productivity
level.
Functions of Nutrients : Diet is made of foods and foods are made of specific substances
called nutrients. Each nutrient has a specific role e.g. in growth, building and repair of body, in
giving heat and energy, in liberating and using energy contained in foods, in regulating other body
functions and maintaining a good health.
Life functions (heart beat, breathing, digestion) and all bodily activities (muscular or
mental) require, energy and heat and these are provided by the nutrients present in the foods.
Balanced diet tries to contain all the nutrients in required proportion.
The energy value of food is measured in the form of beat/given off when the food is
burned. The heat required to raise temperature of 1 litre water from 15 °C to 16 "C is called
Kilocalorie (Kcal) or a Calorie (Cal). 1 Cal = 4.184 Joule.
Mainly there are six categories of nutrients Proteins, Carbohydrates, Fats and Oils,
Minerals, Vitamins and Water. Proteins are made of amino acids (some 23 types) and useful in
body building and repair. Growing children and nursing mothers need extra protein. Cereals, nuts,
peas, beans are plant sources and meat, fish, milk, cheese and eggs are animal sources of protein.
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Plants provide carbohydrates and also proteins, vitamins and minerals. 1 gm of carbohydrate
produces @ 4 cal energy. Fats and oils are obtained from plant or animal and provide @9 cal/gm,
and aid some vitamins. Minerals are needed in small quantity. Calcium in milk and milk products
(except butter) is essential for teeth and bones, clotting of blood after a wound and for normal
contraction of muscles. Iron is necessary for red blood cells. Iodine is a part of thyroid hormone
which helps to regulate growth, mental development and rate of body functions. Vitamins (20
identified) are equally useful for growth, development and body function. Their quantity required
is small. Vitamin A prevents night blindness, B protects nerves, C prevents scurvy and D ensures
strong and straight bones. 60 to 70% of the human body is made up of water and it is most
essential for life. Water controls the body temperature, digestion, absorption and distribution of
foods to body tissues, removal of waste and functioning of the kidneys. During heavy work and in
hot environment, extra water is required to compensate sweating and to keep the body temperature
within limits.
Energy is always expended in work and food (nutrients) is the basic need to supply this
energy. Even a simple meal provided at workplace can remarkably improve production rate and
earnings.
A diet which provides enough food of different types and tastes to meet nutritional values
is called a balanced diet. It varies from person to person,, states to states and countries to countries
because of the varieties of factors.
Food should be fresh, warm and non-contaminated. It should be eaten after washing hands,
mouth and teeth.
Nutrition and Physical Fitness Relationship :
Above discussion makes it clear that nutrition has direct relationship

with physical fitness. The fitness increases with nutrition to its maximum
level beyond which nutrition cannot help
Depending on quantum of physical (muscular) work, type of weather,

digesting power, hunger, thirst etc., one should maintain his nutrition standard to maintain good
health. More nutrition is necessary by growing children, pregnant women, nursing mothers, hard
workers, athletes and people living in cold countries. To regain health after illness or injury, good
and gradual nutrition is most essential. We all have to remember this relationship till our life.
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7.1.3 : Assessment of Work Capacity Fatigue and Rest Allowances,

Physiological Test for Assessment of Occupational Health Nutrition:
Nutritional requirements and the Diets for Exercise, Work and Physical
Fitness.
Assessment of Work Capacity:
Fatigue and Rest Allowances :

Physiological fatigue is characterised by the gradual decrement of work performance effected by
various factors viz. physical, physiological, psychological and wrong working posture. It is
manifested by gradual increase in physiological strain as the work of the day progresses.
During work in a hot environment, the body gains heat due to work and external environment.
These two factors put a lot of thermal stress on human beings. A continuous work in such
environment may lead to exhaustion, if sufficient cooling of the body is not possible. This also
leads to lower efficiency and reduced productivity. Under the circumstances a rest interval or
pause is essential for the workers to recover from exhaustion as well as to increase efficiency and
productivity. Frequent rest pauses reduce fatigue better than a few long breaks.
Rest Allowance in Energetic Work :

Following formula gives percentage rest time Tr as
Tr = Mmax – M x 100
Mr – M
where Mmax is the upper limit of the metabolic cost for sustained work, M the metabolic
cost of the job (task) and Mr the resting (sitting) metabolism.
Tr = 400-500 x 100 = -100 x 100 = 25%
100-500 -400
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This means, rest intervals should have 20% time i.e. 20% x 8 hr = 0.20 x 8 x 60 = 96 min. This
can be divided in 3 pauses of 32 min or 4 pauses of 24 min in an 8 hr shift, or 20% per hour i.e.,
12 min per each working hour. .
Combination of heavy and light work provide indirect rest. Walking to give or take material,
counting for some time, writing record or sharpening tools etc. are examples of light work
changes.
According to a German Physiologist (Lehmann), 200 Kcal/hr represents the upper permissible
limit, and about 250 'work' Kcal per hour or 4 work Kcal per min. +1 Kcal for resting metabolism
represent upper limits for more sustained work. Based on these figures, Spitzer (one of Lehmann's
co-workers) has arrived at the following formula to calculate rest allowance for workers engaged
in energetic heavy work.
Rest Allowance percent = (Kcal/min – 1) x 100
The above formula may, however, not be applicable to Indians having lower body weights and
low physical fitness standard. In their case 3 'work' Kcal per min will represent the upper limit for
sustained work. The above formula may accordingly be modified to work out the rest allowances
for Indian workers engaged in manual work. -
Above formula represents a method to calculate rest allowance percentage time in total working
time. Another method to determine rest pause is from heart beats and is given in the following
table –
Rest Allowances at Different Heart Rates
Heart Rate Energy Rest Fraction in 8 hrs working minutes

Expenditure Allowance (%
(avg. beats/ Kcal/min of working Work Rest Total
min time)
110 4.3 - 480 - 480

