ETHICS -REVIEWER

MAIN TOPIC 1 : What is ethics?

Ethics or moral philosophy can be provisionally described as the empirical study of moral
decisions. It is a discipline concerned with what is morally good and evil, right and wrong.
The word often refers to any scheme or philosophy of universal ideals or beliefs.

 The concept is derived from the Greek word “ethos”

 As a branch of philosophy, ethics is divided into normative and meta-ethics.
 There are two fields of normative ethics: moral philosophy and applied ethics or
practical ethics.

1.1 IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS

 through ethics people can determine the difference between right from wrong, good
and bad;
 people can eliminate actions that do not conform to what is right;
 people will be very careful to the actions and decisions to make;
 people will not be disturbed of the internal and external factors of not doing the right
thing;
  establish good habits of characters of a person;
 ome up to rational decisions in facing an ethical dilemma;
 it makes a person responsible in the family, school and society;
 a person becomes sensitive to the needs of others more than himself or herself; and
 reminds a person to fully need conscience in decision making and a person can
acknowledge the actions made.

1.2 THE DIFFERENCES OF MORAL AND NON-MORAL STANDARDS

 Moral standards refer to the guidelines we have on the types of acts that we find to
be morally permissible and morally unacceptable. It primarily deals with issues that
can either potentially threaten or greatly benefit human beings. Some ethicists
placed moral ethics on par with social values and moral principles. (Leandro, Jr &
Gubia-on, 2018)
 are not inherently related to morality or, by their very definition, lack of ethical
sense. Examples of non-moral standards are the following: etiquette, statutes, code
of professional ethics, etc. (Leandro, Jr & Gubia-on, 2018)

Characteristics of Moral Standards

(1) Moral standards entail serious harm or benefit.
(2) Moral standards are not determined by authority figures.
(3) Moral standards should be adopted over other values, including self-interest.
(4) Moral standards are focused on objective considerations.
(5) Moral standards are perceived to be universal.
(6) Moral standards are correlated with different feelings and vocabulary.

HOW MORAL STANDARDS ARE FORMED

 Morals are shaped by the beliefs of an individual. Values are the basis of the capacity
of an individual to distinguish between right and wrong. Morals build on this to form
concrete, context driven rules that regulate the actions of an individual. They are
formed from the experience of a person's life and are subject to opinion.

MODULE 2 : WHAT ARE MORAL DILEMMAS?

Morals=> an individual concept of right or wrong ( religious values, social attitudes and
certain behavior).
 Dilemmas=> a situation where there is no clear “best choice” between two or more
alternatives.

These are situations in which the decision maker must consider two or more moral
values or duties, but can only honor one of them ; thus the individual will violate at
least one important moral concerns regardless of the decision. In a false dilemma, the
choice is actually between right and a wrong.
The above definitions characterized moral dilemma or ethical dilemma as:
(1) making an option to one moral value over the other;
(2) A situation where moral values are equally significant;
(3) A scenario where a person has a strong moral reason in action, but not equally
strong moral
Reason in acting in another way;
(4) A state where a person should morally do one, two, or more and have difficulty in
deciding
Any of those conflicting choices.
Moral dilemma or ethical dilemma applies to our personal life, in a job, in a profession,
education, and some others. In any decision, an individual must analyze every aspect,
scrutinize the pros and cons, and after several evaluations then finally decide. That is
the most challenging part, nonetheless, makes an individual more mature in handling
obstinate situations.
THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMAS
1.INDIVIDUAL MORAL DILEMMA
 As mentioned by smith (2018), individual ethical or moral dilemma pertains to a
situation where individuals confront with a number of factors such as peer pressure,
personal financial position, an economic and social status which may influence all
individual ethical standards.
 Human beings must not be confused nor ambiguous and put himself or herself in a
dilemma where he doesn't know what to do and decide to what is good and what is
right.
Kvalnes ( 2019) theory
•he explained that a moral dilemma is a situation in which a decision make must
give preference to one moral principle over another.
• In addition, moral dilemma it may arise as a result of a prior personal mistake. Its
called a “ self-inflicted dilemma”.
• He also said that, “a person experienced with a dilemma must decide whether the
moral duty will be given priority “ whatever action is taken will offend an important
moral value”.

2. ORGANIZATIONAL ETHICAL OR MORAL DILEMMA

 •Is a complex situation at workplace that the employees and the managers have to
go face that result in a conflict of moral imperative.
• As discussed by Lamberto et. Al(2013), an organizational ethical dilemma refers to
a situation that causes an organization to respond negatively or positively to an
ethical issue that affects staff, shareholders, and society, as well as corporate ethics
and customers. It includes also the leaders' ethical actions in preserving financial
reporting integrity.

There are common ethical issues in the organization such as:

1. Unethical leadership/bad leadership behavior.
2. Toxic workplace culture.
3. Discrimination and harassment/ peril of employee favoritism.
4. Unrealistic and conflicting goals.
5. Use of the organization’s technology, social media use, and privacy concerns.
6. Business travel ethics.

3. STRUCTURAL MORAL DILEMMA

 The structural moral dilemma is that selecting a proper system of responsibilities and
relationships, which is a continuing universal challenge.