115 4.9 15 420 60 480
120 5.4 30 370 110 480
130 6.3 65 290 190 480
140 7.3 100 240 240 480
150 8.3 136 205 275 480
160 9.2 170 180 300 480
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170 10.2 200 160 320 480

180 11.2 235 145 335 480
After working out the time of rest pauses it should be decided that how it should be given
to minimise the fatigue.
Reducing Stress and Fatigue :
The decrease in the stress upon the workers and consequently the higher efficiency and
morale in the plant may be achieved by :
1. Reducing energetic workload through mechanisation.
2. Reducing the heat load by better ventilation or screening.
3. Machines and tools can be designed for maximum efficiency with minimum
physiological cost.
4. The workers can be chosen on the basis of their physiological fitness for specific tasks, to
work on furnaces.
5. Provision of air-conditioned rest rooms.
6. Adequate rest periods by adjustment of work and rest periods.
7. Organising workers' team. More workers should be added if the workload in a team is
considered very heavy.
8. Compensating for sweat loss by adequate intake of water and salt. There should be easy
access of cold drinking water close to the workplace.
Tests for Physical Fitness :
The test exercises are carried out by ergometers, stepping tests, treadmills, bycycle or
running. As a precautionary measure, the person should be medically examined prior to testing
and also after maximal testing.
(1) Physiological Test (Step Test) :

The step test was developed in the Harvard Fatigue Laboratory, USA to evaluate the
physical fitness of an individual. It is modified for Indian workers and described below :
While carrying out the test, the person has to step up and down on a stool 45 cm. high at
the rate of 30 complete steps per minute for a maximum period of 5 minutes or earlier in case of
difficulty. The rate of stepping is regulated by a metronome. Immediately after the exercise is
over, the subject is seated and his pulse is counted during the period 1 min to ½ min after exercise.
The fitness score is computed as follows :
Score = Duration of stepping seconds x 100
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5.5 x (half min recovery pulse count recorded)
Grading of scores is :
Below 50 - Poor
50-65 - Low average
65-80 - High average
80-90 - Good
Above 90 - Excellent
The test score which is computed from the pulse count taken during recovery after exercise
is a measure of the individual's cardiovascular efficiency and can be made use of in grading men
for their capacity for physical work in general and in hot environments in particular.
(2) Pulmonary function test:
This test is the simplest test in which an ergometer is used to measure exhaled air volume
and by comparing it with standard average values, the physical fitness or any disorder is judged.
Other exercise tests are also used to determine physiological load and functional capacities
of the cardio respiratory system. In abnormalities e.g. an electrical activity of the heart,
cardiovascular disease or improvement after illness or injury.
In young adults 170 beats/min has been widely used as a level at which the intensity of
work indicates physical working capacity.
Nutrition, Diets, Physical Fitness and their Relationship :
Among factors modifying physiological functions, nutrition or diet is an important factor,
because it has direct relationship with calorific value which is essential to compensate energy
expenditure (Kcal/min) on heavy or continuous physical (muscular) work.
As workload increases, calorie requirement increases. Insufficient calorie intake reduces
work output or maximum aerobic power which can quickly be restored by improvement in diet. A
well fed worker can store more energy in his fat and is able to work easily at required productivity
level.
Functions of Nutrients : Diet is made of foods and foods are made of specific substances
called nutrients. Each nutrient has a specific role e.g. in growth, building and repair of body, in
giving heat and energy, in liberating and using energy contained in foods, in regulating other body
functions and maintaining a good health.
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Life functions (heart beat, breathing, digestion) and all bodily activities (muscular or
mental) require, energy and heat and these are provided by the nutrients present in the foods.
Balanced diet tries to contain all the nutrients in required proportion.
The energy value of food is measured in the form of beat/given off when the food is
burned. The heat required to raise temperature of 1 litre water from 15 °C to 16 "C is called
Kilocalorie (Kcal) or a Calorie (Cal). 1 Cal = 4.184 Joule.
Mainly there are six categories of nutrients Proteins, Carbohydrates, Fats and Oils,
Minerals, Vitamins and Water. Proteins are made of amino acids (some 23 types) and useful in
body building and repair. Growing children and nursing mothers need extra protein. Cereals, nuts,
peas, beans are plant sources and meat, fish, milk, cheese and eggs are animal sources of protein.
Plants provide carbohydrates and also proteins, vitamins and minerals. 1 gm of carbohydrate
produces @ 4 cal energy. Fats and oils are obtained from plant or animal and provide @9 cal/gm,
and aid some vitamins. Minerals are needed in small quantity. Calcium in milk and milk products
(except butter) is essential for teeth and bones, clotting of blood after a wound and for normal
contraction of muscles. Iron is necessary for red blood cells. Iodine is a part of thyroid hormone
which helps to regulate growth, mental development and rate of body functions. Vitamins (20
identified) are equally useful for growth, development and body function. Their quantity required
is small. Vitamin A prevents night blindness, B protects nerves, C prevents scurvy and D ensures
strong and straight bones. 60 to 70% of the human body is made up of water and it is most
essential for life. Water controls the body temperature, digestion, absorption and distribution of
foods to body tissues, removal of waste and functioning of the kidneys. During heavy work and in
hot environment, extra water is required to compensate sweating and to keep the body temperature
within limits.
Energy is always expended in work and food (nutrients) is the basic need to supply this
energy. Even a simple meal provided at workplace can remarkably improve production rate and
earnings.
A diet which provides enough food of different types and tastes to meet nutritional values
is called a balanced diet. It varies from person to person,, states to states and countries to countries
because of the varieties of factors.
Food should be fresh, warm and non-contaminated. It should be eaten after washing hands,
mouth and teeth.
Nutrition and Physical Fitness Relationship :
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Above discussion makes it clear that nutrition has direct relationship with physical fitness.
The fitness increases with nutrition to its maximum level beyond which nutrition cannot help
Depending on quantum of physical (muscular) work, type of weather, digesting power, hunger,
thirst etc., one should maintain his nutrition standard to maintain good health. More nutrition is
necessary by growing children, pregnant women, nursing mothers, hard workers, athletes and
people living in cold countries. To regain health after illness or injury, good and gradual nutrition
is most essential. We all have to remember this relationship till our life.
7.1.4 Aerobic work capacity (physical work capacity), methods of its

determination (use of bicycle, ergometer, treadmill, step-stool ergometer).
Factors affecting aerobic capacity and work performance.
Aerobic (Physical) Work Capacity