There are four concepts in the structural moral dilemma to consider namely:
(1) Differentiation vs. Integration
The conflict between the distribution of jobs and the organization of numerous activities
generates a classic dilemma. The more complicated a task structure, the more difficult it
is to sustain a centered, tightly coupled organization.
(2) Gap vs Overlap
When the main tasks are not explicitly defined, the critical job will slip through gaps. In a
similar manner, functions and activities can overlap, causing conflict, wasting time, and
unintended duplication of responsibilities.

(3) Lack of clarity vs. Lack of creativity

When employees are not clear about what they are expected to do, they often adapt
their tasks to personal interests instead of system-wide goals that often lead to problems.
(4) Excessive autonomy vs. Excessive Interdependence
When individuals or groups are too independent, they are always isolated. On the other
hand, if the units and responsibilities are too closely connected, people are absentminded
from work and waste time or excessive coordination.

Based on the discussion above, to avoid structural moral dilemma then following
characteristics must be maintained:
(1) must have well-distributed jobs and the laws, policies, rules, and regulations must be
balanced through lateral approaches.
(2) must have an implicitly defined job description, roles, and duties to evade from gaps
and overlaps.
(3) must have a clear-cut expectation of the tasks in a wide range of goals
(4) must have a well-balanced interdependence and co0rdination.
Chapter 4 : WHAT IS CULTURE? HOW DOES IT DEFINE OUR MORAL BEHAVIOR?

CULTURE

 According to Kohak (1984), culture is at the root of human alienation from the
environment. It's not just a compilation of artifacts or reflection of people's
preferences and appreciation of beauty. He added that culture is derived from
the Latin word, “cultus”, which means giving respect to the sacredness of all.
Originally, culture is not contrary to nature but is commonly accepted as a
human being's role in it.
 Cole (2019) defined culture as a concept that refers to a broad and diverse
collection of often intangible areas of social life.
 Lederach, (1995) introduced culture as the collective knowledge and schemes
generated by a group of people to perceive, view, convey, and react to the social
realities around them.
From the definitions above of culture, several characteristics were drawn:
1. Culture is an analects of items with cultural or historical interest.
2. Culture is a remark of peoples’ choices and admiration of beauty.
3. Culture is in harmony with the environment and an individual has a role to
play on it.
4. Culture is wider in scope as it includes beliefs, ideals, communication,
language systems, behaviors, and commonality of people within a group.
5. Culture embraces material objects that are significant to a particular group or
society.
6. Culture is related to the social structure and economic aspects of society.
7. Culture is a combination of the skills, talents, capacities, and artifices brought
about by a group of people to look at, relay messages, and respond to the
realities of social life.
8. Culture is the attributes and observation of a particular group of people which
includes language, religion, social behavior, etiquette, fashion, music, and arts.

THE INFLUENCES OF CULTURE IN MORAL DEVELOPMENT.

Leano & Gubia-on (2018), Baring ( shared five points in how culture influences
the moral development of the people and these are the following:
Culture is always social and communal by which the relationship of the people
towards one another and their experience as people are the culture’s meadow.
The culture defines the normative principles and behaviors of society.
A culture, as best exemplified in the experience of the people, develops
restrictions and sets boundaries and limitations as they live and relate with one
another.
As culture helps in generating the character and identity of its people, it also
 includes their moral character.
The culture identifies the authorities or the governing individuals or groups.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FILIPINO CULTURE
 The Filipino people are very resilient.
 Filipinos take pride in their families.
 Filipinos are very religious.
 Filipinos are very respectful
 Filipinos help one another.
 Filipinos values traditions and culture.
 Filipinos have the longest Christmas celebration.
 Filipinos love art and architecture.
 The Filipinos are hospitable people.
WEAKNESSES OF FILIPINO CHARACTER
 Extreme Personalism
 Extreme Family Centeredness
 Lack of Discipline
 Passivity and Lack of Initiative
 Colonial Mentality
 Kanya-kanya Syndrome
 Lack of Self Analysis and Reflection

MODULE 5: CULTURAL RELATIVISM

CULTURAL RELATIVISM means that we do not judge a society by our own criteria of what
is right or wrong, odd or natural. Rather, we will make an effort to understand the
cultural traditions of other communities in their own cultural context.

Cultural relativism (CR) is a moral theory that contends that there are no objective
universal moral rules, and the moral rules that do exist are culturally bound. In other
words, there is a negative claim that there are no moral claims such as that killing is
wrong that would apply to every culture, and there is a positive claim that there are
moral rules, but they vary depending on culture, society, and context.

The definitions of cultural relativism stated above are summarized to the following:

1. In cultural relativism, no one can judge a society by their standards in the principle of
right or wrong, eccentric or natural.
2. People must understand other societies’ cultures.
3. In cultural relativism, the aim is to strengthen our knowledge and interpretation of the
practices and cultural traditions that are not part of our culture and that not uncommon
to other cultures.
4. Cultural relativism is a moral theory that claims the idea of no objective universal moral
 rules that would apply to every culture and it varies depending on the culture of the
society.