The evaluation of a worker is made from his physical work capacity i.e. his maximum 0, intake or
aerobic capacity, other physiological functions under classified workloads and his tolerance limit
to work in hot environment.
The physical work capacity of an individual is measured by the physiological work capacity. This
is a measure of his physical fitness and estimated in terms of his maximum oxygen uptake
capacity. The upper level of physiological work capacity of an individual depends on his capacity
to utilise the inhaled oxygen to its maximum possible limit. Beyond this, any additional work has
to be carried out only on oxygen debt. Thus, there is an upper limit of oxygen uptake, being a
measure of his maximal aerobic power and the best index to judge one's total physical fitness.
This is important for many practical purposes such as selection of right jobs, disability evaluation,
and rehabilitation of disabled and diseased workers. It is practiced in all developed countries.
Factors affecting Aerobic Capacity & Work Performance:

Oxygen intake and oxygen debt are the limiting factors in physical exertion. Factors determining
the rate of 0, intake i.e. the efficient supply of 0, to the active tissues are -
1. Ventilation of the lungs.
2. O2 carrying capacity of the blood.
3. Unloading of O2 at the tissues, and
4. Minute volume of the heart.
Physical fitness is not a static condition. It varies with age, body dimensions, general health and
nutritional state (diet) of the worker. Due to illness or other reason, he may lose his fitness for
some time and may regain after some time. A worker doing light work may adjust himself to a
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low level of physical fitness and vice versa, but a change from light to heavy job necessitates a
period of training and adjustment and calls for extra strain on the worker.
Normally female workers can be expected to show 70% aerobic power of males of the same age.
Ageing effect decreases heart rate from an average of @ 200 to @ 165 beats/min between the age
from 25 to 55 years in both males and females alongwith decrease in functional capacity of other
organs.
Maximum aerobic power is determined by measuring the maximum oxygen uptake during
dynamic muscular exercise. This can be done in two ways. In the direct method, muscular
exercises are performed with increasing intensity until a work rate is established above which
there is no further increases in oxygen uptake. In the indirect method, a linear relationship is
established between the heart rate and oxygen uptake when the metabolic rate, circulation and
respiration have reached a steady state at sub-maximal work rate and the curve is then extrapolated
to the maximum heart rate.
Methods of determination of Aerobic work capacity (physical work capacity),
with the use of bicycle
During muscular work, .physiological functions change from the resting level and heart rate,
blood, pressure, cardiac output, respiration, pulmonary ventilation, oxygen uptake, carbon dioxide
production, chemical composition of blood and urine, body temperature, rate of perspiration, etc.
increase. They come back to resting level when the work stops. The period during which the work
continues is known as "Work Cycle" and the period during which the physiological functions
return to the resting level is known as "Recovery Period." Both together is known as Bicycle
By measuring one or more physiological variables during activity, it is possible to
determine in what degree the working level differs from the resting level. This gives an estimate
of the physiological stress experienced in performing a given task. When the activity ceases, it is
possible to follow the return of the same variables to the resting level and to determine the
duration of the recovery period, at the end of which the individual has returned to his pre-activity
physiological equilibrium. In order to evaluate total physiological expenditure, one must consider
physiological reactions, both during the work and during the recovery period. A complete work
cycle includes physiological cost of work plus the physiological cost of recovery.
When muscles work they increase heat production from about 4 kJ/min (resting level) to 200
kJ/min (max.) i.e. about 50 times more. The rate of heat removal, CO, water, waste products etc.
must also be increased proportionally. To maintain physical and chemical equilibrium of the cells,
a tremendous increase in the exchange of molecules between intra and extra cellular fluid is
required. Normal pulse rate 60-72 beats/min can rise upto 220 beats/min, normal oxygen
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consumption rate 0.2 to 3 lit/min can go upto 4 lit/min and corresponding energy level rises from I
Kcal/min to @ 20 Kcal/min. The energy expenditure, core temperature, sweat rate, skin galvanic
resistance, heart stroke volume and pulmonary ventilation also increase.
To restore the energy content of the body, working at maximum capacity upto 4 times, more food
must be digested, than when the individual is at rest. Moreover, during physical work, many of the
hormone producing glands are involved in the regulation of metabolic and circulatory functions of
the body.
The energy expended by muscles during work comes from food intake. There are two sources of
this energy supply, one is aerobic i.e. direct oxygen intake from air to oxidised food to get energy
and the other anaerobic i.e. consuming chemically combined oxygen in the body.
During sever muscular exercise, oxygen demand goes up and up and a stage comes when the body
cannot maintain demand and supply. Metabolites like lactic and pyrovic acid get accumulated and
the person gets exhausted or feels fatigue. Such physical fatigue, static or dynamic should be
removed daily by regular light exercises (Yogasan) and deep breathing in a fresh cool air (in early
morning").
In Maximum permissible load limits, three criteria are considered (1) Male or Female as their
lifting capability differs at the same age (2) Age as physical muscle strength varies from child to
an adult person and (3) Safe load limit which should not cause any injury or back pain.
with the use of ergometer
Pulmonary function test: dynanamic
This test is the simplest test in which an ergometer is used to measure exhaled air volume and by
comparing it with standard average values, the physical fitness or any disorder is judged.
Other exercise tests are also used to determine physiological load and functional capacities of the
cardio respiratory system. In abnormalities e.g. an electrical activity of the heart, cardiovascular
disease or improvement after illness or injury.
In young adults 170 beats/min has been widely used as a level at which the intensity of work
indicates physical working capacity.
Methods of determination of Aerobic work capacity (physical work
capacity), with the use of treadmill
It was intended to select the work rates corresponding to 20, 30, 40, 50 & 70% RL (relative
Load)in order to determine the AWL ( Acceptable work load ). These work rates were determined
by using the monogram constructed by Margaria et al. (1963) for different speed of walking and
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gradient of the treadmill . however , the intended rates of work could not be obtained; the observed
mean RLs were 20,28,36,50,62,and70%.
Work –schedule of treadmill running
After an initial rest of 30 min, the subjects were asked to run on the treadmill at the pre-determine
rates for 8 hr from 0930 to 1730 hr with a lunch breaks of 15 min each . the details of the work-
schedule are given in table .
Work-schedule for 8 hr work on treadmill walking .
Initial tea Lunch tea

work work work work
rest break break break
0900- 0930 1130 1145 1300 1400 1530 1545
0930 hr 1130 hr 1145 hr 1300 hr 1400hr 1530 hr 1545 hr 1730 hr
Experimental design:
A randomized block design was used for experiments of treadmill running on different rates of
work to eliminate the effect of training due to previous work rates on the physiological functions.
Physiological measurernents:
Energy expenditure and heart rate responses of the subjects with each work rate were recorded as
per the time schedule given of 3min after each break and at the end of the days work . energy
expenditure was determined according to standard procedures using a 120 1 Collin‘s Gasometer
and Haldane gas analyser. The expired air was collected for the last 2 min during the steady state
condition. Heart rate was monitored simultaneously by means of an electronic pulse counter (
heart rate monitor model 504, parks electronic lab , U.S.A)
Time of different physiological observations
Observation time( hr)
1 0948
2 1028
3 1128
4 1158
5 1258
6 1418
7 1528
8 1558
9 1658
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10 1728
Working environment.
The thermal environment of the laboratory during the period of the experiments was comfortable
with respect to dry bulb temperature, wet bulb temperature , air movement and effective
temperature.
with the use of step-stool ergo meter
Physiological Test (Step Test) :
The step test was developed in the Harvard Fatigue Laboratory, USA to evaluate the physical
fitness of an individual. It is modified for Indian workers and described below :
While carrying out the test, the person has to step up and down on a stool 45 cm. high at the rate
of 30 complete steps per minute for a maximum period of 5 minutes or earlier in case of difficulty.
The rate of stepping is regulated by a metronome. Immediately after the exercise is over, the
subject is seated and his pulse is counted during the period 1 min to ½ min after exercise.
The fitness score is computed as follows :
Score = Duration of stepping seconds x 100
5.5 x (half min recovery pulse count recorded)
Grading of scores is :
Below 50 - Poor
50-65 - Low average
65-80 - High average
80-90 - Good
Above 90 - Excellent
The test score which is computed from the pulse count taken during recovery after exercise is a
measure of the individual's cardiovascular efficiency and can be made use of in grading men for
their capacity for physical work in general and in hot environments in particular.
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7.1.5 Environmental Physiology:

Environmental factors that affect are heat, cold, noise, vibration, gas pressure, altitude, air
pollution etc.
Physiological effects of continuous work in Hot Environment are : (1) Cardiovascular stress (2)
Heart rate (3) Cardiac cost (4) Blood pressure (5). O2 uptake and (6) Sweat loss
Physiological effects of repeated work cycles in Hot Environment are : (1) Heart rate (2) Recovery
time (3) Cardiac cost and (4) Sweat loss.
Psychic factors affecting muscular (service) functions are attitude and motivation.
All above factors - food and nutritional, physiological, environmental, psychic and nature of work
- actuate service functions that deliver fuel and oxygen to the working muscle fibre. This service
function capacity transforms food energy (chemically bound) into mechanical energy for muscular
work. This ability of the muscle cell to transform energy actuates ability to perform a physical
work.
Therefore by paying attention on above factors i.e. giving work according to age and sex,
providing rest intervals, reasonable working hours (no overtime), good ventilation, temperature
and working conditions, ample drinking water and nutrition, proper clothing, PPE and training
etc., good muscular or physical work can be obtained from the workers.
(1) Heat & Cold
Heat causes burns, exhaustion, stroke, cramps, fatigue, decreased efficiency, pain,
discomfort, heal collapse, systemic disorders, skin disorders, psychoneurotic disorders and
tendency to cause accident. Acclimatisation to high temperature requires reduction in heart rate
and internal body temperature at the expense of increased sweating. Radiant heat (e.g. ovens,
furnaces), stagnant heat (e.g. textile mills), and high temperature (e.g. mines, glass furnaces)
.create stress and impair health.
One UK Standard suggests the following criteria
Environmental Factor Standard
Air temperature 21 oC
Mean radiant temperature > 21oC
Relative humidity 30-70%
Air movement 30-60 mt / min
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Temperature gradient (foot to head) < 2.5 oC
The cold causes chilblains, shivering, frostbite, trench foot, vasoconstriction, and
erythrocyanosis.
The control measures include (1) sufficient intake of water and salt (2) cotton and
protective clothing (3) break in exposure time and more rest intervals (4) engineering controls (5)
medical control and (6) acclimatisation of the workers.
(2) Air Pressure :
Abnormal air pressure can cause decompression sickness known as 'Bends' (dull throbbing
pain in joints or deep in muscles and bones) and 'chokes' (subtemal distress and difficulty in deep
inspiration with coughing).
(3) Light & Colour :
Improper and insufficient illumination causes eye strain, eye fatigue, headache,
lachrymation, congestion around cornea and miner's nystagmus (chronic effect). Glare or
excessive brightness causes visual discomfort and fatigue, tiredness and irritability. There should
be sufficient and suitable lighting natural or artificial in all work areas..
(4) Noise & Vibration :
Noise - too low or too high cause ear strain or pain. Auditory effects are temporary or
permanent hearing loss. Non-auditory effects cause nervousness, fatigue, difficulty in
conversation, decreased efficiency, annoyance and psychological and systemic effects. The degree
of injury depends on intensity and frequency of noise, exposure time (duration) and individual
susceptibility.
Vibration of 10 to 500 Hz frequency range as normally found with pneumatic drills,
hammers and grinders affects the hands and arms. After exposure of months or years, fingers
become sensitive to spasm known as white fingers. Vibrations also produce injuries to joints,
elbows and shoulders.
Sick or Tight Building Syndrome is a health effect on workers, mostly IT personnel due to
heat or cold stress, poor ventilation, poor lighting, or monotonous work in fixed type of
environment for a longer period. Sickness is resulted in health effects like indigestion, psychosis
(mental fatigue), visual problem, mental feeling of impotency, headache, backache, uneasiness,
obesity, acidity etc. Remedial measures include-change in working environment, new and
attractive atmosphere, good lighting and ventilation, good housekeeping, rotation of persons,
recreation facility and staggered working hours instead of continuous eight or more working
hours.
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(5) Ionising & Non-ionising Radiation :