PROS OR ADVANTAGES OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM

Below are the advantages of cultural relativism:

1. It creates learning opportunities that could make humanity stronger.
2. It eliminates the concept of separate, but equal.

3. It creates a system of niche expertise.

4. It encourages respect

THE CONS OR DISADVANTAGES OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM

Below are the disadvantages of cultural relativism:

1. There will be actions taken that would be defined by some as “violent,” “unsafe,” or
“wrong.”
2. It is based on a concept that people are perfect.
3. It creates a personal bias.
4. It eliminates the idea that reform or change can be a good thing.

UNIVERSAL VALUES

Be honest, even if others are not.

Be honest
Even if others will not
Even if others cannot
He who walks honestly, walks securely. - Abhishek Tiwari
*Is honesty or truth telling considered a universal value? Why or why not?

VALUE-The word "value" means something that a person or a group believes has a value
that merits being sought, promoted, or privileged.

Universal values, however, can be be understood in two ways. First, it could be that
something has universal value because everyone finds it important. Second, it could have
universal value when all people have reason to believe it has value.

Didactic Encyclopedia (2015)

Universal value is a concept that it is not obvious to define because a principle is

connected with morality or ethics.
Schwartz’s 10 Types of Universal value

1. Power

 Leadership
 Authority
 Wealth
 Dominance
 Social status

2. Achievement

 Success
 Ambition
 Self-respect
 Intelligence
 Capability

3. Hedonism

 Pleasure
 Enjoying life

4. Stimulation

 daring activity
 exciting life
 varied life
5. Self-direction
 creativity
 curiosity
 independence
 ambition
 Choosing your own goals
6. Universalism
 social justice
 wisdom
 equality
  Unity with nature
 broadmindedness
7. Benevolence
 helpfulness
 social justice
 forgiveness
 loyalty
 responsibility
 friendship

8. Tradition

 respect for tradition

 humility
 moderation
 devoutness
9. Conformity
 self-discipline
 obedience
10. Security
 stability of social order
 sense of belonging
 cleanliness

spirituality - “the goal of finding meaning in life”

BASIC UNIVERSAL HUMAN VALUES

 HAPPINESS
  PEACE
 FREEDOM
 SAFETY
 INTELLIGENCE
 RESPECT
 EQUALITY
 JUSTICE
 HEALTH
THE HUMAN DIGNITY - Dignity is the state or quality of being worthy of honor or respect. "A
man of dignity and unbending principle" is an example. It refers to bearing, conduct, or speech
indicative of selfrespect or appreciation of the formality or gravity of an occasion or situation. It
is the importance and value that a person has, that makes other people respect them or makes
them respect themselves.

MODULE 7: THE FILIPINO WAY

Filipino Moral Characters: Strengths and Weaknesses

FILIPINO VALUES - Values are those aspects in life that include customs, traditions, etc.,
which the people regard as necessary and important in their dealings with one another
(Agoncillo et al., 2010)

One of the Filipino values is ‘pakikisama’ or sense or togetherness. It refers to doing

somebody a good deed, such as helping a relative or neighbor build a house without asking
for compensation, or helping someone looking for a job and so on (Agoncillo et al., 2010).

‘Utang na loob’ or dept or gratitude is very important to Filipinos. It is recognizing and

returning the favor to that person in the same measure who help them in times of need
(Agoncillo et al., 2010). According to Arcega et al., (2018), Filipinos may have ‘utang na loob’
if other people help them during sickness, medication, sending their children to school,
finding a job, or they were saved in a life threatening situation.

‘Hiya’ or ‘kahihiyan’ or sense of shame is another Filipino values (Agoncillo et al., 2010)
‘Hiya’ may be observed to Filipinos in accepting the food that are offered to them. Even
though they are hungry, they will feel sense of shame accepting the food given to them or
they will say that they are not yet hungry. They also feel ‘hiya’ in approaching higher
authorities like school principal, teachers/ professors, deans, and executives. They will look
someone whom they think have the courage to approach higher authorities (Arcega et al.,
2018).

Like ‘hiya,’ the Filipino value of ‘amor propio’ is derived from the concept of ‘face.’
Although commonly translated as self-respect or self-esteem, ‘amor propio’ has been
characterized as the high degree of sensitivity that makes a person intolerant to criticism and
causes him to have an easily wounded pride (“Amor Propio.” n.d). Concerning this Filipino
value, some observe that Filipinos learn to withstand a loss of face in some situations,
particulalrly when they perceive themselves to be a fault, but it is devastating to be publicly
criticized, insulted, belittled, or humiliated or to lose one’s self-respect (“Amor Propio.” n.d).

FILIPINO TRAITS
*Hospitality - Filipinos are known by other nations through this trait because they really make
an effort to welcome their guests.

*Family-oriented -Family is the unit of society and consists, at least very recent times, of the
parent, grandparents, and the children (Agoncillo et al., 2010). Filipinos are also known for
having close family ties.

*Respect - Respect for the elders is also observed to the Filipinos. They obey elderly and
consider their suggestions in major life decisions like choosing a course in college, marriage,
burial, changed of residents and others.