Electromagnetic radiation consists of varying electric and magnetic fields, operating at
right angles to each other. It has both particulate and wavelike aspects. Following table shows the
wavelength and frequency for various electromagnetic radiation. Longwaves have low energy,
short-waves have high. The higher energy wavelengths (short-waves) are more penetrating i.e.
more damaging. X-rays, Gamma rays and cosmic rays have short wavelengths, 10" cm and less,
and high frequency, 10'6 c/s and above and cause ionising radiation.
Others i.e. electric waves, radio waves, micro waves, visible light, IR, UV and lasers have
longer wavelength and less frequency and cause non-ionising radiation. Lasers are involved in
visible light, IR and UV regions of the spectrum given below :
Types and Limits of Radiation :
(A) Ionising Radiation:
Ionising radiation means electromagnetic or corpuscular radiation capable of producing

ions directly or indirectly in its passage through matter. It is not visible by normal eyes. X-rays,
Alpha, Beta, Gamma, fast neutrons, thermal neutrons and radionuclides are ionising radiation.
Radioactive substance (chemical) must be firmly sealed within metal container to prevent
dispersion to active material into surrounding. Radiation hazard means the danger to health
arising from exposure to ionising radiation which may be external or internal.
Animal and human studies have shown that exposure to ionizing radiation can cause
carcinogenic, teratogenic or mutagenic effects, as well as other sequelae. The NCRP has
formulated exposure limits. Some such limits are given below :
International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) has prescribed a dose-

equivalent limit of 0.5 SV (50 rem) to prevent non-stochastic effects.
Radiation dosimetry in health physics tries to know whether individual radiation exposures
are within permissible dose. Various fixed and portable monitors (detectors and survey
instruments) are used for radiation exposure measurement. Some fixed monitors are as under:
Fixed monitors are either area monitoring instruments or contamination monitoring

instruments. Area monitors are used for measurement of air, ganima radiation, neutron radiation
and radioactive effluents. The contamination monitoring instruments include hand and shoe
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monitors, portal monitors, clothing monitors and monitors for contaminated wounds. The
dosimeters are to be calibrated for proper use.
Protection Techniques include:
1. Control of exposure time and distance.
2. Shielding.
3. Wearing a film badge to check dose limit.
4. Pre and post employment medical test.
5. Prevention of radiation disease such as skin cancer, ulceration, dermatitis, cataract, damage to
bones and blood etc.
6. Use of remote controlled containers.
7. Continuous monitoring and maintaining safe limits by engineering controls and PPE.
8. The sealed container should be leakproof.
Health Physics is a branch of science dealing with improvement of protection against

exposure to ionising radiation (IR). The main principles of health physics were defined in 1977 by
the ICRP. Three general principles of radiation protection are - (1) justification (2) optimisation
and (3) limitation of worker's exposure to radiation.
Limitation means to limit the exposure entering a human body by protecting individual or
society by devices and observing prescribed safe dose limits.
A record for more than 30 years must be maintained even after completion of job on
ionising radiation, of (1) doses absorbed by individual and (2) exposure measurement.
In our present day industry, radiation generating machines and radioactive materials for
testing of materials, process control and research have found wide-spread use. X-ray machines are
widely used in industry, medicine, commerce and research. Industrial X-ray devices include
radiographic and fluoroscopic units used for the determination of defects in materials in packaged
food etc. All such uses are potential sources of exposure. The most widely used naturally
occurring radio-nuclide is Ra. 226 which is used in medicine and industry. In its use in the
medical field, many individuals, besides the patient are potentially exposed to radiation. In
industry, the principle uses of radium are for radiography in luminous compound and in making
static eliminators. Textile and paper trades, printing, photographic processing and telephone and
telegraph companies are the typical industries where the static eliminator may be found. The use
of artificially produced radio-nuclides (radio-isotopes) in medical, biological, agricultural fields,
and scientific research has been increased. Possible exposure from such radio nuclides is involved
with their preparation, handling, application and transportation. Exposures, internal or external,
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might also arise through contamination of the environment by wastes originating from 'the use of
these materials.
Applications of ionising radiation in industry are many. It is used mostly in biological and
chemical research, chemical pilot plants and production. It is used for curing, grafting, testing &
evaluation, free radicals, cross .linking, polymerisation, disinfection, sterilisation, pasteurisation
etc. Productwise it is used in semi-conductors, rubber, adhesives, spices, paints and coatings,
membranes, fuels, lubricants, plastic piping, enzymes, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, medical
supplies, foods, flooring, furniture, textile, medical uses, agricultural uses etc.
Biological Effects and Controls : Occasional small dose (e.g. X-ray photograph) does not
affect much but small doses for a longer time or more frequent dose or higher dose may cause
biological damage to a human body. Radiation energy passes through a body. The energy
absorbed in a body is called dose. The time between the exposure and the first symptom of
radiation damage is called latent period. The larger the dose or the residence time, the shorter the
latent period.
Human body always generates new cells replacing dead or damaged cells. But when
ionising radiation causes more damage than the body's repair capacity, biological damage takes
place. Injury to individual .is called somatic effect and that being passed into future generations is
called genetic effect. The. biological effect is the destruction of reproduction capacity of a cell or
carcinogenic effect (cancer) which is difficult to cure.
Biological effect of radiation can be reduced by -
1. Shielding the body portion (especially blood forming tissues and intestine).
2. Shielding by a portion between the source and the human body by a high density material
such as lead or concrete wall. Thickness should be increased depending on intensity of radiation.
3. Less dense (less hazardous) radiation (electromagnetic instead of charged particles).
4. Low dose rate or fractionation of the dose and decreasing the dose level.
5. Diminishing O2 concentration in the tissues.
6. Reducing the exposure time.
7. Increasing the distance from source.
8. Using sealed source of radiation.
9. Monitoring the environmental exposures by various instruments such as film badge,
thermoluminescence dosimeters (TLD), pocket dosimeter, Geiger-MuUer tubes (having automatic
audible .alarm), ionismg chambers, neutron and proton monitors and keeping them below the
permissible threshold limits. Calibration techniques for instruments is most important.
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10. Decontamination facilities.
11. Safe disposal of radioactive wastes.
Medical Surveillance : Exposure to radiation workers may not give any clinical signs.
Therefore, according to ICRP, the medical surveillance of radiation workers should aim at-
1. To assess the health of the workers.
2. To preserve good general health standards by monitoring the work conditions,
exposure levels and the health of the workers and
3. To provide baseline information in case of accidental exposure or occupational
disease.
Functions of such medical service include--
1. Pre-employment and during and after (post) employment examinations are
necessary.
2. Evaluating the fitness of individual workers for specific tasks.
3. Medical examinations and first-aid after radiation accidents, irradiation or
contamination accidents.
4. Keeping of adequate medical records for quite a long time (30 years).
5. Contributing to safety and health training and
6. Helping to solve safety problems in the plant.
Large nuclear installations should have full time and fully equipped medical and health
physics services and facilities - including decontamination facilities and ablutions very near the
workplace. Small units should obtain part-time facilities.
Personal decontamination facilities include a separate ambulance port, monitoring devices,
sink, showers, a disrobing room, clean clothing and pharmaceutical supplies.
Plant medical service should remain in touch with local and other hospitals where
irradicated or contaminated persons can be treated.
A card containing information of possible contaminants, the time of sampling and any
treatment given before the sampling, must be sent alongwith the samples to the radiotoxicological
laboratory as quickly as possible.
Decontamination : The ionising radiation cannot be neutralised or interrupted. Therefore

rapid decontamination is one of the best safety measures to protect man against possible or actual
hazards of direct or indirect radiation. The purpose of decontamination is to reduce its level below
the safe level. Following methods of decontamination are used:
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1. Mechanical decontamination i.e. removal of radioactive layer by scrubbing, shot

blasting, washing by water etc.
2. Physical decontamination i.e. evaporation, dilution, filtration, ultrasonic
techniques, or allowing the half-life time if it is in hours or upto 3 days.
3. Chemical decontamination i.e. treating with acid, alkali, chelating compounds,
ion-exchange resins etc.
4. Biological decontamination of sewage.
5. Decontamination of water, surface and clothing by selecting appropriate material,
e.g. 10% solution of citric acid followed by 0.5% solution of nitric acid to clean stainless steel
surface, mineral acids to clean glass and porcelain vessels, replacement of concrete blocks etc. 6.
Decontamination of persons by scrubbing the skin with warm water and soap and followed by use
of surfactants and absorbents. I to 3% solution of hydrochloric and citric acid are also useful. Use
of organic solvent is inadvisable. Cleaning for more than 10 min. is also not advisable, as further
cleaning cannot remove contaminant and may damage the epithelium.
Removal of radionuclides from the human body is much more difficult and needs
experienced medical treatment. The choice of a method and reagent depends on the type and
character of the contaminant, path of penetration and time elapsed after contamination. Surgery is
the best method to decontaminate wound. Complexing reagents (viz. DTPA) are generally
effective to decontaminate blood, internal organs and tissues. To decontaminate upper respiratory
system, expectorants and vasoconstrictive preparations are prescribed.
(B) Non-Ionising Radiation :
The main difference between ionising and nonionising radiation is that the former is more
hazardous because of its higher frequency range and shorter wavelength comparing with the later
which has lower frequency range and longer wavelength. More safety measures -
Decontamination, medical and others- are required to prevent and control the ionising radiation
and its damage.
Non-ionising Radiation refers to those regions of the electromagnetic spectrum where the
energies of the emitted photons are insufficient, under ordinary circumstances, to produce
ionisation in the atoms of absorbing molecules. Its lower wave length limit is 100 nm (arbitrary).
It includes ultraviolet, visible light, infrared radiation, microwaves, radiowaves, lasers, power
frequencies and radar waves.
Physical & Biological Units: The entire electromagnetic spectrum is roughly divided and
studied in two parts:
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1. The upper region of shorter wavelength is of more concern to physicists and

physical scientists who describe radiation in terms of wavelength.
2. The lower region of longer wavelength is of more concern to communication
scientists and engineers who describe radiation in terms of frequency.
Biological effects of the UV, visible, IR, radio frequency and the extremely low frequency
of power transmission, have been studied. Visible light and heat waves can be easily perceived
and dark goggles can reduce their intensity to a comfortable level. The UV, IR, microwave and
lower frequency radiations cannot be perceived by eyes, but have biological penetration as shown
in the following table -
Thermal effects are produced in the skin due to exposure in IR and FM-TV-radio region.
Photochemical effects can be produced in the UV and visible regions.
Now, main divisions of non-ionising radiation are explained below in brief.
(1) Infrared (IR) Radiation :
The IR region extends from 750 nm to 0.3 cm wavelength of microwaves.
Exposure to infrared radiation is very common in glass industry and near cupolas and
furnaces. Since long-wave infrared radiation is readily absorbed by the surface tissues of the body,
it cannot inflict deep injuries in the 'human body. Over exposure produces some discomfort which
generally gives adequate warning. However, the eyes may suffer injuries or general discomfort to
other parts of the body, there is some evidence that this may result in cataract.
The protective measures against this radiation include the placement of reflective screens
of polished aluminium shield near the source. Those screens will direct the .rays away from the
personnel into unoccupied space or return them to the heat source. They have been found very
effective in many industrial situations. Eyes of the exposed personnel should always be
protected, by suitable glasses, from direct radiation arising from areas that given off intense heat,
even though the temperature is not necessarily high. Infrared radiation be measured by the black-
bulb thermometer and radiometers.
Main industrial IR exposures are from hot furnaces, molten metal or glass and from arc
processes. Use of enclosures, shielding, eye protection and safe distance are main safety measures.
(2) Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation :

The UV region is subdivided as Near - 400 to 300 nm. Far - 300 to 200 nm and vacuum -
200 to 4 nm.
The effects of ultraviolet radiation are similar to sunburn. Since there is a considerable
time gap between exposure and development of injury, deep burns, may be endured without
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immediate discomfort. This radiation is readily absorbed in human tissue. As a result , superficial
injuries are produced chiefly to the skin and eyes. Higher exposure can cause skin or eye damage.
The skin effect is called dermatological and the eye effect is called ocular.
Some industrial processes, such as welding, produce considerable amount of ultraviolet

radiation. In areas where ultraviolet radiation is quite intense, potentially hazardous chemical
contaminants, such as ozone and oxides of nitrogen, are also produced due to action of this
radiation on air. In the zone where arc-welding is carried out, very high concentrations of ozone
and oxides of nitrogen have been found.
All personnel engaged in welding should invariably wear goggles and face shields.
Besides these, the use of gloves, leggings, overalls and boots is an essential necessity for the
personnel engaged in welding. Further more, opaque shielding should be used around welding
areas to protect other persons. Local exhaust ventilation may also be used as an effective means
for the removal of chemical contaminants produced during the arc welding.
Ultraviolet meters can be used for the measurement of .this radiation. It has been suggested
that 0.5 microwatt per square centimetre be the permissible limit of ultraviolet radiation for a 7
hours continuous exposure.
The most common exposure to UV radiation is from direct sunlight. Solar irradiation
exhibits intense UV radiation but due to the atmosphere (ozone) shielding of the earth (God's gift),
we are not exposed to the lethal doses. Long time exposure to hottest sunlight (afternoon) may
cause skin cancer. This must be avoided.
Some commercial application of UV radiation are fluorescent lamps, mercury vapour
lamps, germicidal lamps, electric arc welding, chemical processing, etched circuit board
production and UV lasers. Wavelengths cause skin reddening and skin-burn, carcinogenic
effects. Solar or UV radiation from artificial sources may cause skin pigmentation (tanning).
Main safety measures are shielding of UVR source, use of eye goggles, protective clothing
and absorbing or reflecting skin creams.
(3) Visible Light (Energy) :
239
shadows. Transmitted light penetrates a transparent or translucent material.
illumination that produces brightness on the task and surroundings. The Quality refers
todistribution of brightness in environment and includes the colour of light, its diffusion, direction,
(4) Radio and Microwaves :
Within the broad spectrum of radio frequencies, the microwave .region is between 10 to 3
x 105 MHz (megahertz). This form of radiation is propagated from antennas associated with TV
transmitters, FM transmitters and radar transmitters.
Uses of microwave radiation are heating sources like microwave ovens, dryers for food
products and plywood, pasteurisation, ceramics, telecommunications like radio and TV and
medical applications (diathermy devices). Microwave ovens for heating or cooking food are clean,
flexible and instantly controllable. The heating rate is very high and use of any fuel or pollution
due to it should be avoided.
Radio or high frequency electrical heaters are used in metalworking plants for hardening
cutting tools, gear-teeth and bearing surfaces and for annealing, soldering and brazing. Use in food
industry is for sterilising vessels and killing bacteria in foods.
In woodworking plants, high frequency heating is used for bonding plywood, laminating
and general gluing. Other uses include moulding plastics, curing and vulcanising rubber,
thermosealing and setting twist in textile materials.
240
Induction heaters are used for annealing, forging, brazing or soldering conductive
materials. Induction furnaces are used in foundries to melt metal. Dielectric heaters are used for
non-conducting, dielectric materials like rubber, plastics, leather and wood.
The primary effect of microwave energy is thermal. The higher frequency cause lower
hazard and vice versa. Frequencies less than 3000 MHz can cause serious damage. At 70 MHz,
maximum SAR (specific absorption ratio) in human takes place. Exposure of high intensity and
more time can cause localised damage by skin burning, tissue burns, cataracts, adverse effect On
reproduction and even death.
frequency) below the safe level, reducing time of exposure, shielding and enclosing microwave
source, reorienting antenna Or emitting device, use of PPE and controlling at source.
(5) Power Frequencies:
The main hazards from high voltage lines and equipment (low frequency) are shocks and
current. Extremely low frequency (ELF) radiation produces electric field and magnetic field. An
external electric field induces electric current in the body.
Protection from ELF is possible by shielding of electric field by any conducting surface.
Persons working in high field strength regions (e.g. high voltage lines) should wear electrically
conductive clothing. Avoiding entry in such region is also advisable.
ELF magnetic field cannot be shielded. Therefore the only remedy is to keep the magnetic
field below safe levels or to restrict entry of personnel into the magnetic fields.
(6) Radar:
Radar means "radio detection and ranging". It is a radio detecting instrument that operates
in the radio frequency range from 100 to 105 MHz, echoing in a wavelength range from some
meters to millimetres. It consists of a transmitter and receiver, usually operating through a
common antenna. Power output varies from a few watts to megawatts.
Hazards & Controls : Main hazards associated with radar are as under :
1. Electrical hazards from high voltage equipment.
2. Fire hazards from flammable gases, vapours, explosives and other materials.
3. Toxic hazards of gas fills in certain waveguides.
4. Thermal effects of electromagnetic radiation.
5. Radioactivity from certain switching tubes.
241
6. X-rays from high voltage tubes.

7. Material handling hazards in moving portable and fixed equipment.
Control measures include -
1. Standing near or in front of the antenna should be avoided.
2. Radar workers should not look directly into a radar beam from a high energy unit.
High energy is more than 0.01 W/cm2
3. Interior of microwave tubes should be seen through a remote device such as a
periscope or telescope.
4. Microwave absorber should be provided to contain beam discharge.
5. Persons should take care to have minimum exposure by keeping a safe distance
from the beam.
6. Photoflash bulbs should be properly packed to avoid ignition hazard.
7. Pre, current and after employment medical examinations of the radar workers
including blood-count and complete eye examination including slit-lamp examination are
necessary.
(7) Lasers
Laser means "light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation". Normal light
radiates in all directions. Light waves of varying lengths reinforce or cancel each other. When
light waves are made to vibrate in a single plane, made to travel in only one direction and of the
wavelength and focused towards a point, a laser beam is obtained. It is called coherent light.
Lasers involve IR, visible and UV regions, concentrate great energy in a point area and can be
projected over long distances.
Typical areas of laser applications are military, microsurgery, medicine, dentistry, material
processing, stack emission analysis to detect air pollution, blood analysis, laser drilling & welding,
communications, construction, embryology, geodesy, holography, business offices etc.
Hazards and Controls : It is necessary to understand type of laser, its power density, the
method of usage and its operational aspects to consider laser hazards and controls. It is not the
power but the point source of great brightness which poses hazard. There are two types of hazards
- One from the laser itself and the other from equipment.
The solid-state lasers produce high power outputs and can cause skin burns and eye
damage if safety rules are not followed. Other hazards are thermal effect, electric shock, ozone
effect, high gas pressures in the flash lamp when it is fired (explosion hazard), cryogenic cool
242
burns due to liquid nitrogen and helium, oxygen deficiency if N or He leaks into atmosphere and
hazards from viewing, operation and reflections.
The control measures include -
1. Minimisation of ocular exposure to the direct laser beam and specular, mirror type,
reflections.
2. Education and training of personnel.
3. Shields to prevent accidental exposures.
4. Specially designed eyewear (a major control).
5. Periodical eye examination.
6. A warning sign to be attached to laser equipment.
7. Laser unit in a separate room.
8. Diffuse or retroreflective card targets should be used for short ranges.
9. Laser beam should not be aimed at flat glass, mirror surfaces or flammable material.
10. Appointment of Laser Safety Officer.
All these need a specialized occupational health services at workplace. Depending on
classified hazards like fire, explosion, toxic and corrosive effects, fully equipped fire fighting
team, medical team and trained personnel with special protective equipment are also essential.
Even if an occupational disease has not occurred, the hazardous exposure at workplace can reduce
the life span slowly and unknowingly.
243

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STUDY MATERIAL BY MR. AVIKUMAR SHINDE MOB.

ADVANCE DIPLOMA IN INDUSTRIAL SAFETY

SUB:INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE AND OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH(23115)

STUDY MATERIAL BY MR. AVIKUMAR SHINDE

notifiable diseases , third schedule of factory acts 1948, occupational

Ventilation and Heat Stress

American Ventilating Engineering Association recommends the following ranges as the

0 60 120 180 240

(A) For Building (B) For Contaminants

Fig.: Types of roof for natural ventilation

Fig: Modified pitched roof and monitor roof.

Roof elevation in mt Rise in oC

24 x 100 x FMolecular weight of the gas x

The air flow volume to be provided should take into

(2) Local Exhaust or Extract Ventilation : It is applied

Air conditioning processes are as under :

To reduce high air temperature i.e. gain by C -

Points to be considered while designing a hood are :

Noise and Vibration

MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION:

Noise Dose Measurement: (Commonly used)

Employee noise exposure record

Employee name _________________________________________________________

Date ______________________________ Signed _____________________________

Interview Computation iso

Table: TLV for Noise (ACGIH, 2007)

Duration per day Sound level dBA

Control at the Source :

2. Aural inserts e.g. earplugs - formable, custommoulded & remoulded type.

Active Control (Antipas) System:

7.1 Industrial Lighting & Illumination

PURPOSE AND BENEFITS OF GOOD LIGHTING

Purpose and Advantages of Good lighting:

The Benefits of Good Lighting

Types of Light Sources:

Type of Lamp Luminous Efficiency Bulb life Hours Colour Rendering

Types of lamps are:

Visual acuity (sharpness of vision) increases with light

1. Provide diffuser over the lamp or reflector (screen) with

Increasing brightness to reduce relative brightness of the glare.

Stock-yards : main entrance and exit roads, cat-walks of 20

3 Day lighting of buildings 2440

Table: Recommended Values of Illumination (IS : 6665)

14 Paint shops and Spraying Booths :

White phosphorous Phosphorous sesquisulphide

Toxic pellet or lump Powder

3. Segregation: This may be accomplished by shifting a potentially dangerous process to a

Waste Disposal (Air Pollution Controls) :

Air Pollution Control Systems:

Incineration Process Temperature Range oC Residence Time

Rotary kiln 820 to 1600 Liquids, gases- seconds Solids-

1.4 Routes of Entry (Avenues) to Human System:

Occupation envolving handling and

1.5 Concept of Threshold limit values

Threshold Limit Values (TLVs)

MRV = S x 22400 x 760 x 273+t

where MRV = minimum required volume of sample (litres), S = sensitivity of analytical

If t = 25 °C (or near about) and P = 760,

Date __ Signed _